What is surveying?

Surveying is the art of determining the relative positions of distinctive features on the
surface of the earth or beneath the earth, by means of measurement of distance, directions
and elevations.
What is levelling?
The branch of surveying that deals with the measurement of relative height of different
points in the surface of the earth is called levelling.
PRIMARY DIVISION OF SURVEYING
Plane Survey

The survey in which the earth surface is assumed as plain and the curvature of
the earth is ignored is known as Plain Surveying.
Geodetic Survey

The survey in which the curvature of the earth is taken into account and higher
degree of accuracy in linear as well as angular observation is achieved is known as
Geodetic Surveying.
CLASSIFICATION OF SURVEYS
According to the use and purpose of the final maps, surveys may be classified, under the
following different heads:
Classification based upon the nature of the field
1. Land Surveys:
i. Topographical Survey

A topographical survey is a surveying method that collects data about the

physical features and characteristics of a piece of land, which is used to create a
detailed map or plan of the area.
ii. Cadastral Survey

Cadastral survey is the process of surveying and mapping land ownership

boundaries and determining the precise location, size, and value of real estate
properties and creating a detailed record of land including information about
land parcels, their boundaries, the ownership rights, and any associated rights
and restrictions.
A cadastre is a comprehensive record of land ownership, location, boundaries, and other
attributes within a specific geographic area.
There are several types of cadastre, each serving a different purpose. Some of the most
common types of cadastre include:
 1. Fiscal Cadastre: A fiscal cadastre is used to collect taxes on land and property. This type
of cadastre is used to identify and value land and property for tax purposes.
2. Legal Cadastre: A legal cadastre is used to determine property ownership and
boundaries. This type of cadastre is used to record and manage land titles, as well as to
resolve disputes over property ownership.
3. Multipurpose cadastre : Multipurpose cadastre refers to the use of a single cadastre
system to support a range of different functions and applications. This type of cadastre
is designed to be flexible and adaptable, and can be used for a variety of purposes, such
as land administration, taxation, planning, and development.
Purpose of cadastre
1. Record and manage property ownership
2. Establish and maintain property boundaries
3. Facilitate land registration and transfer of property
4. Provide a basis for property taxation
5. Assist in land use planning and zoning
6. Support natural resource management
7. Provide data for infrastructure planning and development
8. Resolve land disputes and conflicts.

iii. City Survey

A city survey is a type of survey that is used to collect data about the
physical features, infrastructure, and utilities of a city or urban area.
2. Hydrographic Survey
A hydrographic survey is a type of survey that is used to map and measure the physical
features of bodies of water, including oceans, lakes, rivers, and harbors.
3. Astronomical Survey
An astronomical survey is a type of survey that is used to observe and measure objects
in the sky, including stars, galaxies, and other celestial bodies.

Classification based on purpose of the survey

1. Engineering Survey
An engineering survey is a type of survey that is used to provide accurate and precise
measurements of physical features and characteristics of a site, which are used in the
planning, design, and construction of engineering projects.
2. Military or Defense Survey
3. Mine Survey
4. Geological Survey
5. Archaeological survey

Classification based on instrument used

1. Chain Survey
2. Compass Surveys
3. Plane Table Survey
4. Theodolite Survey
5. Tacheometric Survey
6. Triangulation Survey
7. Aerial Survey
8. Photogrammetric Survey

PRINCIPLE OF SURVEYING
1. Working from the whole to the part
The main principle of surveying whether plane or geodetic is to work from the whole to
the part. To achieve this in actual practice, a sufficient number of primary control pints, are
established with higher precision in and around the area to be detail-surveyed.
2. Location of a point by measurement from two control points
The control points are selected in the area and the distance between them, is measured
accurately.

Description Card (D - Card)

A description card in surveying is a tool used to record information about a survey point
or station. It is a small card or piece of paper that contains key information about a specific
point or station, including its location, elevation, and any other relevant details.
The information on the description card is used to identify and locate the survey point or
station in the field and to reference it in the survey data. The description card is also used to
document the characteristics of the point, such as its surface type, vegetation, and any other
notable features.
In surveying, the description card is an important tool for ensuring accuracy and consistency in
the survey data. The information on the card is used to cross-check and verify the survey
measurements and to ensure that the correct location and details are recorded for each point
or station.
Overall, the description card is a simple but essential tool in surveying that helps to ensure the
accuracy and completeness of the survey data.
Theodolite:
A theodolite is a precision optical instrument used in surveying and engineering to measure
angles in the horizontal and vertical planes. It consists of a telescope mounted on a base that
can rotate horizontally and vertically, allowing the user to precisely measure the angles
between different points. Theodolites are commonly used in construction, road building, and
other applications where accurate measurements of angles and distances are required. They
are often equipped with electronic distance measurement capabilities, allowing them to
measure both angles and distances with a high degree of accuracy.

