Directional Surveying Fundamentals

Directional Surveying
Fundamentals
Revision A
September 2014
D00937621
Directional Surveying Fundamentals
ii
Directional Surveying Fundamentals
Notice
This document is designed to provide information useful for the optimal utilization of Halliburton equipment. Charts,
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© 2014 Halliburton. All rights reserved.
Principal Contributing Authors
Houston Training Center Alexander Airapetov Matthew Chong
Nigel Hamilton
Editors
Matthew Chong Alexander Airapetov
Referenced Document
Jamieson, A. (2012). Introduction to Wellbore Positioning (V18.9.13)
Associated Document
WM-GL-HAL-SD-SM401: Directional Surveying Requirements

WM-GL-HAL-SD-AC400: Anti-Collision Rules
WM-GL-HAL-DF-SM008: Multi-station Analysis of MWD Directional Survey Data
D00301945: Non Magnetic Drill Collar (NMDC) inspection procedure
iii
Contents Directional Surveying Fundamentals
Contents
List of Figures vii
List of Tables x
Chapter 1 Introduction to Directional Surveying ....................................................................... 1
1.1 Why is Directional Surveying so Important? .........................................................1
1.2 Survey Management Flowchart ............................................................................2
Chapter 2 Basics of Directional Surveying ................................................................................. 3
2.1 What is Directional Surveying?.............................................................................3
2.2 Survey Terminology ..............................................................................................4
2.2.1 Measured Depth (MD) ..........................................................................................4
2.2.2 Survey Station ......................................................................................................4
2.2.3 Inclination..............................................................................................................5
2.2.4 Hole Direction (Azimuth) .......................................................................................6
2.2.5 True Vertical Depth (TVD) ....................................................................................6
2.2.6 Latitude (N/S Departure) ......................................................................................7
2.2.7 Departure (E/W Departure)...................................................................................7
2.2.8 Closure .................................................................................................................7
2.2.9 Closure Direction ..................................................................................................8
2.2.10 Vertical Section (VS) .............................................................................................8
2.2.11 Dogleg ..................................................................................................................9
2.3 Directional Surveying ..........................................................................................10
2.3.1 Surveying While Drilling ......................................................................................10
2.3.2 Gyroscopic Sensors ............................................................................................10
Chapter 3 Directional Instruments ............................................................................................. 11
3.1 Directional Sensors ............................................................................................11
3.1.1 Accelerometer.....................................................................................................11
3.1.2 Magnetometer.....................................................................................................11
3.2 Directional Tools .................................................................................................13
3.2.1 Pressure Case Directional (PCD) .......................................................................13
3.2.1.1 Pressure Case Directional − Ruggedized (PCD-R) ...........................................14
3.2.1.1.1 PCD-R Surveying Options and Algorithm ..........................................................14
3.2.1.1.2 PCD-R Specifications .........................................................................................15
3.2.1.2 Pressure Case Directional − Currentized (PCD-C) ............................................16
3.2.1.2.1 PCD-C Surveying Options and Algorithm ..........................................................16
3.2.1.2.2 PCD-C Specifications .........................................................................................18
3.2.2 Directional Module (DM) .....................................................................................18
3.2.2.1 DM Surveying Options and Algorithm ................................................................18
3.2.2.2 DM Specifications ...............................................................................................21
3.3 Toolfaces ............................................................................................................22
3.3.1 Types of Toolface ...............................................................................................22
3.3.2 Magnetic Toolface ...............................................................................................22
3.3.3 Gravity Toolface (Highside) .................................................................................23
Chapter 4 Magnetic and Gravity Information............................................................................ 25
4.1 Earth’s Gravity Field ...........................................................................................25
4.2 Earth’s Magnetic Field ........................................................................................25
4.3 Magnetic Declination ..........................................................................................27
4.4 Applying Declination Correction .........................................................................28
4.5 Grid Corrections .................................................................................................29
4.5.1 Grid Systems ......................................................................................................29
4.5.2 UTM Grid System ...............................................................................................30
4.5.3 Geodetic Datum ..................................................................................................31
4.6 Applying Grid Convergence................................................................................32
4.7 MagUTM .............................................................................................................33
iv
4.7.1 Collecting Geographical Information ..................................................................33

4.7.2 Starting MagUTM ...............................................................................................33
4.7.3 Entering General Information .............................................................................34
4.7.4 Entering Geographic Information........................................................................34
4.7.4.1 Geographic Coordinates .....................................................................................35
4.7.4.2 Cartesian Coordinates ........................................................................................36
4.7.5 Selecting Magnetic Model, Calculation Date and North Reference ...................37
4.7.6 Results ................................................................................................................37
4.7.7 Verifying MagUTM Stored in InSite ....................................................................38
4.7.8 Reviewing the Survey Info Tab...........................................................................39
4.7.8.1 Hole Position Section .........................................................................................39
4.7.8.2 Gravity and Magnetic Reference section ...........................................................39
4.7.8.3 Azimuth Correction section.................................................................................40
Chapter 5 Survey Calculations .................................................................................................. 42
5.1 Introduction .........................................................................................................42
5.2 Different Calculation Methods ............................................................................42
5.2.1 Tangential Method ..............................................................................................43
5.2.2 Average Angle Method .......................................................................................43
5.2.2.1 Example: Average Angle Method .......................................................................44
5.2.1 Radius of Curvature Method...............................................................................44
5.2.2 Minimum Curvature Method ...............................................................................45
5.2.2.1 Example: Minimum Curvature Method ...............................................................46
Chapter 6 Nonmagnetic Spacing ............................................................................................... 48
6.1 Procedure for Using the Charts ..........................................................................48
6.2 North Reference Conversions ............................................................................49
6.2.1 True North to Magnetic North .............................................................................51
6.2.1.1 Worked Example 1: True North to Magnetic North ............................................51
6.2.1.2 Worked Example 2: True North to Magnetic North ............................................51
6.2.2 Grid North to Magnetic North..............................................................................52
6.2.2.1 Worked Example 1: Grid North to Magnetic North .............................................52
6.2.2.2 Worked Example 2: Grid North to Magnetic North .............................................52
6.3 Converting from Azimuth to Quadrant ................................................................53
Chapter 7 Short Collar Corrections ........................................................................................... 58
7.1 Short Collar Correction .......................................................................................58
7.2 When to Use Short Collar Correction .................................................................60
7.3 Short Collar Correction Algorithm .......................................................................60
7.3.1 TRIAC Method ....................................................................................................61
7.3.1.1 Inclinations < 85° or > 95° ..................................................................................61
7.3.1.2 Inclinations in 85° ≤ Inc < 89° OR 91° < Inc ≤ 95° ..............................................62
7.3.2 Arcsine Method ...................................................................................................63
7.4 Limitations of the Short Collar Correction............................................................64
7.4.1 Short Collar Surveys On The Fly ........................................................................65
7.5 Short Collar Correction Management .................................................................65
Chapter 8 Survey Quality Management..................................................................................... 67
8.1 When and How to Survey ...................................................................................67
8.1.1 Survey Station ....................................................................................................67
8.1.2 How to Take a Survey ........................................................................................67
8.2 Basic Survey Parameters and Formulas ............................................................68
8.2.1 Gx, Gy, Gz (g).....................................................................................................68
8.2.2 Goxy (g) ..............................................................................................................68
8.2.3 Gtotal (g) .............................................................................................................69
8.2.4 Inclination............................................................................................................69
8.2.5 Bx, By, Bz (nT)....................................................................................................70
8.2.6 Boxy (nT) ............................................................................................................71
8.2.7 Btotal (nT) ...........................................................................................................71
v
8.2.8 Azimuth (Long Collar Method) ............................................................................72

8.2.9 Dip Angle ............................................................................................................72
8.3 Survey Quality Control ........................................................................................73
8.3.1 Survey Depth ......................................................................................................73
8.3.2 Detection.............................................................................................................73
8.3.3 Inclination and Azimuth ......................................................................................73
8.3.4 Survey QC Limits ................................................................................................73
8.3.4.1 Storing Survey QC Limits ...................................................................................74
8.3.5 Abnormal Condition ............................................................................................75
8.3.6 Min D (DM only) ..................................................................................................75
8.4 Check Shots .......................................................................................................75
8.4.1 When to Perform a Check Shot ..........................................................................76
8.4.2 Selecting a Check Shot Point .............................................................................76
8.4.3 Performing a Check Shot ...................................................................................76
8.4.4 Rotational Check Shot ........................................................................................76
8.4.5 Bottom Line Check .............................................................................................77
8.5 Motion Effects While Surveying ..........................................................................77
8.5.1 Sliding .................................................................................................................77
8.5.2 Rotation ..............................................................................................................77
8.5.3 Vibration..............................................................................................................78
8.6 Survey QC Plot ...................................................................................................78
8.6.1 How to Use Survey QC Plot ...............................................................................78
Chapter 9 Anti-Collision.............................................................................................................. 84
9.1 Collision Indicators .............................................................................................84
9.2 Ellipse of Uncertainty (EOU)...............................................................................84
9.2.1 Ellipsoid of Uncertainty .......................................................................................85
9.3 Clearance Factor (CF) ........................................................................................85
Chapter 10 SAG Correction .......................................................................................................... 88
10.1 SAG Correction Software ...................................................................................88
10.1.1 When to use SAG Correction .............................................................................89
Chapter 11 Magnetic Interferences and Corrections ................................................................. 91
11.1 Magnetic Interferences .......................................................................................91
11.1.1 Secular Variations ..............................................................................................91
11.1.2 Crustal Variations ...............................................................................................91
11.1.3 Diurnal (Daily) Variation ......................................................................................92
11.1.4 Other Magnetic Interferences .............................................................................92
11.2 Corrections for Magnetic Interferences ..............................................................93
11.2.1 In-Field Referencing (IFR or IFR 1) ....................................................................93
11.2.2 Interpolated In-Field Referencing (IIFR or IFR2) ................................................93
11.3 Multi-Station Analysis (MSA) ..............................................................................94
11.3.1 ICARUS™...........................................................................................................95
11.3.2 Cazandra® .........................................................................................................95
11.4 Survey Management Services............................................................................95
11.4.1 Instrument Performance Models (IPM’s) ............................................................97
vi
List of Figures Directional Surveying Fundamentals
List of Figures
Figure 2-1: Directional Survey Report ............................................................................................................3
Figure 2-2: Measured Depth ...........................................................................................................................4
Figure 2-3: Survey station ..............................................................................................................................5
Figure 2-4: Inclination .....................................................................................................................................5
Figure 2-5: Inclination and Azimuth ................................................................................................................6
Figure 2-6: True Vertical Depth ......................................................................................................................6
Figure 2-7: Latitude and Departure ................................................................................................................7
Figure 2-8: Closure .........................................................................................................................................7
Figure 2-9: Closure Direction ..........................................................................................................................8
Figure 2-10: Calculate Vertical Section to Closure Checkbox .......................................................................8
Figure 2-11: Vertical Section ..........................................................................................................................9
Figure 2-12: Dogleg and Dogleg Severity ......................................................................................................9
Figure 2-13: Surveying While Drilling (MWD Tool) ...................................................................................... 10
Figure 3-1: Quartz Hinged Accelerometer ................................................................................................... 11
Figure 3-2: Fluxgate Magnetometer ............................................................................................................ 12
Figure 3-3: Accelerometer and Magnetometer Arrangement in a Directional Tool ..................................... 12
Figure 3-4: Magnetic toolface – Toolface Pointing at 260° ......................................................................... 23
Figure 3-5: Gravity toolface example........................................................................................................... 24
Figure 4-1: Cutaway View of the Earth ........................................................................................................ 26
Figure 4-2: Earth's magnetic field ................................................................................................................ 26
Figure 4-3: Relationship of Dip Angle to Latitude ........................................................................................ 27
Figure 4-4: Dip Angle of Flux Lines ............................................................................................................. 27
Figure 4-5: Magnetic Declination ................................................................................................................. 28
Figure 4-6: West Declination (Negative Declination) ................................................................................... 28
Figure 4-7: East Declination (Positive Declination) ..................................................................................... 29
Figure 4-8: Latitude and Longitude.............................................................................................................. 29
Figure 4-9: Grid zone ................................................................................................................................... 30
Figure 4-10: Geodetic Datum ...................................................................................................................... 31
Figure 4-11: Grid Convergence ................................................................................................................... 32
Figure 4-12: Access to MagUTM ................................................................................................................. 33
Figure 4-13: General Information Screen .................................................................................................... 34
Figure 4-14: Entering Geographic Coordinates ........................................................................................... 35
Figure 4-15: Entering Cartesian Coordinates .............................................................................................. 36
Figure 4-16: Select a Magnetic Model, Calculation Date, and a North Reference ..................................... 37
Figure 4-17: Results Window ...................................................................................................................... 37
Figure 4-18: Finding Well Information ......................................................................................................... 38
Figure 4-19: Well Info/Survey Info Tab in Well Information ......................................................................... 38
vii
Figure 4-20: Hole Position Section .............................................................................................................. 39

Figure 4-21: Gravity and Magnetic Reference Section ............................................................................... 39
Figure 4-22: Azimuth Correction Section..................................................................................................... 41
Figure 5-1: Survey calculation methods ...................................................................................................... 42
Figure 5-2: Tangential Method .................................................................................................................... 43
Figure 5-3: Average Angle Calculation ........................................................................................................ 43
Figure 5-4: Radius of Curvature Explained ................................................................................................. 44
Figure 5-5: Minimum curvature method explained ...................................................................................... 45
Figure 6-1: Survey Info Tab in Well Information .......................................................................................... 49
Figure 6-2: Positive Total Correction ........................................................................................................... 50
Figure 6-3: Negative Total Correction ......................................................................................................... 50
Figure 6-4: Hole Direction (Azimuth vs. Quadrant) ..................................................................................... 53
Figure 6-5: 260° in Azimuth Format Converted to Quadrant Format: S 80° W ........................................... 53
Figure 6-6: Guide for Selecting Nonmagnetic Drill Collars .......................................................................... 54
Figure 6-7: Selecting Length of Nonmagnetic Drill Collars in Zone A ......................................................... 55
Figure 6-8: Selecting Length of Nonmagnetic Drill Collars in Zone B ......................................................... 56
Figure 6-9: Selecting Length of Nonmagnetic Drill Collars in Zone C ......................................................... 57
Figure 7-1: Magnetic Field Distortion by Drillstring Interference ................................................................. 58
Figure 7-2: Measured Bz Replaced by Theoretical Bz – Short Collar Correction ....................................... 59
Figure 7-3: Short Collar Correction Algorithms at Various Inclination Ranges ........................................... 60
Figure 7-4: TRIAC Method Azimuths and Error Measures.......................................................................... 61
Figure 7-5: TRIAC Survey Window with Additional Logic ........................................................................... 61
Figure 7-6: TRIAC Calculations in East or West ......................................................................................... 62
Figure 7-7: TRIAC Calculations in North or South ...................................................................................... 62
Figure 7-8: Arcsine Method (TRIAC Sections Remain Blank)..................................................................... 63
Figure 7-9: Arcsine Survey Window ............................................................................................................ 63
Figure 7-10:”No-Go Zone” for Short Collar .................................................................................................. 64
Figure 8-1: Survey Notification Window ...................................................................................................... 67
Figure 8-2: Gx, Gy, and Gz ......................................................................................................................... 68
Figure 8-3: Goxy .......................................................................................................................................... 69
Figure 8-4: g Inclination Window in Survey QC Plot ................................................................................... 70
Figure 8-5: Bx, By, and Bz ........................................................................................................................... 70
Figure 8-6: Boxy .......................................................................................................................................... 71
Figure 8-7: Limits in the Directional Tool Parameter Window ..................................................................... 74
Figure 8-8: Survey Notification Window ...................................................................................................... 75
Figure 8-9: Warning Message in Survey Window ....................................................................................... 75
Figure 8-10: Survey QC Plot in InSite ......................................................................................................... 78
Figure 8-11: Survey QC Plot ....................................................................................................................... 79
viii
Figure 8-12: Data dialog icon ...................................................................................................................... 79

Figure 8-13: Source and Limits Window...................................................................................................... 79
Figure 8-14: Gravity Plot Attributes Window ............................................................................................... 80
Figure 8-15: Upper and Lower Limits of Gtotal and Btotal .......................................................................... 80
Figure 8-16: Gravity Window ....................................................................................................................... 81
Figure 8-17: Magnetic2 Window .................................................................................................................. 81
Figure 8-18: Magnetic1 Window .................................................................................................................. 82
Figure 8-19: Inclination Window .................................................................................................................. 82
Figure 8-20: Azimuth Window ..................................................................................................................... 83
Figure 8-21: Dip Window ............................................................................................................................. 83
Figure 9-1: Ellipse of Uncertainty ................................................................................................................ 84
Figure 9-2: Ellipsoid of Uncertainty.............................................................................................................. 85
Figure 9-3: Clearance Factor ....................................................................................................................... 86
Figure 9-4: Clearance Factor is Greater than 1 ........................................................................................... 86
Figure 9-5: Clearance Factor Equals 1........................................................................................................ 87
Figure 9-6: Clearance Factor Less than 1 ................................................................................................... 87
Figure 10-1: SAG Correction ....................................................................................................................... 88
Figure 10-2: SAG Correction User Guide Located in InSite ........................................................................ 90
Figure 11-1: Magnetic Pole Changes from 1831 to 2011............................................................................ 91
Figure 11-2: Diurnal field variation ............................................................................................................... 92
Figure 11-3: Corrections using Aeromagnetic Maps ................................................................................... 93
Figure 11-4: IIFR Compared to Sensor Reading ......................................................................................... 94
Figure 11-5: IIFR Correction Sequence Map .............................................................................................. 96
Figure 11-6: Ellipse of Uncertainty (EOU) Size Comparison ...................................................................... 97
Figure 11-7: Survey Corrections Reducing Survey Calculations Error ....................................................... 97
ix
List of Tables Directional Surveying Fundamentals
List of Tables
Table 7-1: Short Collar Correction Instability Zone ..................................................................................... 64
Table 7-2: Managing Short Collar Correction .............................................................................................. 66
Table 8-1: Survey QC Limits ....................................................................................................................... 73
Table 10-1: Example of Sag at Various Inclinations .................................................................................... 89
x
Introduction to Directional Surveying Directional Surveying Fundamentals
Chapter 1 Introduction to Directional Surveying
1.1 Why is Directional Surveying so Important?
Directional surveys are required to:

• Determine the exact bottom hole location of the well in order to monitor
reservoir performance.
• Monitor the actual well path while drilling to ensure the target will be reached.
• Orient deflection tools (such as directional drilling assemblies) in the required
direction when making corrections to the well path.
• Ensure the well being drilled is in no danger of intersecting an existing well.
• Calculate the true vertical depths of the various formations encountered to
allow accurate geological mapping.
• Warn the directional driller of potential problems along the course of the
wellbore (severe doglegs in the well).
• Fulfil requirements of regulatory agencies.
If a producing well gets out-of-control or catches fire, directional surveys can also help
determine whether a relief well can be drilled to intersect the bottom of the blowout well
to pump water and mud into the hole to control the original well.
With the introduction of directional drilling, surveying assumed a more significant role
than it had with traditional straight hole wells. By measuring the inclination and hole
direction at various depths, surveying assists in steering the course of the wellbore toward
its planned target.
1
Introduction to Directional Surveying Directional Surveying Fundamentals
1.2 Survey Management Flowchart
Acquire Geographical Information

(Chapter 4)
Run MagUTM (Chapter 4)
Convert Target Azimuth Reference to

Magnetic North (Chapter 6)
Is Short Collar Correction Needed?

(Chapter 7)
No Yes
Run Nonmagnetic Spacing Is Target Magnetic Azimuth in SCC

(Chapter 6) Instability Zone? (Chapter 6)
No Yes
Contact Survey Management

Group for MSA (Chapter 11)
Set Up for SAG Correction

(Chapter 10)
Monitor RT Surveys and Survey QC

Plot (Chapter 8)
Monitor Magnetic Interference Anti-Collision Awareness (Chapter 9) Drillstring Motions

(Chapter 8 & 11) (Chapter 8)
2
Basics of Directional Surveying Directional Surveying Fundamentals
Chapter 2 Basics of Directional Surveying
2.1 What is Directional Surveying?
Directional surveying is a method used to obtain the measurements required to calculate

and plot the path of a wellbore in three dimensions (3-D) to determine the path of a
wellbore. These parameters are measured at multiple places along the well path, which
assist in steering the course of the wellbore toward its planned target.
The basic measurements determine:
• Measured Depth
• Inclination
• Hole Direction
Figure 2-1: Directional Survey Report
3
2.2 Survey Terminology
A directional surveying professional speaks the language of directional surveying by

using the proper terminology. Most of the terms used in directional surveying are located
on a directional surveying report.
2.2.1 Measured Depth (MD)
Measured depth refers to the actual depth of hole drilled as measured from the surface
location to any point along the wellbore or to total depth.
Figure 2-2: Measured Depth
2.2.2 Survey Station
Each instance of measured depth, inclination, and hole direction is a survey station.
Survey stations are obtained along the well path. The measurements are used together to
calculate the position in 3-D dimensions: Inclination, Hole Direction (Azimuth), TVD
(True Vertical Depth), N/S Departures (Latitude), E/W Departures (Departure), which
can then be presented as a table of numbers called a survey report.
4
Figure 2-3: Survey station
2.2.3 Inclination
Inclination is the angle, measured in degrees, by which the wellbore or survey instrument
axis varies from a true vertical line. An inclination of 0° would be true vertical and an
inclination of 90° would be horizontal.
Figure 2-4: Inclination
5
2.2.4 Hole Direction (Azimuth)
Hole direction (Azimuth) is the angle, measured in degrees, of the horizontal component
of the borehole or survey instrument axis from a known north reference. This reference
can be: true north, magnetic north, or grid north, and is measured clockwise by
convention. Hole direction is measured in degrees and expressed in either azimuth form
(0° to 360°) or quadrant form (NE, SE, NW, SW).
Figure 2-5: Inclination and Azimuth
2.2.5 True Vertical Depth (TVD)
True Vertical Depth (TVD) is the distance directly under the survey origin in the vertical
plane of the survey station.
Figure 2-6: True Vertical Depth
6
2.2.6 Latitude (N/S Departure)
Latitude is the horizontal distance the wellbore moves from the survey origin in a due
north or south direction. A positive value indicates a northerly displacement, while a
negative value indicates a southerly displacement. Latitude is used to plot the trajectory
of the wellbore on a horizontal projection.
2.2.7 Departure (E/W Departure)
Departure is the horizontal distance the wellbore moves from the survey origin in a due
east or west direction. A positive value indicates an easterly displacement, while a
negative value indicates a westerly displacement.
Figure 2-7: Latitude and Departure
2.2.8 Closure
Closure, sometimes referred to as Horizontal displacement, is the distance in horizontal
plane from first survey station (survey origin: Tie In Survey) to the current survey station.
Closure (Horizontal Displacement)
Figure 2-8: Closure
7
2.2.9 Closure Direction
Closure direction, measured in degrees, is the direction of the closure from the currently
used north reference, measured clockwise.
Closure Direction
Figure 2-9: Closure Direction
2.2.10 Vertical Section (VS)
Vertical Section is the horizontal distance, the wellbore moves from the Survey Origin
(Tie In) in the direction to the Survey Station in question, along the X axis of the vertical
plane, where the Y axis is the TVD.
Vertical Section Direction is the direction of the Vertical Section from the north
reference, measured clockwise. Factors affecting the vertical section are:
• Incremental horizontal displacement and its direction as compared with the
direction of the target.
• Change in vertical section between any two points or survey stations.
Vertical section direction is not used in near vertical boreholes. In such cases, “Calculate Vertical
N NOTE Section to Close” function in Survey info tab is used.
Figure 2-10: Calculate Vertical Section to Closure Checkbox
8
Vertical Section
Figure 2-11: Vertical Section
2.2.11 Dogleg
Dogleg is a measure of the total angular change in the wellbore. It is the 3-D angular
change calculated using both inclination and azimuth (hole direction) between two survey
stations. All of the inclination change will show up as dogleg. Azimuth changes at higher
inclinations will have a greater effect on dogleg than the same azimuth change at lower
inclinations. Dogleg severity is dogleg calculated over a standard length (100 ft or 30 m).
Figure 2-12: Dogleg and Dogleg Severity
9
2.3 Directional Surveying
2.3.1 Surveying While Drilling
Single surveys can be performed during the drilling process to record inclination and
hole direction. With directional drilling, single surveys can orient the deflection tool. The
survey can be obtained during connections with a Measurement While Drilling (MWD)
installed in the Bottom Hole Assembly (BHA) or lowering the survey instrument to the
bottom of the hole, and taking the survey. Depending on the type of instrument used,
inclination and hole direction information may be recorded and stored downhole in
computer memory or transmitted to the surface. The transmitted or stored information is
used in preparing the actual survey record. Surveying while drilling allows the driller to
know the current position of the well and change the inclination and direction if required.
Figure 2-13: Surveying While Drilling (MWD Tool)
2.3.2 Gyroscopic Sensors
Gyroscopic sensors can be run when there is magnetic interference in the drilling
environment such as casing. The sensors are usually run inside casing or production
tubing. Gyroscopic sensors are especially helpful in surveying when there are nearby
wells present, i.e., drilling from a multiwell platform.
Gyroscopic sensors can be classified into three categories:

• Free gyroscopes
• Rate gyroscopes
• Inertial navigation systems
A survey can:
• Determine the present position of the bottom of the hole

• Chart the path taken to get to its current position
• Project the direction the wellbore is headed
• Provide orientation information for downhole tools
10
Directional Instruments Directional Surveying Fundamentals
Chapter 3 Directional Instruments
3.1 Directional Sensors
3.1.1 Accelerometer
Directional tools contain three orthogonal axes of quartz-hinged accelerometers (Gx, Gy

and Gz). Accelerometers are force balance devices which react to any accelerating forces
exerted to a given axis. Accelerometers only react to changes in velocity and neglect a
constant movement (i.e., Drillstring moving at a constant speed).
The accelerometer consists of two magnets and a quartz disc with a coil attached to it.
The quartz disc is a proof mass with a hinge that has been chemically etched to allow
movement in one direction. A coil is attached to the proof mass that is suspended
between the two permanent magnets. The position of the proof mass is maintained by
applying an alternative current (AC) to the coil. The magnets have reference plates that
measure the capacitance between the two magnets. When a force is applied to the
accelerometer, movement of the proof mass changes the capacitance. A circuit detects the
change in capacitance and applies current to the coil to restore the proof mass to its
original position.
Figure 3-1: Quartz Hinged Accelerometer
3.1.2 Magnetometer
Magnetometers in directional tools consist of two Mu-metal rods, which are ferromagnetic
materials that possess high magnetic permeability that are wound oppositely by one
copper wire. The Mu-metal rods are magnetically saturated when a current is passing
through the wire.
An alternating current is continually saturated and unsaturated by each Mu-metal rod in

opposite magnetic polarity. In the presence of an external magnetic field, the saturation
time of each Mu-metal rod will be shifted. Based on the saturation time, a voltage is
generated to magnetically neutralize the rod from the external magnetic field. The voltage
required to nullify the external magnetic field represents the external magnetic field.
11
Figure 3-2: Fluxgate Magnetometer
Figure 3-3: Accelerometer and Magnetometer Arrangement in a Directional Tool
12
3.2 Directional Tools
3.2.1 Pressure Case Directional (PCD)
The Pressure Case Directional (PCD) probe is a tool that consists of two directional sensor
packages that contain three accelerometers and three magnetometers. The accelerometer
and magnetometer readings are obtained to calculate toolfaces, inclination, azimuth, and
other survey parameters to effectively navigate the well as planned.
PCD variants that are currently used are as follows:
Config 2: PCD-R (R for ruggedized). 1553 and SVSS capable. PCD-R is able to perform
data processing and memory storage capability.
Config 2 PCD-RH: Same as PCD-R, but is fitted internally with harness connectors.
Although PCD-R is capable of Manchester 1553 communication; however, a current that

passes through the PCD-R will cause interference of the magnetometer sensor readings.
Therefore:
1. Install the PCD-R at the end of the toolstring.

2. Any tools below the PCD-R must have its own battery power.
PCD-C: Current past the stack directional tool can be positioned anywhere in the
toolstring where current can be passed through the tool without affecting the
magnetometer sensor readings. A completely different processor board and firmware from
PCD-R are fitted. The current past the stack board attenuates the 1553 signal. PCD-C does
not have the capability to store memory.
PCD-C II: Current past the stack directional tool with 1553 repeater. The 1553 signal is
not attenuated when the PCD-C II is used.
For tool compatibility for each directional sensor, check Tool Compatibility Charts at the
following location on the Sperry Web:
http://sperryweb/Tool_Compatibility_Charts.htm
13
3.2.1.1 Pressure Case Directional − Ruggedized (PCD-R)
3.2.1.1.1 PCD-R Surveying Options and Algorithm
Survey Sampling
The PCD-R in a DWD or DGWD system, takes 300 samples over 2 seconds, and uses a
single average of each sensor to calculate the survey data. In an EM system, 75 samples
are taken in 0.5 seconds. There are no stability checks such as a Minimum Difference
performed during the sampling routine.
Pumps Up Surveys
The PCD-R acquires surveys every 5 seconds, starting at the beginning of the run-in
pulses. When it gets to the pulsing sequence, where it is about to pulse a survey item (Gx,
Gy, Gz, Bx, By, Bz, Inc, Az, Hsg or Gtotal), it uses the last survey measured as the pumps
up survey. Therefore, the time of the pumps up survey measurement is within 5 seconds
of the first survey item. This same logic is used for surveys on the fly.
Pumps Down Surveys
A survey is measured every 5 seconds starting with the transmission of the first flag. The
PCD-R stops acquiring surveys when the generator voltage gets down to about 14 V. The
transmitted survey will be the fifth to last survey measured before powering down the
probe. This means that the transmitted survey is measured between 20 and 25 seconds
before turning off the power to the probe. If the generator powered down very slowly, the
time of the pumps down survey will be more than 25 seconds before the pumps were
completely shut down.
Pumps Off Surveys
When the PCD-R is used with an ABI, a battery power source is available, and therefore,
pumps off surveys can be used. There are two surveys measured: the first is measured
30 seconds after the pulser is powered down; the second is measured 60 seconds after the
pulser is powered down. The average of these two is the transmitted survey.
Toolface Sampling
The toolface sampling routine is the same as the survey sampling routine. All sensors are
measured every 5 seconds. Only the sensor measurements that are necessary for the
particular toolface type are used.
14
Toolface Crossover
When the PCD-R is run as directional only, it controls the toolface crossover. When the
PCD-R is powered up by the pulser, the initial decision follows the magnetic to gravity
crossover rule. This means that the magnetic toolface is transmitted until the inclination is
equal to or greater than the downloaded crossover point. The inclination measurement for
this decision is made before the transmission of the Tag preceding each block. Therefore,
the toolface type can only change when a new block of data is transmitted. The toolface
type indicator is contained in the Tag for a switch position transmission mode, and is the
toolface status (TS) data item for a custom data string mode.
Once the tool reaches or exceeds the crossover inclination, the decision changes. The rule
for gravity to magnetic crossover uses a 1° hysteresis. The change back to magnetic
toolface occurs when an inclination less than the crossover point minus a 1° inclination is
reached. For example, if the downloaded toolface crossover is 5°, then the change from
gravity toolface back to magnetic toolface occurs when the inclination measured, just
before the Tag transmission, is less than 4°. This same logic is used when the PCD-R is
run with the PCG-R in Manchester DGWD.
When the HCIM is the busmaster, it controls the toolface crossover, which only changes
during a pump cycle. It does not use a 1° hysteresis. The change from a magnetic to a
gravity toolface occurs at the same inclination as the change from gravity to a magnetic
toolface.
The toolface crossover value must be set to 5 degrees. Discuss with your service coordinator if the
N NOTE tool is expected to be affected by cross-axial magnetic interference and toolface crossover angle
needs to be changed (i.e. Whip stock orientation in Casing).
3.2.1.1.2 PCD-R Specifications
System Accuracy
Inclination: ± 0.2° for Inclination >10°