Plane tabling
"Plane tabling" is a surveying technique used to measure distances and angles on a relatively
flat piece of land. It involves setting up a level table, also known as a "plane table," and then
using it as a reference surface to measure and record the positions of various points on the
ground.
The principle of plain table is parallelisms.
Instruments needed in Plane Table Survey
1. Plane Table Set(Board and Tripod)
2. Allidade(Sight vein): Plane/ Telescopic Allidade
3. Plumbob
4. Clinometer
5. Compass
6. Plain Table Level(Spirit Level)
7. Plumbing Fork(U- fork)
8. Board clip
9. Ranging Rod
10. Plotting Scale
Sketching Instruments
1) Map sheet/ Mounting Film and Drawing papers
2) 2H/ 3H Pencil
3) Eraser, Ink, Pen, Pencil, Sharpner, Scale
Safety Instruments
1) Handkerchiefs
2) Bag
3) Umbrella
4) Plane Table Cover
Chain survey
A "chain survey" is a type of surveying method used to measure land and property boundaries,
topography, and other features of the land. It involves using a chain or tape measure to
measure distances and surveying instruments to measure angles and elevations.
In chain surveying, several processes are involved in order to obtain accurate measurements of
the land. The following are the explanations of the different processes involved in chain
surveying:
1) Base line - The base line is the longest line in a surveying project, which is established
and measured with extreme accuracy. The base line serves as a reference point for all
other measurements in the survey. It is typically measured using a chain or tape
measure, and it is often marked with stakes or other markers.
2) Tie line - A tie line is a line that connects two points on the ground to the base line.
These lines are perpendicular to the base line and are used to establish the position of
features that are not directly adjacent to the base line. Tie lines are used to extend the
measurement of the base line over the entire survey area.
3) Check line - Check lines are used to ensure the accuracy of the survey measurements.
These lines are measured using a different method than the primary measurements,
and they are used to check the accuracy of the primary measurements. Check lines are
typically placed at right angles to the base line and are located near the edges of the
survey area.
4) Chain line - The chain line is the line along which the measurements are taken using a
chain or tape measure. The chain line is typically parallel to the base line and is divided
into a series of smaller segments, each of which is measured separately.
5) Survey station - A survey station is a point on the ground where a measurement is taken
during the survey. Survey stations are marked with a stake or other marker, and they
are typically located at the intersection of a chain line and a tie line.
6) Main station - A main station is a point on the ground that is used as a reference point
for the entire survey. Main stations are typically located at the ends of the base line and
are used to establish the direction and orientation of the survey.

Types of chain
1) Gunter's chain: This chain is named after its inventor, Edmund Gunter, and was widely used
in England and the United States until the adoption of the metric system. Gunter's chain is
66 feet long and is made up of 100 links, with each link being 7.92 inches long. Gunter's
chain was primarily used for measuring land surveys, and it was also used to measure roads,
canals, and other large engineering projects.
2) Engineer's chain: The engineer's chain is similar in construction to Gunter's chain, but it is
shorter, usually measuring 100 feet long. Engineer's chains are also made up of 100 links,
 with each link measuring one foot. This type of chain is commonly used in civil engineering
and construction work, where distances need to be measured accurately.
3) Revenue chain: This chain was used for measuring revenue and taxation purposes. The
revenue chain is 100 feet long and is made up of 80 links, with each link being 15 inches
long. The revenue chain was used mainly in India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh.
4) Metric chain: The metric chain is a modern type of chain used in surveying and engineering
work. The metric chain is 20 meters long and is made up of 100 links, with each link
measuring 20 centimeters. The metric chain is used primarily in countries that have adopted
the metric system, such as Europe, Australia, and many other parts of the world.
Places where chain survey is not suitable
1) Mountainous terrain: Chain surveying may be difficult to use in areas with steep slopes
or rugged terrain, as it can be challenging to accurately measure distances and angles in
such conditions.
2) Dense forest: Chain surveying may be challenging to use in areas with dense forest
cover, as it can be difficult to set up a straight line of sight for measurements.
3) Water bodies: Chain surveying is unsuitable for areas with large bodies of water, such as
lakes or rivers, as it is difficult to measure distances and angles accurately over water.
4) Urban areas: Chain surveying may be challenging to use in urban areas with tall
buildings, narrow streets, and complex infrastructure, as it can be difficult to set up a
straight line of sight for measurements.
5) Large-scale projects: Chain surveying may not be suitable for large-scale projects or
areas with complex terrain or features, as it may not provide the level of accuracy or
detail required for such projects.

Invar Tape
Invar tape is a type of surveying tape made of a nickel-iron alloy with a very low coefficient of
thermal expansion. The following are some of the features of invar tape:
1) High accuracy: Invar tape has a very low coefficient of thermal expansion, which means
that it expands and contracts very little with changes in temperature. This makes it
highly accurate for measuring distances.
2) Durability: Invar tape is highly resistant to corrosion, abrasion, and stretching, making it
a durable option for surveying in tough environments.
3) Stability: Invar tape is stable and does not stretch or distort over time, ensuring
consistent and reliable measurements.
4) Long length: Invar tape is available in lengths of up to 100 meters, making it suitable for
long-distance measurements.
5) Lightweight: Invar tape is relatively lightweight, which makes it easy to handle and
transport.
 6) Resistance to moisture: Invar tape is resistant to moisture and does not absorb water,
which makes it suitable for use in wet environments.
7) Ease of use: Invar tape is easy to use and does not require any special training or tools
to measure distances.

Control Line:
A control line is a line that is established by a surveyor to provide a reference point for other
surveying measurements. Control lines are typically measured with high precision using
advanced surveying instruments, and they are used to ensure the accuracy of the survey
measurements.
Features of Contour Lines:
1) Contour lines are imaginary lines that connect points of equal elevation on a map or
plan.
2) They show the shape and slope of the land and can be used to determine the height of
features such as hills, valleys, and ridges.
3) Contour lines can be used to determine the steepness of a slope, as the closer the lines
are to each other, the steeper the slope.
4) The contour interval, or the vertical distance between adjacent contour lines, indicates
the degree of variation in elevation on the land.
5) Closed contour lines indicate a hill or summit, while open contour lines indicate a
depression or valley.
6) Contour lines never cross or split, but they may merge to show a vertical cliff or
overhang.
7) Contour lines bend upstream or upstream direction when crossing a stream or river,
indicating a V-shape valley.
8) Contour lines on opposite sides of a ridge or valley run parallel to each other and form a
V-shape pointing toward the ridge or valley.

Uses of Contour maps

1) Understanding the topography of an area
2) Determining the elevation of different points on a map
3) Identifying slopes and their steepness
4) Planning and designing hiking, biking, or skiing trails
5) Identifying potential areas for construction or development
6) Analyzing drainage patterns and water flow
7) Planning and designing irrigation systems
8) Identifying areas prone to landslides or flooding
9) Identifying potential sites for renewable energy projects, such as wind or solar farms
10) Providing information for geological and environmental studies.
Adjusting Plane Table
Adjusting a plane table traverse is an important process in surveying that involves correcting
any errors or discrepancies in the measurements taken during the survey. The following are the
steps involved in adjusting a plane table traverse:
1) Check the accuracy of the measurements - The first step in adjusting a plane table
traverse is to check the accuracy of the measurements taken during the survey. This
involves comparing the measured distances and angles with the expected values based
on the map or plan.
2) Identify any errors - If there are any errors in the measurements, they need to be
identified and corrected. Errors can be caused by a variety of factors, including
instrument error, observational error, and environmental conditions.
3) Calculate the corrections - Once the errors have been identified, they need to be
calculated. This involves determining the magnitude and direction of the correction
needed for each measurement.
4) Apply the corrections - The corrections need to be applied to the measurements taken
during the survey. This involves adjusting the measured distances and angles to account
for the errors identified in step 2.
5) Recalculate the coordinates - After the corrections have been applied, the coordinates
of the survey points need to be recalculated. This involves using trigonometry and other
mathematical techniques to determine the location of each point based on the
corrected measurements.
6) Check the adjusted traverse - Finally, the adjusted traverse needs to be checked to
ensure that it is accurate and meets the requirements of the survey. This involves
comparing the adjusted traverse to the original measurements and verifying that the
adjustments have been made correctly.

Importance of plane tabling

1) Provides accurate and detailed maps of small areas with high precision.
2) Allows surveyors to make on-site decisions without the need for complex calculations
and equipment.
3) Enables quick and efficient data collection in the field, reducing survey time and cost.
4) Can be used to survey areas with limited access or difficult terrain, such as forests or
steep hills.
5) Provides a clear visual representation of the surveyed area, which can be helpful in
communicating survey results to stakeholders.
6) Can be used to create base maps for engineering design, construction planning, and
land-use planning.
7) Helps in identifying potential issues, such as drainage problems, steep slopes, or
unstable ground, that may impact construction or development.
 8) Allows surveyors to record features such as boundaries, buildings, and vegetation in
addition to topographic data, providing a more comprehensive understanding of the
surveyed area.
Advantages of plane table:
1) Provides a visual representation of the area being surveyed in real-time, allowing for
immediate analysis of the data
2) Can be used to create accurate and detailed maps of an area
3) Relatively simple and straightforward to use, making it a good option for smaller
surveying projects
4) Does not require advanced technical skills or expensive equipment, making it cost-
effective
5) Can be used in remote or difficult-to-access areas where other surveying methods may
not be possible
6) Allows for the measurement of angles and distances between points, which can be used
to calculate elevations and slopes
7) Provides a physical record of the survey, which can be used for future reference and
analysis
Disadvantages of plane table:
1) Requires a flat and stable surface to operate effectively, which may not always be
available
2) Can be affected by weather conditions, such as wind or rain, which can impact the
accuracy of the measurements
3) Requires manual calculations and recording of data, which can be time-consuming and
prone to human error
4) May not be suitable for larger-scale projects or areas with complex terrain or features
5) Requires some skill and experience to use effectively, which may limit its accessibility to
novice surveyors
6) Can be physically demanding to use for extended periods, as the surveyor must stand
and operate the table for long periods of time.