Azimuth: ± 1.5°
Toolface: ± 2.8°
Maximum Temperature: 302 °F (150°C)
Maximum Pressure: 20,000 psi
Tool OD: 1.75 in.
Top connection: 10-pin male amphenol (PCD-R)

Female Kemlon (PCD-C)
Bottom connection: Male Kemlon
Sensor Measure Point: 0.86 ft (262 mm) from the bottom shoulder
15
3.2.1.2 Pressure Case Directional − Currentized (PCD-C)
PCD-C was designed as a replacement for PCD-R within D(G)WD and EM services, and
also as a replacement for PM/DM within Non-Solar class FEWD services.
PCD-C features a 1-3/4" OD pressure case and a single pole Kemlon connection system.
It is used in conjunction with PCM, in which the coil-cord between the pulser and the
directional tool is eliminated. PCD-C also features new ’current past the stack’ technology
that enables operating the PCG-K gamma sonde anywhere below the PCM, or PCG-R
gamma sonde below the directional tool.
3.2.1.2.1 PCD-C Surveying Options and Algorithm
Survey Sampling
If the PCD-C is controlled by a separate busmaster the rules change somewhat. The
PCD-C takes a survey when requested to by the busmaster (HCIM, PCM or EM). The
number of samples, etc. depends on the busmaster requesting the survey. The PCD-C can
not determine if the pumps are up or down. Therefore, the busmaster could acquire a
pumps off survey if the battery power is being supplied to the PCD-C by the busmaster.
With a PCM, 244 samples are taken over 2 seconds, and a single average of each sensor
reading is used to calculate the survey. The EM survey is similar, but this survey consists
of 92 samples taken over 0.75 seconds.
With the HCIM, the PCD-C acquires up to 15 readings, each consisting of 100 samples.
The survey readings are checked via the MinD algorithm to select the one used to
calculate the survey.
Pumps Up Surveys
The PCD-C takes a survey every 5 seconds, starting at the beginning of the run-in pulses.
When it gets to the pulsing sequence, where it is about to pulse a survey item (Gx, Gy, Gz,
Bx, By, Bz, Inc, Az, Hsg or Gtotal), it uses the last survey measured as the pumps up
survey. Therefore, the time of the pumps up survey measurement is within 5 seconds of
the first survey item. This same logic is used for surveys on the fly.
Pumps Down Surveys
A survey is measured every 5 seconds starting with the transmission of the first flag. The
PCD-C stops acquiring surveys when the generator voltage gets down to about 14 V. The
transmitted survey will be the fifth to last survey measured before powering down the
probe. This means that the transmitted survey is measured between 20 and 25 seconds
before turning off the power to the probe. If the generator powered down very slowly, the
time of the pumps down survey will be more than 25 seconds before the pumps were
completely shut down.
16
Pumps Off Surveys
PCM Busmaster: The PCM takes the pumps off survey 30 seconds after the pumps are
powered down. It takes about 5 seconds to acquire the survey. For the magnetic guidance
tool (MGT) services, two surveys are taken at 30 and 60 seconds. The battery is then
turned off.
EMT Busmaster: The EMT triggers the PCD-C to sample surveys immediately after the
survey downlink command is received. After 4 seconds, the EMT retrieves the survey,
and sends the uplink 2 seconds later.
HCIM Busmaster: When the pumps off is determined by the telemetry controller (PCM or
SDC), it takes between 15 and 30 seconds for the HCIM to register the pumps off. Once
the pumps are off, the HCIM initiates a survey to the PCD-C and waits for the PCD-C to
complete the survey acquisition. The time to take a survey can vary from 5 seconds to 30
seconds depending on the survey stability determined by Min D. This survey acquisition
process takes up to 60 seconds.
Toolface Sampling
If the PCD-C is used with a separate busmaster, the probe sleeps until it is prompted for a
survey. It can be prompted for a survey by a PCM, or by something else; e.g., HCIM, and
HOTTEST. With the PCM, the PCD-C performs as a PCD, which measures all of the
sensors every time. With the other busmaster tools, it performs similar to a DM, which if
prompted for gravity toolfaces, the magnetometers are not powered up. However, if a
magnetic toolface is required, then all sensors are powered up.
Toolface Crossover
When the PCD-C is run in the Manchester system, the busmaster controls the toolface
crossover. The initial decision follows the magnetic to gravity crossover rule upon
powering up the tool. This means that the magnetic toolface is transmitted until the
inclination is equal to or greater than the downloaded crossover point. The inclination
measurement for this decision is made before the transmission of the Tag preceding each
block. Therefore, the toolface type can only change when a new block of data is
transmitted. The toolface type indicator is contained in the Tag for a switch position
transmission mode, and is the TS data item for a custom data string mode.
Once the tool reaches or exceeds the crossover inclination, the decision changes. The rule
for gravity to magnetic crossover uses a 1° hysteresis. The change back to magnetic
toolface will take place when an inclination less than the crossover point a 1° inclination
is reached. For example, if the downloaded toolface crossover is 5°, then the change from
gravity toolface back to magnetic toolface occurs when the inclination measured, just
before the Tag transmission, is less than 4°.
When the HCIM is the busmaster, it controls the toolface crossover, which only changes
during a pump cycle. It does not use a 1° hysteresis. The change from a magnetic to a
gravity toolface occurs at the same inclination as the change from a gravity to a magnetic
toolface.
17
3.2.1.2.2 PCD-C Specifications
System Accuracy
Inclination: ± 0.2° for Inclination >10°

Azimuth: ± 1.5°
Toolface: ± 2.8°
Maximum Temperature: 302 °F (150 °C)
Tool OD: 1.75 in.
Top connection: Female Kemlon

Bottom connection: Male Kemlon
Sensor Measure Point: 10.32 in (0.262 m) from the bottom shoulder
3.2.2 Directional Module (DM)
The directional module (DM) is designed for high-pressure and high-temperature

applications. Similar to PCD-C, the DM can passes through the current without affecting
the magnetometer readings.
3.2.2.1 DM Surveying Options and Algorithm
Survey Sampling
All survey sampling and survey calculations are performed by the DM. When a survey is
to be taken, the Telemetry Module (TM) puts the DM in survey mode and the DM begins
to perform the survey. When the DM is in survey mode, the inclinometers are scaled so
that full scale is 1g. The timing of when the TM places the DM in survey mode and starts
the survey is dependent on whether the survey is a pumps up survey (PU) or a pumps off
survey (PD).
Pumps Up Preamble Survey
Pumps up preamble surveys are started 25 seconds before the end of the first preamble
flag-tag. At 25 seconds before the end of the flag-tag, the TM will extract the survey, store
the survey in RAM, format the survey for pulsing, and place the survey in the pulsing
buffer to be pulsed. InSite tags the survey time and depth when the preamble flag-tag is
received.
Pumps Up Survey on the Fly
The sampling logic is the same as the preamble surveys. Surveys on the fly are only
sampled when there is survey data to be pulsed in a loop, and the samples will be taken in
the 25 second window before the end of the last flag-tag.
18
Pumps Down Preamble Survey
When pulsing in a list that contains a pumps down survey in the preamble, the TM begins
taking a survey 20 seconds after it determines that the pumps are off. A pumps off
determination is made 5 seconds after the impeller stops turning. When the TM
determines that the pumps are off, the TM turns the DM off, waits 20 seconds before
turning the DM back on, places the DM in survey mode, and the DM then begins
sampling a survey for up to 25 seconds depending on the survey stability determined by
Min D. Once the TM completes the survey, the TM extracts the survey stored in RAM,
and the TM turns the DM off. The TM holds the survey in a buffer for transmission until
the pumps are restarted for the preamble survey. This survey acquisition process takes up
to 50 seconds.
Pumps Off Survey
HCIM Busmaster: When the pumps off is determined by the telemetry module (TM), it
takes 15-30 seconds for the HCIM to register the pumps off. Once the pumps are off, the
HCIM initiates a survey to the DM and waits for the DM to complete the survey
acquisition. The time to take a survey can vary from 5 seconds to 30 seconds depending
on the survey stability determined by Min D. This survey acquisition process takes up to
60 seconds.
DM Sampling of the Survey
The DM is switched into survey mode. The accelerometers are turned on for a warm up
time of 2.62 seconds. 0.5 seconds before the end of the accelerometer warm-up time, the
magnetometers are turned on to warm up. After warming up, the surveys are sampled 128
times at 1.0 millisecond intervals and an average value for each data item is calculated and
stored as a sample number 1. Two more samples are taken for Min D verification. Up to
15 samples will be compared depending on the Min D.
Minimum Difference (Min D)
Min D determines the stability of a survey. The sensor values (Gx, Gy, Gz, Bx, By, Bz)
for each sample are summed together and the difference of the sums between successive
samples are compared. This is the Min D between the samples. If the Min D between
successive samples is ± 2 or less, two times in a row, the survey is determined stable and
the sampling is stopped.
Min D (Sample 2 – Sample 1) = 148 – 147 = 1 within spec, continue sampling

Min D (Sample 3 – Sample 2) = 142 – 148 = − 6 Min D failed, continue sampling
Min D (Sample 4 – Sample 3) = 143 – 142 = 1 within spec, continue sampling
Min D (Sample 5 – Sample 4) = 144 – 143 = 1 within spec 2 consecutive times, stop sampling
19
Delta Magnetic Toolface (Dmt)
A Delta magnetic toolface is the difference between a magnetic toolface obtained at the
beginning of the survey measurement and one obtained at the end of the survey
measurement. It is a rotational indicator that shows the number of degrees of rotation from
the beginning to the end of a survey measurement. It should be 0.0° or very close to 0.0°
(± 0.2° is typical). Less than 1.0° away from 0.0° is a successful survey. Greater than 1.0
away from 0.0 indicates excessive rotation and is not a successful survey.
DMT is not used with InSite version 5 and above.
Toolface Sampling
After a survey is completed, the TM places the DM in toolface mode. When the DM is in
toolface mode, the inclinometers are scaled so that full scale is 7 g. The type of toolface to
be measured depends on the inclination of the preamble survey relative to the downloaded
toolface crossover, and whether a battery module (or any other battery supplying sub bus
power when the pumps are off) is on the sub bus.
If a tool is without battery supplied sub bus power, and the pumps are off, then the
magnetic toolface is transmitted until the tool inclination reaches an angle greater than the
downloaded toolface crossover. The change does not occur until the pumps are cycled.
When dropping angle, the highside toolface is transmitted until the tool inclination
decreases below the value of the downloaded toolface crossover. Again, the change does
not occur until the pumps are cycled.
If a tool has battery supplied sub bus power, and the pumps are off, then the magnetic
toolface is transmitted until the tool inclination reaches an angle greater than the
downloaded toolface crossover. The change will not occur until the pumps are cycled.
When dropping angle, the highside toolface is transmitted until the tool inclination
decreases to a value of 1.0° less than the downloaded toolface crossover. Again, the
change does not occur until the pumps are cycled.
Toolface Crossover
In Manchester mode, if the tool inclination increases more than 5°, the toolface switches
from magnetic to highside when the next pump cycle occurs. Consequently, if the tool
inclination declines to 4°, the toolface switches from highside to magnetic when the next
pump cycle occurs.
The following list shows the type of toolface that is transmitted, following a pump cycle,
with a pumps off survey as the current preamble survey type:
Inclination Inc ≤ 4° Current Type New Type

None Magnetic
Magnetic Magnetic
Gravity Magnetic
Inclination Inc ≥ 5° Current Type New Type
None Gravity
Magnetic Gravity
Gravity Gravity
4° < Inc < 5° Current Type New Type
None Gravity
Magnetic Magnetic
Gravity Gravity
20
When the HCIM is the busmaster, it controls the toolface crossover, which only occurs at
a pump cycle. It does not use a 1° hysteresis. The change from magnetic to gravity
toolface takes place at the same inclination at the change from a gravity to a magnetic
toolface.
3.2.2.2 DM Specifications
System Accuracy
Inclination: ± 0.1°
Azimuth: ± 0.25°
Toolface: ± 1.5°
Maximum Temperature: 347°F (175°C)
Survival Temperature: 392°F (200°C)
Tool OD: 2.0 in.
Top Connection: Female Kemlon
Bottom Connection: Male Kemlon
Sensor Measure Point: 1.75 ft (533 mm) from the bottom shoulder
21
3.3 Toolfaces
Toolfaces are the point of which the end of a bent sub/motor is located. Maintaining
toolfaces oriented to one direction leads the BHA drill accordingly, depending on the
toolface type. This enables the directional control to steer BHA to a desired target.
Toolfaces are displayed on the Driller Display Unit (DDU) on the rig floor.
Toolfaces are acquired by the magnetic or gravity sensors of a directional tool, which are
corrected by the orientation difference between the high-side of a directional tool to the
bent point.
3.3.1 Types of Toolface
There are two toolface types: magnetic and gravity. The toolface reference is used for
orientation purposes and is also referred to as the reference orientation. This reference is
used to orient downhole directional drilling tools, such as mud motors, jetting assemblies,
or whip stocks.
3.3.2 Magnetic Toolface
The magnetic toolface is the direction, in the horizontal plane, the bent sub scribe line is
pointing with regard to the north reference (Grid, Magnetic, or True).
Magnetic Toolfaces can be calculated using the following equation:
−By
m = tan−1 � �
Bx
− sin(𝐼𝑛𝑐) × sin(𝐴𝑧𝑖) × tan(𝐷𝑖𝑝)