To properly orient the plane table, several methods of orientation can be used. These
methods include:
1) Compass method: This method involves orienting the plane table by using a magnetic
compass to align the table with magnetic north. The surveyor sets up the plane table at
the desired location, levels it, and then rotates it until the compass needle points to
magnetic north. Once the table is oriented, the surveyor can begin taking
measurements and making sketches.
2) Back ray method: This method involves orienting the plane table by sighting along a
back sight or a previously established point on the ground. The surveyor sets up the
plane table at the desired location, levels it, and then sights back along a known line to a
previously established point. The table is then rotated until the line of sight aligns with
the back sight. Once the table is oriented, the surveyor can begin taking measurements
and making sketches.
3) Solving two-point problem: This method involves orienting the plane table by using two
known points on the ground. The surveyor sets up the plane table at the desired
location and then selects two points on the ground that are visible from the table. The
surveyor then sketches the lines of sight to the two points on the table and then rotates
the table until the lines of sight intersect at the two points. Once the table is oriented,
the surveyor can begin taking measurements and making sketches.
4) Solving three-point problem: This method involves orienting the plane table by using
three known points on the ground. The surveyor sets up the plane table at the desired
location and then selects three points on the ground that are visible from the table. The
surveyor then sketches the lines of sight to the three points on the table and then
rotates the table until the lines of sight intersect at the three points. Once the table is
oriented, the surveyor can begin taking measurements and making sketches. This
method is considered the most accurate method of orientation in plane tabling.
1) Fixing: The plane table is fixed or placed firmly on the tripod stand, and the table is
levelled.
2) Setting: There are three main steps involved in setting up the plane table:
a. Levelling: The table is levelled using the spirit level to ensure that the table is
horizontal. This is important because it allows for accurate measurements to be
taken.
b. Centering: The table is then centered over the point of interest or the area to be
surveyed. This is done by sighting the target through the alidade or telescope
and moving the table until the target is in the center of the alidade's crosshairs.
c. Orientation: The table is then oriented or aligned to the magnetic north or true
north. This is done by sighting a known point or direction and rotating the table
until the magnetic needle or the compass aligns with the north direction.
3) Sighting: After the table is set up, the surveyor sights various points using the alidade or
telescope mounted on the table. The surveyor sights various points such as trees,
buildings, and other features and notes their locations on the table. The surveyor can
also use the plane table to measure angles and distances between points.
Compass surveying
Compass surveying is a type of surveying that uses a compass to measure the directions and
angles between points on the ground. It is a simple and efficient method of surveying and is
widely used in small-scale surveys, such as property boundary surveys and construction site
surveys.
There are several types of compasses used in compass surveying, including:
1) Hand compass: A hand compass is a simple and portable compass used for measuring
angles between points. It consists of a magnetic needle attached to a circular card
marked with degrees. The surveyor holds the compass in one hand and sights along the
direction of the needle to determine the angle between two points.
2) Trough compass: A trough compass is a more precise version of the hand compass that
is mounted on a small trough or box to provide stability. It consists of a magnetic needle
attached to a circular card marked with degrees, and the trough provides a stable base
for the compass. The surveyor can use the trough compass to take accurate
measurements of angles between points.
3) Prismatic compass: A prismatic compass is a more advanced type of compass used for
measuring both the direction and angle between points. It consists of a prism mounted
on a magnetic needle, which allows the surveyor to simultaneously read the angle and
direction on the compass card. The prismatic compass is useful for taking precise
measurements in areas with significant magnetic interference.
4) Surveyor's compass: A surveyor's compass is a specialized type of compass used for
more advanced surveying work. It consists of a magnetic needle mounted on a brass or
aluminum base, and a sighting device for aligning the compass with the desired point.
The surveyor's compass is typically used in conjunction with a measuring chain or tape
to take accurate measurements of distances and angles between points.
In compass surveying, fieldwork involves various tasks that are essential to obtain accurate
measurements and data for the survey. Here are the explanations of the following types of
fieldwork involved in compass surveying:
1) Reconnaissance: This is the initial stage of the survey, where the surveyor visits the site
to get a general idea of the area's terrain, the location of the objects, and the purpose of
the survey. During this stage, the surveyor observes the area, identifies any existing
boundaries or monuments, and notes down any natural or artificial features that could
affect the survey's accuracy.
2) Monumentation: This involves marking the boundaries and positions of the points on
the ground by setting up monuments, such as iron pins or concrete markers. The
surveyor uses the compass to determine the exact location of the monuments, ensuring
that they are correctly positioned.
 3) Observation: This involves taking measurements and readings using the compass. The
surveyor uses the compass to measure the angle between the points on the ground and
the magnetic north. The observation is carried out by sighting the compass along a line
of sight, aligning the needle with the magnetic north, and noting the angle between the
points. The surveyor repeats this process several times to get an accurate measurement.
4) Booking: This involves recording the measurements and observations taken during the
survey in a field book. The surveyor notes down the angles, distances, and other
relevant data in a systematic manner. The field book is an essential document that
serves as a reference for the surveyor and others involved in the survey.

LOCAL ATTRACTION
The deflection of the magnetic needle from its normal position due to the influence of external
force is called Local Attraction.
Declination
In the context of surveying and navigation, declination refers to the angular difference between
true north and magnetic north. True north is the geographic north pole, while magnetic north is
the direction that a compass needle points towards, which is influenced by the Earth's magnetic
field.
Meridian:
In surveying and navigation, a meridian is a line on the Earth's surface that runs from the
geographic North Pole to the geographic South Pole, passing through a given point on the
surface. Meridians are used as a reference for determining direction and location, and they are
typically expressed in terms of degrees of longitude.
Bearing:
A bearing is a direction expressed as an angle between a reference direction, such as a
meridian, and a line or object of interest. Bearings are commonly used in surveying and
navigation to describe the direction of a line or object with respect to a fixed reference point.
Bearings are typically expressed in terms of degrees, minutes, and seconds, and they can be
either positive or negative.
1. True Meridian and Bearing: A true meridian is a line on the Earth's surface that runs
from the geographic North Pole to the geographic South Pole, passing through the point
of interest. True bearings are angles measured with respect to a true meridian. A true
bearing is the angle between a line or object of interest and true north, measured in a
clockwise direction. True bearings are used to describe directions on the Earth's surface
with respect to true north.
2. Magnetic Meridian and Bearing: A magnetic meridian is a line on the Earth's surface that
runs along the direction of the Earth's magnetic field at a given location. Magnetic
 bearings are angles measured with respect to the magnetic meridian. A magnetic
bearing is the angle between a line or object of interest and magnetic north, measured
in a clockwise direction. Magnetic bearings are used to describe directions on the
Earth's surface with respect to magnetic north.
3. Grid Meridian and Bearing: A grid meridian is a line on a map or plan that runs from the
top of the map to the bottom, passing through the point of interest. Grid bearings are
angles measured with respect to a grid meridian. A grid bearing is the angle between a
line or object of interest and the grid north, measured in a clockwise direction. Grid
bearings are used to describe directions on a map or plan with respect to the grid north.
4. Arbitrary Meridian and Bearing: An arbitrary meridian is a line on the Earth's surface
that is chosen as a reference line for a particular survey or project, rather than using a
true or magnetic meridian. Arbitrary bearings are angles measured with respect to the
arbitrary meridian. An arbitrary bearing is the angle between a line or object of interest
and the arbitrary north, measured in a clockwise direction. Arbitrary bearings are used
when a true or magnetic meridian is not convenient or relevant for a particular survey
or project.

Things to consider for compass survey

1) The type of compass to use
2) The accuracy required for the survey
3) The terrain and topography of the area being surveyed
4) The presence of any magnetic interference or anomalies that could affect the compass
reading
5) The need for monumentation and marking of boundaries
6) The number and location of observation stations
7) The weather and environmental conditions, such as wind and rain, that could affect the
compass reading
8) The experience and skill of the surveyor and their ability to use the compass accurately
and consistently
9) The need for verification of the survey data by repeating measurements and checks
10) The safety of the survey team, including any hazards or risks associated with the survey
area.
Field book:
A field book is a notebook or journal used by surveyors and engineers to record field
observations and measurements during land surveying, construction, or engineering projects.
The field book typically contains details about the location and terrain of the site,
measurements of angles and distances, and notes on any obstacles or issues encountered
during the project. Field books may be physical notebooks or digital records, and are an
important part of the documentation process for these types of projects.

"क्षेत्रीय किताब" is a Nepali term that translates to "Field Book" in English.