𝑒 ′ = tan−1 ( )
1 − sin(𝐼𝑛𝑐) × cos(𝐴𝑧𝑖) × tan(𝐷𝑖𝑝)
Magnetic Toolface (MTF) = m + e′
The angle e’ is generally calculated externally from either a previous survey station (if inclination and
N NOTE azimuth are slow changing), or from a different tool.
Magnetic toolfaces may require declinations and grid convergence corrections depending on the north
N NOTE reference type.
Magnetic orientation is used when the inclination of the wellbore is less than 5°. When the
inclination is below this amount, the directional tool cannot accurately determine the
highside of the tool for orientation purposes. The toolface will be presented in azimuth or
quadrant form, referenced to magnetic north. The magnetic toolface reading is whatever
magnetic direction the toolface is pointed. For example, if the orientation lug on the
survey instrument is pointed towards due east, the magnetic toolface would be 90°. If the
magnetic toolface is pointed towards 260°, then the scribe line of the bend (orientation
lug) is directing to 260° from the reference north.
22
Motor (Bent sub) scribe

line pointing 260° from the
referenced north
Figure 3-4: Magnetic toolface – Toolface Pointing at 260°
3.3.3 Gravity Toolface (Highside)
Gravity toolface is the angular distance the motor or bent sub scribe line is turned, about
the tool axis, relative to the high side of the hole.
Gravity Toolfaces can be calculated using the following equation:
Gy
Gravity Toolface (HSTF) = tan−1 � �
−Gx
If the inclination of the wellbore is above 5°, then the gravity toolface can be used. The
toolface will be referenced to the highside of the survey instrument, no matter what the
hole direction of the survey instrument is at the time. The toolface will be presented in a
number of degrees either right or left of the highside. For example, a toolface pointed to
the highside of the directional tool would have a gravity toolface of 0°. A toolface pointed
to the low side of the survey instrument would have a gravity toolface of 180°. If the
string was rotated to the right of highside, the gravity toolface would be 90° to the right.
23
Motor (Bent sub) scribe

line pointing 105° left
from the high side of a
directional tool
Figure 3-5: Gravity toolface example
24
Magnetic and Gravity Information Directional Surveying Fundamentals
Chapter 4 Magnetic and Gravity Information
4.1 Earth’s Gravity Field
The gravity of the earth refers to the acceleration of any object falling to the surface of the
earth. The mean acceleration at the earth’s surface is approximately 9.81 m/s 2 (32.2 ft/s 2 )
and it is described as 1.0 g.
The gravitational force of the earth varies by the latitude. The shape of the earth is
flattened at each pole with the equator being bulged, and resembling an oblate spheroid.
The molten rocks and metals presented in the mantle and core push toward the equator
due to the rotation of the earth. This causes the diameter of the equator to be 43 km longer
than the pole-to-pole diameter, with greater gravitational force at the pole. Another
significant reason, contributing to the earth gravitational difference, is the speed of
rotation at the equator and the poles, which result in greater outward centrifugal force at
latitudes near the equator, and reduced downward acceleration by up to 0.3%.
Gravity at 0° Latitude: 0.9980 g
Gravity at 90° Latitude: 1.0033 g
Sperry Drilling directional tools assume that any geographic surface has 1.000 g of
gravitational force, so there are unified survey specifications for any geographic location.
When a directional tool is programmed after the geographic location is recognized in
InSite by MagUTM, the directional tool is calibrated to 1.000 g at the wellsite.
A directional tool may fail a roll-test if there is a significant latitude change between the wellsite and the
N NOTE R&M center. Download the directional tool to program MagUTM information and perform the roll-test
again.
4.2 Earth’s Magnetic Field
At the heart of the planet, there is an enormous magnetic core that creates the magnetic
field. The flux lines of magnetic force run from south to north, which can be detected by
a compass.
The magnetic field of the earth can be best described by the dynamo theory: by the heat
from the inner core, the conductive fluid (molten metal) in the outer core creates circular
electrical currents, which generates the magnetic field. The dynamo theory proposes a
mechanism by which the earth generates a magnetic field. The dynamo theory describes
the process through which a rotating, convective, and electrically conducting fluid can
maintain a magnetic field.
25
Figure 4-1: Cutaway View of the Earth
All magnetic surveys are obtained by measuring the earth’s magnetic field. The earth’s
magnetic field varies by location on the earth and by time of day. The magnetic north
pole is constantly moving, although very slowly. Because of this, a survey referenced to
magnetic north today, will not be accurate at some time in the future. However, the ability to
compensate for this variable is to apply a correction to a magnetic survey that references it
to true north. True north can also be thought of as geographic north or the spin axis of the
earth. The true North Pole does not move. A survey referenced to true north will be the
same today, as it will be any time in the future. The correction applied to change a
magnetic north direction to a true north direction is called declination.
Figure 4-2: Earth's magnetic field
The earth can be imagined as having a large bar magnet at its center, lying (almost)
along the north-south spin axis. The normal lines of the magnetic field emanate from the
bar magnet in such a pattern that, at the magnetic north and south poles, the lines of force
(flux lines) lie vertically or at 90° to the earth’s surface, while at the magnetic equator the
lines of force are horizontal or at 0° to the earth’s surface. At any point on the earth, a
26
magnetic field can be observed. The observed magnetic field has a strength and direction
(vector). The strength is called magnitude and is measured in units of nano-tesla (nT).
Usual measurements are approximately 60,000 nT at the magnetic north pole and
30,000 nT at the magnetic equator. The direction is always called magnetic north.
However, although the direction is magnetic north, the magnitude is parallel to the
surface of the earth at the equator and points steeply into the earth, which is closer to the
North Pole. The angle that the vector makes with the earth’s surface is called dip.
Figure 4-3: Relationship of Dip Angle to Latitude
Figure 4-4: Dip Angle of Flux Lines
4.3 Magnetic Declination
The adjustment in correcting the shift or angle difference from magnetic north to true north
is called declination. Magnetic north varies over time and region, and therefore,
declination is a variable that is time and space dependent. Declination may be thought of as
the angular difference between geographic, or true north, and the horizontal component of
the earth’s magnetic field.
27
Figure 4-5: Magnetic Declination
4.4 Applying Declination Correction
Declination is a positive or negative correction to the magnetic compass reading. By

convention, east is considered as positive, while west is considered as negative. To
correct a magnetic compass reading to the true north reference, simply add magnetic
declination. This adds to the hole direction degrees, if there is positive declination (or
subtracts if negative), when presented in Azimuthal, 360°, format. When declination is
added, the reference point shifts from magnetic pole to the true north reference.
Magnetic North Azimuth: 47°
Mag True
Declination: 12° West (-12°)
North North
True North = Magnetic North + Declination
= 47° − 12°
= 35°
True North Azimuth: 35°
Figure 4-6: West Declination (Negative Declination)
28
True
North Mag Magnetic North Azimuth: 46°
North
Declination 35° East (+35°)
True North = Magnetic North + Declination
= 46° + 35°
= 81°
Figure 4-7: East Declination (Positive Declination)
4.5 Grid Corrections
4.5.1 Grid Systems
Any location on the earth can be specified by its latitude and longitude. Latitude is the
distance north or south of the equator measured in degrees. The direction north or south
of the equator must be given when specifying latitude. The latitude 90° north is the
North Pole, while the latitude 90° south is the South Pole. Longitude is the distance east
or west of a specific point (prime meridian). The generally accepted prime meridian is
located at Greenwich, England. This is the Greenwich meridian, 0° longitude.
Figure 4-8: Latitude and Longitude
29
Another correction commonly applied to directional surveys is called grid correction. It

is usually easier to work with straight lines than curved lines. It is also easier to work
with rectangular boxes than odd shapes. In charting large areas, most of the earth has
been converted to a rectangular grid for mapping purposes.
A grid system breaks up the earth into small nearly rectangular areas. In a grid system, an
individual area is called a zone. A zone is constructed so that a line of longitude is in the
center of each zone. This line of longitude in the center of a zone is called the central
meridian. Within the zone, grid north is parallel to the central meridian. The lines of
longitude are parallel only along the equator, so any location not on the equator or a central
meridian has an angular difference between true north and grid north. The angular
difference between true north and grid north is called the grid convergence angle.
Figure 4-9: Grid zone
4.5.2 UTM Grid System
Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) grid system is most widely used in the oil
industry. The UTM system identifies the earth’s surface into grid zones in network
structure. The position on the earth is identified by easting and northing from the origin
of the grid. The original point is determined by the intersection of the equator and the
central meridian of the zone. The UTM grid reference must contain the zone number
and hemisphere.
The UTM grid divides the earth’s longitude from 80°S and 84°N latitude into 60 zones at
6° per grid identified with numbers. The UTM Zone 1 covers between 180°W and 174°W.
The latitude is divided into 20 zones at 8° per grid (12° for 72°N−84°N zone) marked with
letters , starting from 80°S to 72°S. The letter starts with C, and O and I are omitted to
avoid confusion with numbers.
N NOTE The size of the each grid zone is uniformed with few exceptions, such as V32, X31, X33, X35 and X37.
30
4.5.3 Geodetic Datum
The geodetic datum is a reference surface that defines the shape of the earth in particular
areas. The shape of the earth looks similar to a squashed oblate spheroid (refer to Section
4.1.) While the sphere is a close approximation of the true figure of the earth, geodesists
have developed a number of models to represent a closer approximation to the shape of
the earth.
Geodetic datum assumes the shape of the earth is an ellipsoid and selects an ellipsoid
which makes the best least squares fit with the geoid over the specific region. It assigns a
latitude and longitude to the selected origin point. The latitude and longitude are
considered to be measured on the ellipsoid.
The most commonly used geodetic datum in North America is North American Datum
(NAD 27 and NAD 83). The dimension of the ellipsoid determined by NAD 83 is as
follows.
Semi-Major Axis: 6378137.0 meters

Semi-Minor Axis: 6356752.3 meters
1
Figure 4-10: Geodetic Datum
1
Referenced from Jamieson, A. (2012). Introduction to Wellbore Positioning (V18.9.13).
31
4.6 Applying Grid Convergence
Figure 4-11: Grid Convergence
The grid convergence can be either positive or negative: positive values are east of
true north and negative values are west of true north.
The grid convergence is subtracted from the hole direction using the true north reference.
The calculation is as follows:
Grid North = True North – Convergence
A Total Correction can be calculated and added to azimuth with a magnetic reference:
Total Correction = Declination – Convergence
It is easier to add one number to convert from magnetic to grid or true reference.
However, this calculation may have a negative outcome if one or two (declination or/and
convergence) variables are negative. To avoid a negative outcome, add the negative total
correction to the azimuth to change the hole direction degrees to a smaller number or
move it counter-clockwise.
32
4.7 MagUTM
Directional surveys require accurate geological locations and magnetic references. Earth
magnetic north continuously moves and therefore continuously changes magnetic field
strength. MagUTM is a software that estimates the location of the earth magnetic north
and models magnetic field of any given location.
4.7.1 Collecting Geographical Information
Prior to running MagUTM, the geographical information of the well must be collected. In
some cases, the information may have been discussed with the supervisor as a part of pre-
job briefing.
All geographical information required to run MagUTM must be stated in the well plan in
the pre-job package. It is recommended to confirm the information at the rig site, as the
plan can be changed, depending on the situation of the well.
The following information is required to run MagUTM:
• Depth (Elevation) of Wellhead, or Target Depth

• Geographic Coordinates
• Cartesian Coordinates and Datum (Group and Description)
• Magnetic Model
• North Reference
• Pre-Calculated Field strength, Dip and Total Correction
4.7.2 Starting MagUTM
1. MagUTM must be run immediately after creating a well. It is located in the

Calculations tab in InSite Studio.
Figure 4-12: Access to MagUTM
33
4.7.3 Entering General Information
1. Enter the Customer Name, Sample Well, and Job Number (Error! Reference source
not found.).
2. Choose Wellhead or Target from the dropdown in the “Location is” field.
The depth of the tie-in point in the surface section is recommended for the Wellhead depth in the
N NOTE Location is tab.
3. Enter the depth of the location selected in the “Location is” field. The depth reference
is “Below Mean Sea Level.” If the elevation of the location is 1,000 ft, enter -1,000
in the “Depth is” field.
Figure 4-13: General Information Screen
N NOTE This exercise assumes the elevation of the location is 230 feet above Mean Sea Level.
4.7.4 Entering Geographic Information
Two methods are available to enter the geographic information, which are Geographic
coordinates and Cartesian coordinates. Regardless of what method was selected, it must
be converted to the other. The entered value and converted value must match with the
proposed well plan.
34
4.7.4.1 Geographic Coordinates
1. Select the Enter Geographic Coordinates checkbox.

2. Enter the Latitude and Longitude values.
N NOTE There are two ways to enter the Latitude and Longitude; Degrees-Minutes-Seconds, and also in
Decimal Degrees.
3. Ensure that N/S and E/W are entered correctly.

4. Select Group and Description to enter the accurate reference of Cartesian coordinates.
5. Select the Convert==> button.
6. Ensure that the computed information in the “Nothing or Y” and the “Easting or X”
fields match with the proposed well plan.
Cartesian coordinate system measures the distance from the center of locations determined by Group
N NOTE and Description. Incorrect Group or Description selection may result in wrong values in “Northing or Y”
and “Easting or X”.
7. Ensure that the target on the map accurately represents where the well is located.
Figure 4-14: Entering Geographic Coordinates
35
4.7.4.2 Cartesian Coordinates

1. Select the checkbox on Enter Cartesian Coordinates.
2. Select Group and Description to enter accurate reference of Cartesian coordinates.
3. Enter “Nothing or Y” and “Easting or X.”
4. Select the Convert==> button.
5. Ensure N/S, E/W and computed Latitude and Longitude values match with the
proposed well plan.
Cartesian coordinate system measures the distance from the center of locations determined by Group
N NOTE and Description. Incorrect Group or Description selection may result in different Geographic coordinates
values.
6. The Group and Description types must be according to the well plan and customer
requirements. These inputs greatly affect the results of magnetic data and corrections.
7. Ensure that the target of the map accurately represents where the well is located.
Figure 4-15: Entering Cartesian Coordinates
36
4.7.5 Selecting Magnetic Model, Calculation Date and North

Reference
1. In the Magnetic Model field, select the most current model.
2. Enter the Day, Month, and Year in the Calculation Date field.
3. Select North Reference. The north reference is specified in the proposed well plan.
Figure 4-16: Select a Magnetic Model, Calculation Date, and a North Reference
4.7.6 Results
The Results window shows the calculated Magnetic Declination, Dip Angle, Total
Magnetic Field Strength, and Magnetic Checksum. To overwrite the values on the current
well, select the Save to –LOCAL- button. Select the Report button to generate a report,
then compare the MagUTM values to the well plan. Use the graphical representation of
the location to verify that the correct numbers were entered (check the location
interception of the two coordinate lines).
Figure 4-17: Results Window
37
4.7.7 Verifying MagUTM Stored in InSite
After running MagUTM, go into Survey info tab. Select the Well Information tab, and
verify the MagUTM values are saved correctly. Enter the Vertical Section Direction
values and ensure ALL parameters are accurately populated.
Figure 4-18: Finding Well Information
Figure 4-19: Well Info/Survey Info Tab in Well Information
When downloading downhole tools, ensure that the computer used for the download (e.g.,
W WARNING Toughbook) is in sync with the main computer. A tool download without magnetic information will
cause survey accuracy and downhole alignment (offset) issues.
38
4.7.8 Reviewing the Survey Info Tab
4.7.8.1 Hole Position Section