Importance of Field book

1. Provides a record of all field measurements and observations
2. Helps ensure the accuracy and reliability of the survey data
3. Serves as a reference for future surveys or property boundary disputes
4. Allows for easy communication of survey data between team members and
stakeholders
5. Provides a way to verify and double-check data during the survey process
6. Can help identify and address any issues or obstacles encountered during the survey
7. Serves as a legal document and may be used as evidence in court proceedings
Uses of field book
1. Records all field measurements and observations made during the survey
2. Helps ensure the accuracy and reliability of the survey data
3. Provides a reference for future surveys or property boundary disputes
4. Allows for easy communication of survey data between team members and
stakeholders
5. Serves as a way to verify and double-check data during the survey process
6. Helps identify and address any issues or obstacles encountered during the survey
7. Serves as a legal document and may be used as evidence in court proceedings.
Single line field book:
In a single line field book, each line of the book represents a separate measurement. The
surveyor records the measurement in the first column of the line and then records any notes or
observations related to that measurement in the remaining columns. This format is useful for
surveys where only one type of measurement is required, such as a survey of the boundary of a
property.
Double line field book:
In a double line field book, each page of the book is divided into two columns. The surveyor
records the measurements in the left column and any notes or observations related to those
measurements in the right column. This format is useful for surveys that require multiple types
of measurements or observations to be recorded simultaneously. For example, a survey that
requires measurements of angles, distances, and elevations may use a double line field book.
Relief representation
Relief representation is a way of depicting the three-dimensional shape of the terrain on a two-
dimensional map. There are several ways to represent relief, including:
1) Hachures: Hachures are short, parallel lines that are used to indicate the slope of the
terrain. Hachures are drawn perpendicular to contour lines, with the lines on the uphill
side of the contour being shorter than those on the downhill side.
2) Hill shading: Hill shading is a technique used to represent the three-dimensional shape
of the terrain by simulating the effects of sunlight. Shadows are added to the map to
indicate the direction of the slope, with darker areas indicating steeper slopes.
3) Layer tinting: Layer tinting is a technique used to represent different elevations on a
map by using different colors or shades. Each elevation is assigned a different color or
shade, with the lightest colors or shades used for the highest elevations and the darkest
colors or shades used for the lowest elevations.
4) Spot heights: Spot heights are points on a map that indicate the elevation of a specific
location. Spot heights are usually marked with a small circle or dot, and the elevation is
usually given in meters or feet.
5) Contour lines: Contour lines are lines on a map that connect points of equal elevation.
Contour lines are used to show the shape of the terrain and the elevation of different
features. Close contour lines indicate steep terrain, while widely spaced contour lines
indicate flat terrain.
Lehmann's rule
Lehmann's rule is a mathematical formula used in surveying and engineering to estimate the
length of a traverse or the perimeter of an irregularly shaped area. The rule is based on the
principle of proportionality, which states that similar figures have proportional dimensions.
Lehmann's rule states that the length of a traverse or the perimeter of an irregularly shaped
area can be estimated by multiplying the sum of the latitudes (east-west distances) and the
sum of the departures (north-south distances) by a correction factor. The correction factor is
calculated as the square root of the sum of the squares of the latitudes and the squares of the
departures, divided by the sum of the latitudes and the sum of the departures.
Mathematically, Lehmann's rule can be expressed as follows:
Perimeter of traverse = CF x (sum of latitudes + sum of departures)
where CF = square root of [(sum of squares of latitudes + sum of squares of departures) / (sum
of latitudes + sum of departures)]
Lehmann's rule is useful for estimating the length of a traverse or the perimeter of an
irregularly shaped area when precise measurements are not necessary or feasible. However, it
should be noted that the rule is only an approximation and may not be accurate for all types of
surveys or areas.
Perpendicular offset is a method of determining the position of a point relative to a given line.
It involves drawing a perpendicular line from the point to the line and measuring the distance
between the two lines. There are several methods for performing perpendicular offsets,
including the following:
1. Swinging Method: In this method, a plumb bob is used to create a perpendicular line
from the point to the given line. The plumb bob is suspended from a string held at the
point and swung back and forth until it is directly over the given line. The distance
between the given line and the perpendicular line is then measured.
2. Optical Method: In this method, a theodolite or total station is used to create a
perpendicular line from the point to the given line. The instrument is set up at the point
and aimed at a target held on the given line. The instrument is then rotated until it is
perpendicular to the given line, and the distance is measured.
3. Prism Square: In this method, a prism is used to reflect a perpendicular line from the
point to the given line. The prism is placed on the given line and the instrument is set up
at the point. The instrument is aimed at the prism and rotated until the reflected line is
perpendicular to the given line. The distance is then measured.
4. Cross Staff: In this method, a cross staff is used to create a perpendicular line from the
point to the given line. The cross staff is held at the point and the two arms of the staff
are aligned with the given line. The staff is then rotated until the other arm is aligned