Verify the correct Vertical Section Direction is used (check in the well plan). Select the
Calculate Vertical Section to Closure checkbox when drilling at inclination less than 5°,
if not otherwise stated. (Refer to Section 2.2.10.)
Hole Position Calculation Method must always be set to Minimum Curvature, unless
agreed by both customer and local survey management group. This option provides the
most accurate TVD, which are North/South and East/West displacement calculations.
Figure 4-20: Hole Position Section
4.7.8.2 Gravity and Magnetic Reference section
Gravity Field Strength will always be equal to 1.0000 g. This value is overwritten to the
InSite database from MagUTM, after selecting the Save To -LOCAL- button.
Every geographic location has a different gravity force. However, it is considered that any
geographic surface has 1.000 g of gravitational force. Accordingly, the directional
instrument is set to 1.000 g at a location where the directional tool is programmed.
The combination of the elevation and the rotation of the earth causes the gravitational force of the
N NOTE earth to increase in higher latitude zones.
Magnetic Field Strength is an average magnitude of local field strength on the date of
calculation. The field engineer is required to perform a one-time magnetic field strength
calculation immediately after a well is created in InSite. The local magnetic field strength
may vary from MagUTM calculated value, due to magnetic field variation factors, such as
crustal anomalies or the earth magnetic field storms. The actual measured magnetic field
strength and the predicted MagUTM should not vary by more than ± 300 nT.
Magnetic Dip Angle is calculated by MagUTM and sent to the InSite database after
selecting the Save To -LOCAL- button. The actual magnetic dip angle strength and the
predicted MagUTM should not vary by more than ± 0.3°.
Figure 4-21: Gravity and Magnetic Reference Section
39
4.7.8.3 Azimuth Correction section
North Reference must be used as stated in the well plan and confirmed by the customer
representative. If required, submit a screen capture of the North reference, along with
other magnetic information, to the local ROC or service coordinator for verification
purposes.
Total Correction is the total value of a correction applied to Magnetic Azimuth by InSite.
This value is sent to the InSite database after selecting the Save To -LOCAL- button. The
directional instrument always transmits magnetic azimuth. InSite then applies the total
correction to convert the magnetic azimuth to the azimuth that refers to the North
Reference, selected by the user.
Total Correction may include only declination (True North), declination and convergence
(Grid North), or be equal to 0 (Magnetic North).
Checksum INSITE is calculated using Total Field Strength imported from MagUTM,
Magnetic Dip angle imported from MagUTM and Total Correction imported from
MagUTM. The calculation is performed as follows:
Total Field Strength × 30

+
Magnetic Dip Angle × 5000
+
Total Correction × 7000
Checksum INSITE is compared with Checksum MagUTM. InSite flags an error if there
is any difference. This is a QC tool to verify that all MagUTM values have been written to
the InSite database correctly.
Checksum MagUTM is calculated using Total Field Strength, Magnetic Dip Angle, and
Total Correction. The calculation is performed as follows:

+
+
Checksum MagUTM is exported from MagUTM to the InSite database to be further

compared with the InSite calculated checksum. The difference between Checksum InSite
and Checksum MagUTM indicates an error occurred when the results were exported from
MagUTM to the InSite database.
Checksum DOS MagUTM is serving for the same purpose of QC values exported from
MagUTM. It is calculated similarly to the Checksum INSITE, as follows:

+
+
40
Figure 4-22: Azimuth Correction Section
41
Survey Calculations Directional Surveying Fundamentals
Chapter 5 Survey Calculations
5.1 Introduction
One of the uses of the directional survey instrument is to record the information required
to calculate a directional survey. The directional survey instrument is part of the downhole
tool and is required for Measurement/Logging While Drilling (M/LWD) services as part
of the primary decision making and controlling information. This information includes:
hole azimuth and inclination obtained at a known measured depth. A basic understanding
of the terms and concepts used in this process is essential to accurately calculate survey
results.
5.2 Different Calculation Methods

There are several methods of computing directional surveys. The survey calculation
methods are polynomial equations to calculate TVD, N/S (Latitude) and, E/W (Departure)
displacements for the survey station, based on Depth, Inclination, and Azimuth. However, of
these methods, currently only four are commonly used. These methods are:
• Tangential (not commonly used)

• Average Angle (used for hand-calculations only)
• Balanced Tangential (not commonly used)
• Radius of Curvature
• Minimum Curvature (most commonly used)
2
Figure 5-1: Survey calculation methods
2
42
5.2.1 Tangential Method
This method uses the inclination and azimuth at the lower end of the course length to
calculate a straight line that represents the well bore, and passes through the lower end of
the course length. The wellbore is assumed to be a straight line throughout the course
length, as described in Figure 5-2.
3
Figure 5-2: Tangential Method
Where,
δM : Course Length
I : Inclination
A : Azimuth
The assumption that the inclination and direction remain unchanged for the interval can
cause significant errors to accumulate along the well path. This method is the most
inaccurate of the methods discussed and should not be used in the determination of survey
results unless the course lengths are not longer than the length of the survey tool.
5.2.2 Average Angle Method
This method uses the average of the inclinations and azimuths measured at the upper and
lower survey stations. The average of the two sets of angles is assumed to be the
inclination and the azimuth over the incremental measured depth. The wellbore path is
then calculated using simple trigonometric functions.
This method is only used for hand calculation for rough estimates, as it requires only
simple calculations that can be performed on a hand-held calculator. This method is much
more accurate than the tangential method, and only slightly less accurate than the
minimum curvature methods.
4
Figure 5-3: Average Angle Calculation
3
43
Where,
δM : Course Length
I : Inclination
A : Azimuth
5.2.2.1 Example: Average Angle Method
Given:
• MD1 = 1,200 ft Inc1 = 40° Azi1 = 60°

• MD2 = 1,300 ft Inc2 = 46° Azi2 = 62°
Solution:
• δM (Course length) = 1,300 ft – 1,200 ft = 100 ft
• Average Inc = (40°+46°)/2 = 43°
• Average Azi = (60°+62°)/2 = 61°
• Delta East = 100 ft × sin(43°) × sin(61°) = 59.6 ft
• Delta North = 100 ft × sin(43°) × cos(61°) = 33.1 ft
• Delta TVD = 100 ft × cos(43°) = 73.1 ft
5.2.1 Radius of Curvature Method
This method uses the inclination and azimuth measured at the upper and lower ends of the
course length to generate a circular arc when viewed in both the vertical and horizontal
planes.
This method assumes that the well path lies on a cylinder with a vertical axis, and has a
radius equal to the radius of curvature in the horizontal plane. It determines the length of
the arc between the upper and lower ends of the course length in the horizontal plane. The
cylinder can then be unwrapped to calculate the length of the circular arc along the
cylinder surface. Consequently, the incremental TVD is unaffected by changes in azimuth.
Figure 5-4: Radius of Curvature Explained
4
44
This curve has the shape of a circular arc in a vertical plane wrapped around a cylinder. It
is tangential to the inclination and azimuth passing through the upper and lower ends of
the course length.
5.2.2 Minimum Curvature Method
The minimum curvature method assumes the well path lies on the surface of a sphere and
has one radius in a 3-D plane that minimizes the curvature required to fit the angular
observations. This method is one of the most accurate methods for determining the
position of a given wellbore, but it does not easily lend itself to normal hand-calculation
procedures. The minimum curvature method is being used as the industry standard.
This method uses the inclination and azimuth measured at the upper and lower ends of the
course length to generate a smooth arc representing the wellbore path. Instead of
approximating the wellbore path with two straight lines, the minimum curvature replaces
these lines with a circular arc. This arc is calculated by using a dogleg scale factor based
on the amount of angular change over the course length. The plane of the arc is at an
oblique angle.
This method assumes that the well path lies on a sphere. As a result, the delta TVD is a
function of both the inclinations and azimuths of the upper and lower ends of the course
length.
The difference between the radius of curvature and minimum curvature methods is that
the radius of curvature uses the inclination change over the course length to calculate
displacements in the vertical plane and the azimuth change to calculate displacement in
the horizontal plane. The minimum curvature method uses the dogleg to calculate
displacements in both planes.
Figure 5-5: Minimum curvature method explained
45
5.2.2.1 Example: Minimum Curvature Method
The minimum curvature calculation is as follows:
∆MD
∆North = × [sin(I1) × cos(Az1) + sin(I2) × cos(Az2)] × RF
2
∆MD
∆East = × [sin(I1) × sin(Az1) + sin(I2) × sin(Az2)] × RF
2
∆MD
∆TVD = × [cos(I1) + cos(I2)] × RF
2
𝛽 = cos −1 [cos(𝐼2 − 𝐼1) − (sin(𝐼1) × sin(𝐼2) × (1 − cos(𝐴2 − 𝐴1))]
2 𝛽
RF = × tan
𝛽 2
Where,
MD : Measured Depth between surveys in ft

I1 : Inclination (angle) of upper survey in degrees
I2 : Inclination (angle) of lower in degrees
Az1 : Azimuth direction of upper survey
Az2 : Azimuth direction of lower survey
RF : Ratio Factor
β : Dog leg angle in radians
N NOTE The users are NOT expected to perform hand calculations using the minimum curvature method.
Given:
Survey1
Depth = 3,500 ft
Inclination = 15° (I1)
Azimuth = 20° (Az1)
Survey2
Depth = 3,600 ft
Inclination = 25° (I2)
Azimuth = 45° (Az2)
46
Solution:
MD = 3,600 ft – 3,500 ft = 100 ft
𝛽 = cos −1 [cos(25 − 15) − (sin(15) × sin(25) × (1 − cos(45 − 20))]
β = 0.22605 radian
= 12.95°
One radian is equal to 180/ π degrees. To convert from radians to degrees, multiply radians by 180/ π.
N NOTE Conversely, multiply degrees by π/180 to convert to radians.
2 12.95
RF = × tan
0.22605 2
= 1.00408
100
∆North = × [sin(15) × cos(20) + sin(25) × cos(45)] × 1.00408
2
100
∆East = × [sin(15) × sin(20) + sin(25) × sin(45)] × 1.00408
2
100
∆TVD = × [cos(15) + cos(25)] × 1.00408
2
According to the previous formulas, the results are as follows:
North = 27.22 ft
East = 19.45 ft
TVD = 94.01 ft
47
Nonmagnetic Spacing Directional Surveying Fundamentals
Chapter 6 Nonmagnetic Spacing
When running magnetic survey instruments, it is essential that the survey tool be run in a
nonmagnetic environment. A nonmagnetic environment must be provided in which all
magnetic directional surveys are conducted, since most of the drillstring is made of steel,
which interferes with the magnetic compass in magnetic survey instruments.
The nonmagnetic environment is provided by using one or more nonmagnetic drill collar
as a part of the BHA. The nonmagnetic drill collars magnetic permeability range from
1.003 to 1.005 when measured with magnetizing forces of 200 Oersteds (16 kA/m).
These nonmagnetic drill collars interfere less with the compass and result in more
accurate magnetic surveys.
Sperry Drilling has developed a series of charts to help determine how many
nonmagnetic drill collars should be used and where to space the compass of the survey
instrument within these nonmagnetic drill collars. The series of charts is entitled “Guide
For Selecting Nonmagnetic Drill Collars.” There are six charts available to choose from
(two for each zone), including one for packed hole assemblies (mud motors) and one for
all other assemblies. The map included with the charts is separated into three zones,
described as Zone A, Zone B, or Zone C.
There are also computer programs available that determine the optimum spacing for
magnetic survey instruments. However, this section only covers the use of Sperry Drilling
charts for estimated compass spacing.
6.1 Procedure for Using the Charts
1. Locate the desired well location in Zone A, Zone B, or Zone C on the map.
2. Locate the charts for the zone selected in Step 1.
3. Determine which chart is to be used, Packed-hole Assembly or Bit and Bit Sub, for
the zone selected.
4. Convert Target Azimuth to Quadrant to get the bearing from magnetic north/south.
Magnetic bearing is the angle difference from magnetic north/south. If the direction is 220°, the bearing
N NOTE is 40° from magnetic south. 290° is 70° from magnetic north.
5. Find the position for the desired inclination and bearing on the selected chart.
The inclination is located on the left side of the chart. The bearing is located on the
bottom of the chart labelled Bearing from Magnetic North. It is mandatory, that the
reading for the hole direction that has not been corrected for declination is used.
6. Extend lines from both of the points positioned in Step 4 until they intersect.
7. Locate the position of intersection of these two lines on the chart and read the
instructions for the zone in which the intersection occurs. The instructions include the
total length of nonmagnetic drill collars to be used and the proper spacing in that length.
48
6.2 North Reference Conversions
The target azimuth must be referenced from magnetic north prior to converting to
quadrant. Magnetic north can be converted from True or Grid north by subtracting Total
Correction from the True or Grid north.
Total correction is located on the Survey info tab in the Well information in InSite.
N NOTE MagUTM must be run prior to North Reference conversions.
North Reference
Total Correction
Figure 6-1: Survey Info Tab in Well Information
Polarity of the total correction is critical. Prior to the conversion, verify the Well information on the
N NOTE
Survey Info tab to ensure the North Reference and polarity of the total correction values.
49
Figure 6-2: Positive Total Correction
Figure 6-3: Negative Total Correction
50
6.2.1 True North to Magnetic North
The formula for calculating a magnetic north azimuth is:
Magnetic North Azimuth = True North Azimuth – Declination
= True North Azimuth – Total correction
6.2.1.1 Worked Example 1: True North to Magnetic North
Given the following information:
Total Correction (found in Survey info): 8.361°
Magnetic North Azimuth = 335° − 8.361°
= 326.639°
6.2.1.2 Worked Example 2: True North to Magnetic North
Total Correction (found in Survey info): − 4.730°
Magnetic North Azimuth = 281° − (−4.730°)
= 281° + 4.730°
= 285.73°
51
6.2.2 Grid North to Magnetic North
The formula for calculating a Magnetic north azimuth is:
Magnetic North Azimuth = True North Azimuth – Declination + Grid Convergence
= True North Azimuth – Total correction
6.2.2.1 Worked Example 1: Grid North to Magnetic North
Grid North Azimuth: 6°
Total correction (found in Survey info): 10.310°
Magnetic North Azimuth = 6° − 10.31°
= − 4.310°
= 355.69°
6.2.2.2 Worked Example 2: Grid North to Magnetic North
Grid North Azimuth: 358°
Total correction (found in Survey info): −5.420°
Magnetic North Azimuth = 358° − (−5.420°)
= 358° + 5.420°
= 363.42°
= 3.42°
52
6.3 Converting from Azimuth to Quadrant
After the magnetic north is obtained, the azimuth shall be converted to quadrant to
determine the nonmagnetic spacing. Figure 6-4 shows both azimuth and quadrant. Mark
the lines on the magnetic north azimuth (Figure 6-4) to identify the bearings from
magnetic north or south.
Quadrant
Azimuth
Figure 6-4: Hole Direction (Azimuth vs. Quadrant)
Figure 6-5: 260° in Azimuth Format Converted to Quadrant Format: S 80° W
53
3.3.1 Guide for Selecting Nonmagnetic Drill Collars
Figure 6-6: Guide for Selecting Nonmagnetic Drill Collars
N NOTE A packed hole assembly chart must be used for rotary steerable tools (e.g., Geo-Pilot).
54
Guide for Selecting Nonmagnetic Drill Collars
Figure 6-7: Selecting Length of Nonmagnetic Drill Collars in Zone A
55
Figure 6-8: Selecting Length of Nonmagnetic Drill Collars in Zone B
56
Guide for Selecting Nonmagnetic Drill Collars
Figure 6-9: Selecting Length of Nonmagnetic Drill Collars in Zone C
57
Short Collar Corrections Directional Surveying Fundamentals
Chapter 7 Short Collar Corrections
7.1 Short Collar Correction
The short collar solution is a mathematical method for reducing azimuth errors caused by
magnetic interference from the BHA. What measurements are made, how they can be
affected, and the application of the short collar solution is outlined in this section.
There is a strong magnetic field around the earth which is used as a reference for
determining azimuth and magnetic toolface. Local magnetic values for dip (inclination of
the earth’s magnetic flux axis from the horizon) and magnitude are two parameters used in
the application of the short collar solution. Local values for these parameters computed by
MagUTM must be entered into the InSite computer.
Steel components in the BHA, such as drill collars, stabilizers, LWD equipment,
downhole motors, and bit, become magnetized by the earth’s magnetic field. The BHA,
owing to its slenderness, is magnetized along its long axis (Bz). Consequently, magnetic
poles are present at its extremities. In the Northern hemisphere, there is usually a North
(or positive) pole at the lower end of the BHA.
Figure 7-1: Magnetic Field Distortion by Drillstring Interference
The magnetic poles of the BHA result in a magnetic field, extraneous to the earth’s, which
may cause an error in raw azimuth calculations. Under many conditions, the short collar
solution can substantially reduce azimuth errors introduced by magnetic interference of
the BHA.
58
Nonmagnetic drill collar requirements can be reduced with proper application of the short
collar solution. Magnetic interference due to the BHA will be directed along the drillstring
axis. The probe’s Bz axis and the drillstring axis are the same. Therefore, Bz may be
affected by BHA interference but Bx and By will not. Since the dip and total magnitude of
the earth’s magnetic field is known (from MagUTM), a theoretical Bz can be calculated
without referring to measured Bz. Valid Gx, Gy, Gz, Bx, and By are also required for this
calculation. This is a simplified explanation as the actual solution is a bit more
complicated.
The short collar solution cannot correct for magnetic interference that is extraneous to the
wellbore because it is no longer directed uniquely along the Bz axis and now affects Bx
and By (cross-axial magnetic reading, Boxy). With two or more flux gates influenced, it is
not possible for the short collar solution to eliminate the error(s). Calculated hole azimuths
cannot be considered valid with significant cross-axis influence on Boxy.
Figure 7-2: Measured Bz Replaced by Theoretical Bz – Short Collar Correction
59
7.2 When to Use Short Collar Correction
Care must be exercised when determining the amount of NMDC required in a high angle
well, as the short collar solution is not always applicable. Short collar azimuth should be
used ONLY if less nonmagnetic spacing than required is in use and magnetic model is an
accurate representation of the magnetic field in that area.
Short collar correction is designed to correct the axial magnetic interference due to the
lack of nonmagnetic spacing, assuming that there is no cross-axial magnetic interference
affecting both Bx and By sensors. However, this does not allow the directional sensors to
be located directly above the magnetic drillstring. A magnetized drillstring, especially
when a magnetic stabilizer is presented, will distort the nearby magnetic field strength,
and will therefore create cross-axial magnetic interferences. The minimum distance from
the magnetic drillstring to the directional sensor can generally be accepted as two times
the diameter of the adjacent magnetic BHA.
Due to the blades, the stabilizer creates stronger cross-axial interference. Use the gauge of the
N NOTE
stabilizer when determining the minimum nonmagnetic spacing.
To run a Multi-Station Analysis (MSA), the axial magnetometer (Bz) must not be saturated. The Bz
N NOTE
sensor in DM saturates at 100,000 nT, while the Bz sensor in PCD variants saturate at 65,000 nT.
7.3 Short Collar Correction Algorithm
Sperry Drilling uses two algorithms for short collar correction: TRIAC and Arcsine.
InSite chooses the best algorithm for short collar corrections depending on the
inclinations. Figure 7-3 depicts the inclination ranges in which each algorithm is used.
Figure 7-3: Short Collar Correction Algorithms at Various Inclination Ranges
60
Short collar corrections may provide two solutions. Contact the local survey management group if the
N NOTE
user is uncertain which one to choose.
7.3.1 TRIAC Method
The TRIAC (Three Azimuth Calculation) Method, an iterative technique, is initialized

with three different starting (or “seeding”) azimuths. The TRIAC Method can produce a
single azimuth solution, or up to three different azimuth solutions. With the TRIAC
Method, the azimuth calculation with the lowest “Error Measure” is written to the InSite
variable named TRIAC Meth Az 1, the one with the next lowest “Error Measure” is
written to the TRIAC Meth Az 2 variable, and the one with the largest “Error Measure” is
written to the TRIAC Meth Az 3 variable.
Figure 7-4: TRIAC Method Azimuths and Error Measures
7.3.1.1 Inclinations < 85° or > 95°
The Ambiguous Survey Notification window typically displays one solution: the azimuth
with the smallest error measure. Multiple solutions are displayed when the two smallest
error measures (i.e., the two best solutions) are within a factor of two of each other. If the
two smallest error measures are equal and their azimuths are different, the two azimuths
are reported.
Figure 7-5: TRIAC Survey Window with Additional Logic
61
7.3.1.2 Inclinations in 85° ≤ Inc < 89° OR 91° < Inc ≤ 95°
In this inclination range, TRIAC applies additional logic depending on the azimuth range.
The following azimuth boundaries used in the logic are not fixed, and therefore may vary.
The logic for inclination boundaries is fixed, so those boundaries do not vary.
Azimuths in the East (45° – 135°) or West (225° – 315°)
The Ambiguous Survey Notification window displays the two TRIAC azimuths with the
smallest error measures. If the two azimuths with the corresponding smallest error
measures are equal and there is a third azimuth different from the first two, then the
common value of the first two (with the smallest error measure) is reported along with the
third azimuth and its error measure.
Figure 7-6: TRIAC Calculations in East or West
Azimuths in the North (315° – 45°) or South (135° – 225°)

The Ambiguous Survey Notification window displays the azimuth with the smallest error
measure. The ambiguous azimuths should only appear when their error measures are
within a factor of five of each other.
Figure 7-7: TRIAC Calculations in North or South
62
7.3.2 Arcsine Method
The short collar solution automatically converts to the Arcsine method when the survey
inclination falls between a range of 89° and 91°. The Arcsine method does not define the
correct quadrant for the azimuth it calculates. Therefore, two azimuths are presented, and
the user must choose which azimuth is the most appropriate based on previous trend
reasonability. The Arcsine method does not have the error measures. In the ambiguous
azimuth case, the real-time survey notification window does not populate the short-collar
solution box and only gives the two azimuths for user selection.
Figure 7-8: Arcsine Method (TRIAC Sections Remain Blank)
Figure 7-9: Arcsine Survey Window
63
7.4 Limitations of the Short Collar Correction
There are limitations to the use of the short collar solution that result from the nature of
the trigonometric functions applied in the calculations when the hole azimuth is at high
inclinations near East or West. The magnitude of the potential azimuth error is dependent
on the dip angle in the area (i.e., the closer to the magnetic poles, the greater the problem),
and the uncorrected azimuth and inclination of the wellbore. Table 7-1 defines, in more
detail, the short collar correction instability zones.
Short Collar Correction (SCC) Instability Zone

Magnetic Azimuth Inclination range SCC instability zone (inclination
for potential range)
instability
East or West > ±19° No instability No restrictions

East or West ±18° 87 - 93° > 70° - monitor reliability
East or West ±15° 80 - 100° > 70° - monitor reliability
East or West ±10° 75 - 105° 80-95° (without enhanced magnetics)
East or West ±5° 72 - 108° 85-95° (with enhanced magnetics)
[based on sin(inc)*sin(az)>0.95]
Table 7-1: Short Collar Correction Instability Zone
West East
Figure 7-10:”No-Go Zone” for Short Collar
The SCC instability zone is based on the Magnetic north. Magnetic azimuth values must be computed
N NOTE to identify the SCC instability zone, as True and Grid north are corrected by declinations and
convergence (Grid) from the magnetic north. (Refer to Section 6.2 for North reference conversions.)
64
7.4.1 Short Collar Surveys On The Fly
Surveys on the fly using short collar corrections are calculated by the directional
instrument downhole. The algorithm used for the calculations is the conventional short
collar corrections (also known as absolute azimuth) instead of TRIAC or Arcsine.
Therefore, the short collar surveys on the fly CANNOT replace the short collar full
surveys calculated by InSite.
7.5 Short Collar Correction Management
Table 7-2 summarizes the possible problems and solutions while acquiring short collar
correction surveys.
65
Problem Description Action

Wellbore is planned to exceed
− The issue will be flagged at the pre-job briefing (including Operator and
70° inclination within 20° Use of a SCC azimuth may be
1 azimuth of magnetic east or restricted or problematic.
Halliburton criteria). However, the engineer should double-check the well plan
proposal listing in the DAP to see if the SCC problem zone is entered.
west
− Select the correct solution by reference to:
The SCC algorithm produces
Survey calculation software  “Error Measure” guidance (INSITE users)
more than one azimuth solution
2 displays two SCC azimuth
and the engineer is required to
solutions  The preceding corrected survey azimuth
select the correct one.
 The expected trend shown by the raw azimuth
− Check that the rate of increase is gradual. (This is normal and it should be
The difference between the raw proportional to the changes in inclination and/or azimuth and should be relatively
3 Correction is increasing and short collar azimuths begins small, typically up to an additional 2°.)
to increase.
Continue using the short collar azimuth.
The size of the difference − Check that the overall trends of both azimuths remain even, with a divergence
4 Correction is erratic between the raw and short collar typical of that in (3). This is a normal response of the SCC.
azimuths begins to fluctuate.
Continue using the short collar azimuth.
The difference between the raw − Convert azimuth values to magnetic north and check that this is the likely cause
and short collar azimuths of the problem.
shows a sudden increase from
the preceding pair of surveys. − Check for “Abnormal Condition in Azimuth Calculation” warning on the pop-up
screen (INSITE users).
The problem zone has probably − Check that the trend of the raw azimuth is consistent with the toolface settings
5 Correction Jumps been entered. used since the previous survey.
− Use the correction of the previous survey station to adjust the raw azimuth for
the current survey.
− Continue using an adjusted raw azimuth as the provisional survey value.

− Contact survey management personnel and send in FULL SURVEY data (all
that are available for the current hole section) for further processing.
On a turning wellbore the short
WARNING: Real-Time correction is imprecise, so corrected data may be subject
collar trend begins to go straight-
to substantial change as more data become available. All field personnel should
ahead, whilst the raw azimuth
SCC azimuth trend differs be prepared for this event.
6 from the raw azimuth trend
continues to turn.
The problem zone has probably

been entered.
Neither SCC azimuth option has
INSITE users – Check for “Ambiguous Survey Notification” pop-up screen, with
good “Error Measure” values
message “No accurate Short Collar solution can be determined due to drill-string
and/or both options result in the
magnetic interference…."
conditions described in (5) or (6).
The problem zone has been INSITE users – Check for “SC convergence” tagged as “BAD” in the survey
entered. dataset listing.
− Assume the corrected azimuth remains in the same quadrant as the preceding
Note: INSITE “Error Measures”
Correct selection from the SCC azimuth. Use an adjusted raw azimuth – described in (5, 6) – as the
will only be produced with the
7 multiple SCC azimuth solution TRIAC solution, i.e. where
provisional survey value for drilling ahead calculations. Where a previous
choice is uncertain survey is not available, use the raw azimuth without adjustment, increase
inclination is either less than 89°
the survey frequency and acquire a minimum of six sets of full survey data
or greater than 91°.
as soon as possible.
− Contact survey management personnel and send in FULL SURVEY data (all
that are available for the current hole section) for further processing.
WARNING: Real-Time correction is imprecise, so corrected data may be subject

to substantial change as more data become available. All field personnel should
be prepared for this event.
Table 7-2: Managing Short Collar Correction
66
Survey Quality Management Directional Surveying Fundamentals
Chapter 8 Survey Quality Management
8.1 When and How to Survey
8.1.1 Survey Station
Surveying can be performed while the drilling process is taking place or after drilling has
been completed. A typical survey station is at the end of every drill pipe joint
(approximately 30 ft). A survey station must be free from drillstring interference unless
corrected by the short collar method. A survey station that is too close to a casing shoe or
local magnetic interference should be avoided.
Minimum survey interval requirements are as follows:
a. Government and local regulations must be met.

b. Planned vertical wells: inclination only survey at least every 500 ft with a
maximum inclination of 10° (wells with inclination over 10° will be considered
deviated.)
c. Planned deviated wells (inclination planned greater than 10°):
i. Dogleg < 5 deg/100 ft: survey every 100 ft
ii. Dogleg > 5 deg/100 ft: survey every 45 ft
8.1.2 How to Take a Survey
At a survey station, the tool can be commanded to transmit the survey to surface. During
the survey sampling/acquisition period, the drillstring must remain stationary to get a
good survey. The survey sampling and acquisition period vary depending on the
directional sensors, busmaster, and survey types. Refer to Section 3.2 for details.
The following window appears when full survey parameters are obtained.
Figure 8-1: Survey Notification Window
67
8.2 Basic Survey Parameters and Formulas
Directional surveys are obtained by measuring the earth’s magnetic field and gravitational
forces, using magnetometers and accelerometers of a directional instrument. Each survey
parameter transmits meaningful data, and therefore can be used to interpret downhole
conditions.
8.2.1 Gx, Gy, Gz (g)
Gx, Gy, and Gz are vectors of the earth’s gravitational force measured by each
accelerometer. The unit of the measurement is g. 1.000 g, and represents the earth’s
gravitational force on the surface. These vectors are used to compute inclination, gravity
toolfaces, and gravity high-side position. The inclination and gravity high side are used as
references in calculating azimuth, and correlation of magnetic vectors with gravity
vectors.
In addition to these three measurements, the accelerometers also provide the axial gravity
vector (Gz), the cross-axial gravity vector, (Gx, Gy) and the total gravitational force
determined by the three accelerometers as a whole (Gtotal).
Figure 8-2: Gx, Gy, and Gz
8.2.2 Goxy (g)
Goxy is the vector sum of cross-axial accelerations derived from Gx and Gy. It represents
the cross-axial acceleration reading which is perpendicular to the drillstring. At 90° of
inclination, the Goxy reading is 1.000 g, whereas in the vertical position, the Goxy
reading is 0.000 g.
Goxy can be calculated using the following equation:
Goxy = �Gx 2 + Gy 2
68
Figure 8-3: Goxy
8.2.3 Gtotal (g)
Gtotal represents the total acceleration exerted to the sensor point. As the earth’s
gravitational force is 1.000 g, the Gtotal values at any stationary position should ideally be
1.000 g. Acceleration readings can be distorted when axial or lateral movement is present
while surveying. An out of limit Gtotal indicates drillstring movement such as drag,
trapped torque, or vibrations.
Gtotal can be calculated using the following equation:
Gt = �Gx 2 + Gy 2 + Gz 2
8.2.4 Inclination
Inclination is the angle, measured in degrees, by which the wellbore or survey instrument
axis varies from a true vertical line. An inclination of 0° is true vertical and an inclination
of 90° is horizontal.
Inclination can be calculated using the following equation:
Goxy
Inclination = tan−1 ( )
Gz
It is possible to calculate inclination from Gz alone, and from Goxy alone. These are also
calculated to perform a trend analysis which allows a decision to be made about the
calibration state of the accelerometers. The trend analysis can also show the motion
induced errors or other instabilities. Refer to Section 8.6.1 for details.
69
Figure 8-4: g Inclination Window in Survey QC Plot
8.2.5 Bx, By, Bz (nT)
Magnetometers in each axis measure vectors of the magnetic field in nano-tesla (nT).
These magnetic vectors provide magnetic toolfaces and magnetic high-side
measurements. Magnetic field readings are used in conjunction with the accelerometer
data to calculate azimuth and dip angle.
In addition to the survey measurements, the magnetometers also provide the axial
magnetic vector (Bz), the cross-axial magnetic vector (Bx, By), and the total magnetic
field strength determined by the three magnetometers as a whole (Btotal).
Figure 8-5: Bx, By, and Bz
70
8.2.6 Boxy (nT)
Boxy is the cross-axial magnetic vector to the drillstring derived from Bx and By. With
sufficient nonmagnetic spacing, the Boxy reading is generally stable. A distorted Boxy
value may indicate a magnetic object such as fish, or other environmental interferences.
Boxy can be calculated using the following equation:
Boxy = �Bx 2 + By 2
Figure 8-6: Boxy
8.2.7 Btotal (nT)
Btotal is the total magnetic field strength of the earth measured by directional instruments.
Comparable to the accelerometers, the Btotal is constant for any given inclinations at
stationary positions, and does not vary with toolface orientation. The Btotal serves as a
magnetic interference indicator. If the directional sensor is properly spaced in
nonmagnetic collars, then the measured Btotal (Btmsd) should be close to theoretical.
Insufficient nonmagnetic spacing shows the calculated Btotal (Btcal) close to the
theoretical value. Any magnetic interference, other than drillstring interference, distorts
both measured and calculated Btotal values.
Btotal can be calculated using the following equation:
Bt = �Bx 2 + By 2 + Bz 2
71
8.2.8 Azimuth (Long Collar Method)
Azimuth (hole direction) is the angle, measured in degrees, of the horizontal component
of the borehole or survey instrument axis from a known north reference. This reference is
true north, magnetic north, or grid north, and is measured clockwise by convention. The
hole direction is measured in degrees and expressed in either azimuth form (0° to 360°) or
quadrant form (NE, SE, NW, SW).
Azimuth can be calculated using the following equation:
−(Bx × sin(HSTF) + By × cos(HSTF))