with the point, creating a perpendicular line. The distance is then measured.
5. 3-4-5 Method: In this method, a right-angled triangle with sides in the ratio of 3:4:5 is
used to create a perpendicular line from the point to the given line. A line is drawn from
the point at an angle of 45 degrees to the given line. The length of the line is then
measured and marked at a point on the given line. Two more lines are drawn from the
point to the marked point on the given line, forming a right-angled triangle. The length
of the perpendicular line is then measured.
Danger Circle
When carrying out a resection, whether inside or outside, it is necessary to have proper table
orientation, as all rays intersect at a single point even if the table is not level. If this is not
achieved, it becomes difficult to determine the position of the table. This is why the great circle
is called the danger circle.
 Ground Survey
Conducted on the ground, typically by foot or
vehicle
Provides a more detailed view of the ground surface
and features
Requires physical access to the area being surveyed
Can be affected by obstacles and terrain features
Typically involves taking measurements and readings
at ground level
May take longer to conduct, especially over large
areas
May require multiple surveyors and equipment to
conduct
Provides a higher level of accuracy in terms of
ground features and measurements
Prismatic Compass
Uses a prism to read the bearing directly from the
compass card
Requires the user to look through the prism to
read the bearing, which may cause eye strain over
time
Typically more accurate than surveyor's compass
Typically more expensive than surveyor's compass
Often used in geodetic surveys and mapping
Has a tripod base that allows for more stable
readings
Has a built-in level that ensures the compass is
horizontal when taking readings
Can take bearings of up to 1/4 degree accuracy
Air Survey
Conducted from the air, typically by plane or
helicopter
Provides a broader view of the area being surveyed
Can cover large areas of land quickly without
physical access
May not be affected by obstacles and terrain
features
Typically involves taking measurements and readings
from above ground level
Can cover large areas of land quickly
Can be conducted by a smaller team or even a single
surveyor
May provide a lower level of accuracy in terms of
ground features and measurements
Surveyor's Compass
Uses a vertical or a sighting vane to take bearings
Allows the user to take bearings while looking
directly at the object, which can be less strenuous
on the eyes
Typically less accurate than prismatic compass
Typically less expensive than prismatic compass
Often used in geological surveys and explorations
Often held by hand or rested on a makeshift base,
which can lead to less stable readings
Does not have a built-in level
Can take bearings of up to 1/2 degree accuracy
 Whole Circle Bearing (WCB)
Measures the angle between the north-south line
and the line being measured clockwise from 0° to
360°
Provides a unique bearing for each line being
measured
Used in surveying and mapping for precise
measurements
Requires the use of a protractor or theodolite for
measurement
Can be converted to azimuths for easier
navigation
Can be used to calculate precise coordinates of a
point
Has a range of 0° to 360°
Takes longer to measure and record than QB
Chain Survey
Uses a chain or tape to measure distances
Typically used for measuring smaller areas of land
Provides accurate linear measurements, but may
not provide precise angles or directions
Requires multiple readings and measurements for
each point
Requires physical access to each point being
measured
May be affected by uneven terrain or obstacles
Typically involves laying out a grid or network of
lines and measuring the distance between them
Can be time-consuming to set up and conduct
May require more than one person to conduct
Quadrantal Bearing (QB)
Measures the angle between the north-south line
and the line being measured in one of four
quadrants (NE, SE, SW, NW)
Does not provide a unique bearing for each line
being measured, as multiple lines can have the
same QB
Used in navigation and basic land surveying
Can be measured using only a compass
Cannot be easily converted to azimuths
Cannot be used to calculate precise coordinates of
a point
Has a range of 0° to 90°, as each quadrant is only
90°
Is quicker to measure and record than WCB
Compass Survey
Uses a compass to measure bearings and angles
Typically used for measuring larger areas of land
Provides accurate angular measurements and
directions, but may not provide precise linear
measurements
Requires only one reading or measurement for
each point
Can measure points from a distance, without
physical access
May not be affected by uneven terrain or
obstacles
Typically involves measuring bearings and angles
between specific points
Can be quicker to set up and conduct
Can be conducted by a single person
 Cadastral Survey
Focuses on establishing legal property boundaries
and ownership.
Uses precise measurements and techniques to
define the dimensions, boundaries, and areas of a
piece of land.
Primarily used for property registration, land
tenure, and land valuation purposes.
Involves the preparation of cadastral maps and
plans, which show the boundaries and dimensions
of each parcel of land.
Requires accurate and up-to-date information on
property ownership, land use, and land rights.
Typically carried out by government agencies or
licensed surveyors.
Involves resolving boundary disputes between
neighboring landowners.
Involves establishing the legal basis for the
taxation of property.
Topographical Survey
Focuses on mapping the surface features of the
earth such as contours, elevation, and natural and
man-made features.
Uses aerial photographs, satellite images, and
other modern surveying tools to gather data
about the topography of a piece of land.
Primarily used for urban planning, engineering
design, and environmental management
purposes.
Involves the preparation of topographic maps,
which show the natural and man-made features of
the land, such as roads, rivers, and buildings.
Requires accurate and up-to-date information on
the physical characteristics of the land, such as
elevation, slope, and drainage patterns.
Typically carried out by government agencies,