Azimuth = tan−1 { }
(Bx × cos(HSTF) − By × sin(HSTF)) × cos (Inc) + Bz × sin (Inc)
8.2.9 Dip Angle
Dip angle is the local magnetic field in relationship to horizontal, measured in degrees. All
six sensors are used to calculate dip angle. Variations in dip angle indicate either magnetic
interference or movement during the survey sampling period. If the directional sensor is
properly spaced in nonmagnetic collars, then the measured Dip (DipM) should be close to
theoretical. Insufficient nonmagnetic spacing shows the calculated Dip (DipC) close to the
theoretical value.
Because Dip uses a combination of accelerometer and magnetometer information, it is
sensitive to all six values, and therefore can alert the user to a problem survey.
Dip angle can be calculated using the equation below:
Bx ′ = (Bx × cos(HSTF)) − (By × sin(HSTF))
By ′ = (Bx × sin(HSTF)) + (By × cos(HSTF))
Bx" = (Bx′ × cos(Inc)) + (Bz × sin(Inc))
Bn = �(Bx"2 + By ′ 2 )
Bv = (−Bx′ × sin(Inc)) + (Bz × cos(Inc))
Bv
Dip Angle = tan−1 � �
Bn
Where,
HSTF: High side toolface

Bx’: Magnetic vector in the high side direction
By’: Magnetic vector in the horizontal direction
Bx": Sum of the horizontal components of the Bx’ and Bz vectors
Bn: Horizontal component of the magnetic vector
Bv: Vertical component of the magnetic vector
72
8.3 Survey Quality Control
Each survey must be checked for the quality, as multiple factors can affect the survey
quality (e.g., drillstring movement, magnetic interference, etc.).
8.3.1 Survey Depth
All depth entered in the survey must be the measured depth at the sensor measure point.
At each survey point, the depth measured must be compared to the pipe tally and rig
monitoring system for accuracy. The common depth error sources are:
- Drill pipe used out of order

- Incorrectly measured drill pipe length
- Depth encoder out of calibration
- Drilling line replaced on the draw-works
8.3.2 Detection
Good detection is mandatory to validate the data. It is possible that bad detection can pass
through a parity check and display as normal data. Any questionable readings or
detections should be carefully reviewed.
8.3.3 Inclination and Azimuth
Inclination and azimuth are most likely to reflect the directional control. Consult with a
directional driller (DD) to verify that the results are logical. Try and take the survey again
if the values are questionable.
N NOTE The sensor measure point must pass through the oriented drilling zone to see the result.
8.3.4 Survey QC Limits
Survey QC limits are numbers to check the survey stability. All surveys obtained should
be checked to ensure that the parameters are within the survey QC limits.
Survey QC limits are:
Survey QC Limits
Gtotal Max range of 0.003 g about a mean on 1.000 g ± 0.001
Btotal ± 300 nT of theoretical Btotal computed by MagUTM
Dip angle ± 0.30 degree of theoretical Dip angle computed by MagUTM
Table 8-1: Survey QC Limits
73
Gtotal, Btotal and Dip QC limits are the minimum global standard. Follow the local standard if the area
N NOTE or Joint Operations Rules and Procedures (JORP) require tighter tolerances.
Failure to meet any of the QC limit above disqualifies a survey. This can be caused by a
drillstring movement while sampling the survey, insufficient magnetic spacing, or other
magnetic interferences.
Local survey management or the service coordinator must be contacted if the survey continuously fails
N NOTE to meet the survey QC limits.
Lastly, verify the depth of the survey station and accept the survey.
8.3.4.1 Storing Survey QC Limits
The survey QC limit can be saved in the Tool Parameters window of a directional
instrument. InSite checks the real-time survey and notifies the user when any survey
parameter is out of the specified limit.
The user must set the Limits section in the Tool Parameters window, based on the result
of MagUTM (Section 4.7) and survey QC limits (Section 8.3.4).
Figure 8-7: Limits in the Directional Tool Parameter Window
74
Figure 8-8: Survey Notification Window
8.3.5 Abnormal Condition
If a component of the error measure exceeds the internally set threshold logic, the popup
window displays a warning notice stating that an abnormal condition exists. Typical
causes for the warning might be (any) magnetic interference, a bad tool, a bad tool
calibration, or an unstable BHA condition.
Figure 8-9: Warning Message in Survey Window
8.3.6 Min D (DM only)
Min D serves as a survey stability indicator. The limit of Min D for a DM is 2 or less.
Min D should be observed along with Gtotal to check the drillstring movement while
surveying. Refer to Section 3.2.2 for details.
8.4 Check Shots

A check shot is a survey taken at the same depth on trips into and out of the hole to
compare sensor data. It is a verification of the accuracy of the surveys to ensure that the
directional sensors accurately respond by comparing the survey values at the same depth.
75
8.4.1 When to Perform a Check Shot
A check shot is required on trip in the hole. It is recommended to perform a check shot on
the trip out of the hole at the same depth to confirm that the directional tool is still
operating within specification.
The check shot is not required if a hole section is drilled in one run. However, it is
recommended to perform a check shot on the trip out of hole at the shallowest depth
possible.
8.4.2 Selecting a Check Shot Point
An ideal check shot point meets the following criteria:
• A known survey point from previous run in the hole section

• Dogleg is less than 2 deg/100 ft
• At least 250 ft from previous casing shoe
• At least 60 ft center to center distance from nearest offset well
• Inclination at 7 degree or higher if possible.
8.4.3 Performing a Check Shot
Move the directional sensor point within 3 ft MD of the comparison survey. Take a survey
while the BHA is stationary. Check the survey parameters to ensure they are within the
QC limit. Ensure that the check shot and the comparison survey agrees within the
following limit:
• Inclination ± 0.25 degree

• Azimuth ± 1.5 degree
Local survey management or the service coordinator must be contacted if the check shot
fails.
8.4.4 Rotational Check Shot
The rotational check shot consists of a minimum of four check shots in a minimum of
three different quadrants at the same depth. It is a way to validate the operations and
response of the directional sensor. A rotational check shot can also be used to:
a. Verify a questionable survey or directional sensor

b. Determine the gross errors which are high-side dependent.
N NOTE A bend in the motor or a bent sub can affect the survey readings, especially in high dogleg zones.
The maximum variation allowed between each check shot is:
Inclination: ≤ 0.50°
Azimuth: ≤ 3.0°
76
8.4.5 Bottom Line Check
The bottom line check is the QC of the surveys stored in InSite, especially when the DD
and MWD do not share the same database. At each tour, the MWD and DD engineers are
required to compare their survey calculations to ensure that the information stored is
accurate. The bottom line check includes the following parameters: Depth, Inclination,
Azimuth, TVD, Departure, Latitude, and VS.
8.5 Motion Effects While Surveying
The MWD environment is prone to motion-induced errors. This motion is classified in

three different types:
i. Sliding
ii. Rotation
iii. Vibration
8.5.1 Sliding
The change in position during the sample time has minimal effect on all sensors, except
for the Gz accelerometer. In the case of Gz, it is not the change in position. but the
acceleration that causes the error in measurement. Bz is the most stable measurement
taken, and Gz is usually of similar quality.
However, this presumes that the change in position is minor, and that no significant
changes in inclination or azimuth are experienced over such small distances.
8.5.2 Rotation
The rotation of the sensor introduces an error in the magnitude and direction of the
resulting Goxy and Boxy vector. Rotating motion will change the direction and magnitude
of both gravity and field strength readings while sensors are taking samples. In addition,
the Goxy will have other errors as the rotation induces centripetal forces, which Gx and
Gy will sense, but Bx and By does not.
The effect of error on the Goxy and Boxy vectors, and that of centripetal accelerations on
Goxy is to cause scatter on the azimuth trend. If the centripetal acceleration errors are
significant, there may be some observable effect on the Goxy based inclination trend.
In a deeper hole, the directional sensor can be rotated without drillstring rotation due to
the trapped torque or bucking of the drill pipe. These effects slowly rotate the drillstring
counter-clockwise over time even in a stationary position.
Downhole oscillating tools may apply rotating motion while performing a pumps up or down survey.
N NOTE Work the pipe up and down to release trapped torque on the string before surveying.
77
8.5.3 Vibration
Cross-axial vibrations tend to have similar effects to rotation in terms of the visible
evidence on the trends. It is less likely to have any effect on Boxy, unless the vibrations
are so intensive that it causes a measureable change in attitude of the magnetometers with
respect to the magnetic field.
Cross-axial vibrations induces scatter on the Goxy trend, and on the Goxy inclination
trend. This affects the Gtotal and normal inclination trends.
8.6 Survey QC Plot
The Survey QC plot in InSite is the easiest way to check the surveys and perform a trend
analysis. The Survey QC plot has six windows, which are broken down by the different
survey parameters. It is recommended to use Survey QC plot during the run to review the
survey parameters at a survey station.
8.6.1 How to Use Survey QC Plot
1. Select the Survey QC Plot icon on the Display tab.
Figure 8-10: Survey QC Plot in InSite
78
Figure 8-11: Survey QC Plot
2. Select the Data dialog icon.
Figure 8-12: Data dialog icon
3. Use the dropdowns to select the Well, Run, and Description in the Source tab. Edit
the survey QC limits in Limits tab, based on the survey QC limits.
Figure 8-13: Source and Limits Window
79
The Enabled only checkbox shows the survey accepted. Unchecking the Enabled only checkbox
N NOTE allows the user to see the disabled surveys. Unchecking the Run based checkbox allows the user to
see the surveys of the entire well.
4. Double click on each window to edit the range of the data. The X axis is the depth
range and the Y axis is the range of the survey parameter. Two horizontal dotted lines
represent upper and lower survey QC limits.
Figure 8-14: Gravity Plot Attributes Window
To see the survey QC limit compliance status, define the range close to the QC limit. To see the
N NOTE overall sensor readings, set the Y axis wider. The Full button automatically sets the window to show
the sensors in full range.
Upper and Lower Limits of Upper and Lower Limits of

Gtotal in Gravity Window Btotal in Magnetic 2 Window
Figure 8-15: Upper and Lower Limits of Gtotal and Btotal
80
5. On the Survey QC Plots [Gravity] window, ensure that the Gtotal values are within
limits. If any data point is outside the limits, check and verify the origin of the error.
Upper and Lower Limits of

Gtotal in Gravity Window
Gtotal below the QC Limit
Figure 8-16: Gravity Window
6. Continue QC with the Magnetic2 window and check the Btotal Calculated when
using the Short Collar method. The Btotal measured may not reveal erroneous data,
as axial interference may be constantly presented. The Btotal Calculated outside the
limits indicates cross-axial interference. The Btotal calculated does not use Bz
measured and is not affected by axial interference.
Stable Btotal Calculated
Possible Indication of Casing

Btotal measured indicates axial
interference from Bz measured.
Indication of a different Bit Run
Boxy follows Inclination in S-shape well.
Figure 8-17: Magnetic2 Window
81
7. Check the Magnetic1 window. This window shows the axial interference, cross-axial
interference, and run (BHA) change, by comparing Bz and Bz calculated, and Boxy
trend.
Figure 8-18: Magnetic1 Window
8. InSite calculates inclination using three formulas, which are: using all three vectors,
Goxy, and Gz. The results are presented in the Inclination window. Inclination Goxy
solutions are very close or identical to the solutions from Inclination at low inclination
close to 0o. Inclination Gz solutions are very close or identical with the solutions from
Inclination at high inclination, close to 90°.
Figure 8-19: Inclination Window
82
9. The Azimuth window shows the hole direction and survey errors due to interference
and calculation errors when in the “No-Go zone.”
Short Collar Azimuth Errors
Long Collar Azimuth is Offset

due to Axial Interference
Figure 8-20: Azimuth Window
10. The Dip window allows the user to see that the Dip calculated is within or outside
limits, as well as the Dip measured.
Figure 8-21: Dip Window
The application of the Survey QC plot is not limited to the material covered in this section. Use the
N NOTE overall trend, survey QC limits, and environmental factors to QC the surveys. Ask the local survey
management group if any survey is in question.
83
Anti-Collision Directional Surveying Fundamentals
Chapter 9 Anti-Collision
Anti-Collision is the method of avoiding a collision with an existing wellbore. Collision to

producing and/or injection wells can have serious safety and environmental consequences
which need to be avoided at all cost. The purpose of this chapter is to ensure all
Operations personnel have a basic understanding of the principles, as well as the rules and
processes of avoiding a well collision.
9.1 Collision Indicators
The following symptoms may indicate a well collision:
i. Rough, erratic or high torque drilling, especially where drilling is typically

smooth
ii. Sudden loss of circulation, or other well control event
iii. A sudden change in ROP, especially when field conditions are well-known.
iv. Magnetic interference indicated by MWD survey instruments
9.2 Ellipse of Uncertainty (EOU)
Ellipse of uncertainty represents the uncertainty of the actual location of the wellbore due
to measurement errors. Factors affecting ellipse of uncertainty are:
• Surface location errors

• Instrument calibration errors
• Instrument misalignment errors
• Borehole misalignment errors
• Depth measurement errors
- Measuring the drill pipe at surface
- Stretch of the drill pipe in the hole due to its weight and others
• Environmental errors
Figure 9-1: Ellipse of Uncertainty
84
9.2.1 Ellipsoid of Uncertainty
A directional survey is a measurement in three dimensions; it is subject to measurement

uncertainties in all three dimensions, which results in a volume of uncertainty. For any
given point along the survey, this volume takes the form of an ellipsoid.
Figure 9-2: Ellipsoid of Uncertainty
9.3 Clearance Factor (CF)
The clearance factor is used to define the separation between two wellbores: the current
and the adjacent well. It is a mathematical concept that presumes that the closest distance
between the surfaces of two ellipsoids of uncertainty can be determined by ordinary
calculus. The clearance factor is a dimensionless number that can be used to determine the
probability of a collision between two adjoining wells.
Calculation of Clearance factor is:
Distance between centers

CF =
Distance between centers − Distance between ellipsoids + Combined casing & Hole Radii
85
Figure 9-3: Clearance Factor
The clearance factor of 1 represents that two ellipsoids are touching each other. Safe
drilling requires the clearance factor greater than 2. Wells are considered too close when
the CF is between 1 and 2. A clearance factor less than 1 denotes the ellipsoid of two
wells are on a collision course, indicating extremely high risk of a well collision.
When drilling is commenced with the clearance factor of less than 2, the HMS work
method document WM-GL-HAL-SD-AC400 located at the link below must be followed.
http://halworld.corp.halliburton.com/internal/hms/sperry/pubsdata/WM-GL-HAL-SD-
AC400.pdf
Figure 9-4: Clearance Factor is Greater than 1
86
Figure 9-5: Clearance Factor Equals 1
Figure 9-6: Clearance Factor Less than 1
87
SAG Correction Directional Surveying Fundamentals
Chapter 10 SAG Correction
10.1 SAG Correction Software
Sag is the error in inclination measurements caused by the flexing of the BHA when
resting in an inclined wellbore. The BHAs used in directional drilling are designed to be
flexible enough to drill round curves. Inevitably, this leads to deflections in the BHA
centreline, which is unlikely to remain parallel to the wellbore. As a result, the inclination
observed may need to be corrected for the misalignment between the MWD sensor and
the wellbore centreline.
Sperry’s MaxBHA™ drilling optimization software models SAG with greater accuracy
than conventional methods, which allows the precise correction of the survey tool
inclination to a value that is parallel to the wellbore axis. This is often the most important
correction required for high-angle drilling accuracy for accurate TVD placement. The drill
collar bending direction may also depend on toolfaces, since the kick pad at the bend of
the motor may operate as a pivot point.
Figure 10-1: SAG Correction
Generally, Sag will be minimal at low inclinations, due mainly to the gravity. However,
the magnitude of sag is likely to increase as the inclination of BHA approaches 90°.
Table 10-1 shows a typical Sag sheet with corrections over a range of inclinations.
88
Sag Sheet
Sensor Position = 55.43 ft
Inclination SAG Inclination SAG
0° 0° 60° 0.177°
5° 0.018° 65° 0.186°
10° 0.036° 70° 0.193°
15° 0.053° 75° 0.198°
20° 0.070° 80° 0.202°
25° 0.087° 85° 0.201°
30° 0.102° 90° 0.201°
35° 0.118° 95° 0.201°
40° 0.132° 100° 0.202°
45° 0.145° 105° 0.198°
50° 0.157° 110° 0.193°
55° 0.168° 115° 0.186°
60° 0.177° 120° 0.177°
5
Table 10-1: Example of Sag at Various Inclinations
N NOTE Table 10-1 is an example. The actual correction values may vary.
Take care when using bent housings in the BHA since the sag correction will then be
toolface dependent. In such cases, calculate the sag onsite using software that includes
the bend in the finite element analysis when applied at any toolface.
10.1.1 When to use SAG Correction
It is recommended to run Sag correction in all runs, especially when the inclination is
planned to exceed 45° at any point. The benefits of the Sag correction include:
• Increases survey accuracy

• Increases hole position calculation accuracy
• Reduces the size of ellipse of uncertainty
Using the rule that 1° of angle produces 2% of distance as an error in position, even a
small inclination error such as 0.25° will produce 0.5% of step out as an error in TVD.
For example, if the step out to a reservoir entry point was 3,000 ft, the TVD error would
be ± 15 ft due to the 0.25° of sag.
In the analysis of misplaced wells identified by poor production or a poor match with
expected geological formation depths, the lack of sag correction is the most common
cause. The cost of carrying out sag correction is far outweighed by its benefits in terms of
well positioning, particularly at the entry point to the reservoir.
5
89
The SAG Correction user guide is located under the Documents tab in InSite.
Figure 10-2: SAG Correction User Guide Located in InSite
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Magnetic Interferences and Corrections Directional Surveying Fundamentals
Chapter 11 Magnetic Interferences and Corrections
11.1 Magnetic Interferences
11.1.1 Secular Variations
The magnetic north and south are slowly and continuously changing. Its vector angle is
constantly changing as well. The changes in the earth’s magnetic field on a time scale of 1
year or more is called secular variation. The observations of declination made in London
over the years constitute one of the best records of secular variation.
6
Figure 11-1: Magnetic Pole Changes from 1831 to 2011
The British Geological Society (BGS) maintains magnetic observatories in different

locations around the world, and periodically derives magnetic models of the earth’s
magnetic field. The BGS Global Geomagnetic Model (BGGM) is produced specifically
for the oil industry to assist in directional drilling. The BGGM model revised annually is
used in MagUTM for secular variation corrections.
11.1.2 Crustal Variations
Crustal variations are local variations in the magnetic field of the earth caused by the
uneven distribution of magnetic minerals in the rocks that make up the upper part of the
earth’s crust.
6
91
The crustal variations can be determined by an aeromagnetic survey. An aircraft carrying

a magnetometer flies above the ground to map the magnetic strength of the surface,
typically 300 m above the ground level.
11.1.3 Diurnal (Daily) Variation
The magnetic field has a regular small variation with a fundamental period of 24 hours,
similar to a sine wave. This variation is easiest to observe during periods of low solar
activity when large irregular disturbances are less frequent. Diurnal variation has smaller
effects on survey accuracy than other variations, but it may need a correction in high
latitude zones.
7
Figure 11-2: Diurnal field variation
11.1.4 Other Magnetic Interferences
Solar Storm
The magnetic field of the earth also exhibits irregular disturbances. When these
disturbances are large they are called magnetic storms. These disturbances are caused by
interaction of the solar wind with the earth’s magnetic field.
Magnetic Mud
Ferrous materials in drilling fluid have a tendency to attenuate the magnetic field
measured by the sensors. Drilling fluid can be magnetized if:
• Drilling fluid can be contaminated with magnetic particles from the drillstring
• Magnetic materials are used to increase the weight of the drilling fluid
7
92
11.2 Corrections for Magnetic Interferences
11.2.1 In-Field Referencing (IFR or IFR 1)
IFR is a technique used to reduce the uncertainty of magnetic surveys by applying the
secular and crustal variations as the corrections. IFR uses BGGM models in conjunction
with the aeromagnetic map. For example, the field strength is estimated by the equation
below:
IFR field strength = BGGM Field Strength + Crustal Correction by Aeromagnetic Map
Figure 11-3: Corrections using Aeromagnetic Maps
11.2.2 Interpolated In-Field Referencing (IIFR or IFR2)
A joint research between Sperry Drilling and the British Geological Survey has revealed
that the time-based magnetic interferences, such as diurnal variations have similar trends,
regardless the distance of two different observatories. This allowed the drilling contractors
to develop a correction for diurnal variations called IIFR. It is required to use IIFR in high
latitude zones where the diurnal variation is significant.
93
Figure 11-4: IIFR Compared to Sensor Reading
IIFR is now used in conjunction with other magnetic survey correction methods to
provide advanced survey corrections. IIFR corrections include:
• Secular variations
• Crustal variations
• Diurnal variations
• Dynamic variation in magnetic field (Solar storms)
• Other environmental errors
11.3 Multi-Station Analysis (MSA)
Processing a series of surveys allows the survey management specialist to increase survey
accuracy by estimating the magnitude of axial and cross-axial biases, cross-axial scale
factor influences, and interference on magnetic measurements. It also helps improve
accuracy through the characterization of the specific sensors in use and provides
additional quality assurance checks on the tool performance. Survey correction can be
performed on a real-time basis or after the well is drilled to TD. The Sperry Drilling
Multi-Station Analysis Software suite includes the advanced diagnostic software tools:
Cazandra® and ICARUS™.
Multi-station Analysis (MSA) is a complex calculation process to estimate the moving

average between raw azimuth calculation and the actual hole direction. It requires total of
twelve (12) surveys for analysis. The surveys must be taken at three depth intervals,
moving down to the bottom of the well. Each depth interval should have four surveys with
toolfaces pointing toward four different quadrants. With every additional survey the
accuracy of the MSA increases.
94
11.3.1 ICARUS™
This analysis is a set of surveys retrieved from a single BHA configuration, used to model
the performance of each accelerometer in an MWD tool. From the analysis, the
corrections for accelerometer biases and scale factors can be determined and applied.
11.3.2 Cazandra®
Cazandra® is an Analysis of a set of surveys retrieved from a single BHA configuration,

used to model the performance of each magnetometer in an MWD tool. From this analysis
corrections for magnetometer biases, scale factors, and misalignment can be determined
and applied.
The accuracy of the magnetic field and variation in highside toolface is critical to proper
assessment of corrections.
Cazandra® provides azimuth corrections caused by:
– Motors and magnetic BHA components

– Short collar correction errors drilling magnetic east/west
– Sensor limitations/failures
– Fluids with magnetic properties
11.4 Survey Management Services
Survey Management Service improves wellbore placement with the use of multi-station
analysis, in-field reference, and Interpolated In-Field Reference services. The service
improves directional control by placing directional sensors closer to bit, detects and
corrects for operating conditions outside specifications, often eliminating trips. Additional
survey quality analysis control with real-time magnetic data updates received from BGS
reduces the need for additional surveys as well as additional runs for tool validation,
mitigates the risks associated with high inclination wells close to magnetic east and west,
measures and corrects for effects of magnetic storms, corrects for magnetic influences of
metallic particles in the drilling fluid.
The geology near the wellbore has a direct effect on the measured magnetic field. This
effect can result in significant error in wellbore placement. IFR is a measurement of and
correction for magnetic effects of geological features. The Sperry Drilling IFR Service
software adjusts for crustal influences using a magnetic survey around the wellsite. The
British Geological Survey processes this data to provide accurate reference information
accounting for these localized variations.
Real‐time operations are monitored by a survey analyst to provide real‐time corrections

from to the MWD personnel on the drilling rig. After each survey is taken, the MWD
engineer transmits raw survey data to the survey analyst for correction. This is done by
using the InSite Data Exchange program or sending the data via email.
Once a survey is pumped up on location, the MWD engineer performs a QC check against
the survey data qualifiers (Total Field, Dip Angle, and Gravity) to ensure the survey meets
the field acceptance criteria prior to transmitting it to the survey analyst for correction.
The raw survey data is transmitted to the survey analyst over Data Exchange (preferred)
or via email. This data includes: run, date/time, measured depth, data from accelerometers
95
and magnetometers of all axis, raw inclination, MWD short collar azimuth (if applicable),
MWD long collar azimuth (if applicable), and Azimuth type.
Once survey data is received by the survey analyst, the IFR and MSA corrections are
performed and the corrected azimuth is sent via email to the MWD engineer on location,
and the correction is entered into the surface computer. The corrected survey data is sent
to the rig site, which includes: run #, date/time, measured depth, and corrected azimuth.
The MWD engineer than enters the corrected survey data into the corrected survey
recorded in the MWD surface computer.
All corrected survey data is quality checked, once a day, between the survey analyst and
the MWD and DD on location. This ensures data integrity and that no errors occurred in
recording the data on the rig site or in the ROC.
An LAS export file of the definitive survey data is sent via email to Survey ROC once a
day. This data includes well profile including MD, inclination, azimuth, TVD, departure,
latitude, and vertical section.
The Sperry ROC performs a comparison of the MWD and DD definitive survey data
versus the Survey ROC corrected data. This ensures that all data has been recorded
correctly and the bottom line matches.
If discrepancies exist, report them immediately to the MWD and DD at the rig site. If the
discrepancy is significant, drilling ceases until the issue is resolved, the well position
verified, and an anti-collision scan is performed.
Figure 11-5: IIFR Correction Sequence Map
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11.4.1 Instrument Performance Models (IPM’s)
Instrument performance models (IPMs) are a list of coefficients used to quantify the errors
associated with a survey tool. The IPM selected, length of a wellbore, and the direction
the wellbore is drilled are all used to calculate the size of an Ellipse of Uncertainty (EOU).
The EOU represents the uncertainty of the actual location of the wellbore.
Any additional survey correction method greatly improves the survey accuracy.
Figure 11-5 shows that the size of the ellipse of uncertainty (EOU) decreased as
more advanced survey correction techniques are applied.
Figure 11-6: Ellipse of Uncertainty (EOU) Size Comparison
Figure 11-7: Survey Corrections Reducing Survey Calculations Error
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Standard IPM models include:
• MWD
• MWD + SC
• MWD + IFR1
• MWD + IFR1+ MS + SAG
• MWD + IFR2 + MS + SAG
• MWD + SAG1, SAG2, SAG3
• Any combination of the above
This completes the Directional Surveying Fundamentals manual
98

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Directional Surveying

© 2014 Halliburton. All rights reserved.

Principal Contributing Authors

Houston Training Center Alexander Airapetov Matthew Chong

Matthew Chong Alexander Airapetov

Jamieson, A. (2012). Introduction to Wellbore Positioning (V18.9.13)

WM-GL-HAL-SD-SM401: Directional Surveying Requirements

4.7.1 Collecting Geographical Information ..................................................................33

8.2.8 Azimuth (Long Collar Method) ............................................................................72

Figure 4-20: Hole Position Section .............................................................................................................. 39

Figure 8-12: Data dialog icon ...................................................................................................................... 79

Chapter 1 Introduction to Directional Surveying

1.1 Why is Directional Surveying so Important?

Directional surveys are required to:

1.2 Survey Management Flowchart

Acquire Geographical Information

Run MagUTM (Chapter 4)

Convert Target Azimuth Reference to

Is Short Collar Correction Needed?

Run Nonmagnetic Spacing Is Target Magnetic Azimuth in SCC

Contact Survey Management

Set Up for SAG Correction

Monitor RT Surveys and Survey QC

Monitor Magnetic Interference Anti-Collision Awareness (Chapter 9) Drillstring Motions

Chapter 2 Basics of Directional Surveying

2.1 What is Directional Surveying?

Directional surveying is a method used to obtain the measurements required to calculate

The basic measurements determine:

Figure 2-1: Directional Survey Report

2.2 Survey Terminology

A directional surveying professional speaks the language of directional surveying by

2.2.1 Measured Depth (MD)

Figure 2-2: Measured Depth

2.2.2 Survey Station

Figure 2-3: Survey station

Figure 2-4: Inclination

2.2.4 Hole Direction (Azimuth)

Figure 2-5: Inclination and Azimuth

2.2.5 True Vertical Depth (TVD)

Figure 2-6: True Vertical Depth

2.2.6 Latitude (N/S Departure)

2.2.7 Departure (E/W Departure)

Figure 2-7: Latitude and Departure

Closure (Horizontal Displacement)

Figure 2-8: Closure

2.2.9 Closure Direction

Figure 2-9: Closure Direction

2.2.10 Vertical Section (VS)

Figure 2-10: Calculate Vertical Section to Closure Checkbox

Figure 2-11: Vertical Section

Figure 2-12: Dogleg and Dogleg Severity

2.3 Directional Surveying

2.3.1 Surveying While Drilling

Figure 2-13: Surveying While Drilling (MWD Tool)

2.3.2 Gyroscopic Sensors

Gyroscopic sensors can be classified into three categories:

• Determine the present position of the bottom of the hole

Chapter 3 Directional Instruments

3.1 Directional Sensors

Directional tools contain three orthogonal axes of quartz-hinged accelerometers (Gx, Gy

Figure 3-1: Quartz Hinged Accelerometer

An alternating current is continually saturated and unsaturated by each Mu-metal rod in

Figure 3-2: Fluxgate Magnetometer

Figure 3-3: Accelerometer and Magnetometer Arrangement in a Directional Tool