private survey companies, or consulting firms.
Involves providing information for the design and
construction of infrastructure projects, such as
roads, bridges, and buildings.
Involves providing information for land-use
planning, environmental protection, and natural
resource management.
Tachometry Survey
A type of survey that uses an electronic
distance measuring instrument (EDMI) to
measure distances and angles between
points.
Measures both horizontal and vertical
distances and angles.
Can be used to survey large areas quickly and
accurately.
Ideal for surveying areas with a lot of
obstructions or uneven terrain.
Can be done with a small survey team.
Data can be recorded directly into a
computer, making it easier to process and
analyze.
Can be used to create highly accurate 3D
models of a terrain.
Best suited for surveying construction sites,
highways, and railways.
Theodolite
Measures angles in both horizontal and
vertical planes using optical plummets
Requires manual recording of angle and
distance measurements
Typically has a lower accuracy and precision
than a total station
Requires the operator to manually level the
instrument
Often used for smaller projects and shorter
distances
Typically less expensive than a total station
Plane Table Survey
A type of survey that uses a special type of
drawing board, known as a plane table, to
measure angles and plot coordinates.
Measures only horizontal distances and
angles.
Requires a lot of time and effort to survey
large areas.
Ideal for surveying areas with flat and open
terrain.
Requires a larger survey team to operate
efficiently.
Data must be recorded manually on the
plane table, making it more time-consuming
to process and analyze.
Can only be used to create 2D maps of a
terrain.
Best suited for surveying small-scale projects,
such as building sites or small land parcels.
Total Station
Measures angles and distances electronically
using EDM
Can automatically record angle and distance
measurements with built-in data collection
software
Can provide high accuracy and precision
measurements
Has an automatic compensator to ensure the
instrument is level
Can be used for larger and more complex
projects with longer distances
Can be more expensive than a theodolite due
to its advanced technology
Horizontal Angle
Measured in the horizontal plane
Used for determining the direction of a line
Measured using a theodolite or total station
Measured in degrees, minutes and seconds
Can be converted to azimuth or bearing
Used for establishing control points and
traverses
Traverse
Used for small areas and linear projects
Angles and distances are measured between
adjacent points
Control points are established along the
traverse
The accuracy is affected by the length of the
traverse and instrument errors
Suitable for areas with obstacles and
irregular terrain
Suitable for detailed surveys and topographic
mapping
Open Traverse
Starts from an arbitrary point and ends at
another arbitrary point
Does not form a closed polygon
Used for exploring new areas or conducting
preliminary surveys
Prone to errors due to lack of closure and
accumulation of errors
Requires external control points for
orientation and accuracy
Can be performed quickly and is suitable for
rough surveys
Vertical Angle
Measured in the vertical plane
Used for determining the elevation of a point
Measured using a clinometer or an altimeter
Measured in degrees or percent slope
Can be converted to vertical distance or slope
distance
Used for determining heights and slopes in
topographic surveys
Triangulation
Used for large areas and complex projects
Angles are measured between distant points
Control points are established on high points
or triangulation stations
The accuracy is affected by the number of
stations and the length of the sides of the
triangles
Suitable for areas with good visibility and
regular terrain
Suitable for mapping of large areas and
establishing control networks
Close Traverse
Starts and ends at the same point
Forms a closed polygon
Used for accurately measuring the perimeter
or area of a surveyed region
More accurate due to closure and ability to
check for errors
Internal errors can be detected and corrected
during surveying
Requires more time and effort but yields
more accurate results
Direct Linear Measurement
Measured directly using a measuring device
such as a tape measure, ruler or measuring
wheel
Requires physical contact with the object
being measured
Usually provides a more accurate
measurement
Can be faster and more efficient for shorter
distances
Often used for measuring shorter distances,
such as in construction or carpentry
Examples include tape measures, rulers,
measuring wheels, and odometers
Indirect Linear Measurement
Measured indirectly by comparing an
unknown distance to a known distance
Does not require physical contact with the
object being measured
Can be less accurate due to errors in
comparison or calculation
Can be more time-consuming and complex
for longer distances or when indirect
measurements must be taken at multiple
points
Often used for measuring longer distances,
such as in land surveying or geodesy
Examples include triangulation, trilateration,
and stadia measurement

Plain Survey Geodetic Survey

Purpose To determine relative position and To determine the exact position and
elevation of points within a small elevation of points over a large area,
area. taking into account the curvature of
the Earth.
Area of Small areas like building plots, Large areas like cities, states, and
Coverage roads, and construction sites. countries.
Accuracy Less accurate due to the assumption More accurate due to the
of a flat surface. consideration of the Earth's
curvature.
Instruments Simple instruments like measuring Sophisticated instruments like GPS
tapes, levels, and theodolites. receivers, laser scanners, and
geodetic telescopes.
Reference Flat surface assumption (e.g., plane Spheroidal or ellipsoidal reference
Surface table) surfaces (e.g., WGS84, NAD83).
Calculations Use simple trigonometry and Use complex mathematical models
 geometry to calculate distances,
angles, and elevations.
Applications Used for small-scale mapping,
property surveys, and civil
engineering projects.
and algorithms to account for the
Earth's curvature, gravitational field,
and rotation.
Used for large-scale mapping,
boundary demarcation, satellite
positioning, and global navigation.