Plane Survey

Course outline
1. Definition of terms
2. Units of Angular Measurements
3. Chain Surveying
4. Areas and Volumes
5. Contour Surveying
6. Levelling
7. Compass Surveying
8. Theodolite Traversing
9. Coordinates System
10. Tacheometry
References:
1. Problems and Solutions for Mine
Surveyors [Chamber of Mines of
South Africa]
2. Surveying for Mine Surveyors
[ Chamber of Mines of South Africa]
3. Solving Problems in Surveying [ A
Bannister and Raymond Baker]
4. Surveying [A Bannister and
Raymond Baker]
5. Surveying Principles and
Applications [ B.F.Kavanagh and S.J
Bird]
6. Engineering Surveying [ W.
Schofield]
1. Definitions

Surveying
Surveying is the art and science of making field
measurements on or near the surface of the earth
and the presentation of this information either
graphically or numerically. The information can
either be presented on a plan or a map.

Survey field measurements include:

– Horizontal and slope distances

– Vertical distances (heights)
– Horizontal and vertical angles

The above can be considered as raw data and

upon computations this can then be transformed
into co-ordinates. In addition to taking
measurements in the field the surveyor can derive
related distances and directions through geometric
and trigonometric analysis.
Basic Divisions [2]
Plane Surveying
Geodetic Surveying

1. Plane surveying
The vast majority of engineering and construction
projects are so limited ingeographic size (small
areas) that the surface of the earth can be
considered tobe a plane for all Y and X
dimensions. Surveys that ignore the surface of the
Earth are known as Plane surveys.

2. Geodetic surveying
Surveys that cover large geographic areas, for
example provincial boundary surveys, must have
corrections made to the field measurements so
that they willreflect the curved (ellipsoidal) shape
of the earth’s surface. Such surveys are called
Geodetic surveys.

Gravity
This is the force that keeps the earth in
equilibrium (balance), and for our purpose, we
assume that the force of gravity is towards the
centre of the earth.
A suspended plumbline will, therefore, point
towards the centre of the earth and will be
vertical at the place of suspension.

(A plumb-bob or a plummet is a weight with a pointed tip on

the bottom that is suspended from a string and used as a
vertical reference line.)

Vertical plane
A Vertical Plane is one that contains the plumb-
line

Horizontal Plane
This is the plane lying at right angles to the
plumb line, i.e. tangentially to the earth’s surface.
Horizontal planes at different places around the
globe are therefore not parallel.

Mean Sea Level

Mean Sea Level (M.S.L.) is the mean level of the
sea on the surface of the earth. At any point it is
horizontal, but its surface is not a plane. A
Horizontal plane will be tangential to the M.S.L.
of the earth at the point of contact only.

Datum
Datum (or Reference Surface). The elevation (or
level) of any point is expressed as the vertical
distance of the point, above or below a definite
datum. This datum is an imaginary level surface
whose constant elevation is assumed to be
zero. The most commonly used datum is mean
sea level.

Horizontal and vertical

Measurement
All measurements made in surveying are resolved
into two planes i.e. horizontal and vertical planes.

Surveying is carried out by the following four

methods of measurement:

1. Horizontal Distances (e.g. using tape, stadia

distance, EDM etc)

2. Horizontal Angles (e.g. using a Theodolite, Total

station)

3. Vertical Distances (e.g. using a Dumpy,

Automatic, Digital level)

4. Vertical Angles (e.g. using a Theodolite, Total

station)
Measurement of horizontal and vertical angles is
made only in their own respective planes.
Distances can be measured in any plane, but are
always resolved into thehorizontal and vertical
components by means of vertical angular
measurementsand trigonometrical ratios.

On nearly every type of map, distances

betweenpoints on the surface of the earth are
plotted as horizontal distances.

Reduced Level
The Reduced Level of a point is its height above
or below the particular datum adopted. Any
suitable datum may be selected for a particular
survey.

Bench Mark
A Bench Mark (B.M.) is a fixed point of known
height, from which the level of other points
may be established.

Levelling
Levelling may be defined as the operation of
determining the differences in height of points
on the surface of the earth.
Branches or Types of
Surveying

1. Engineering Surveying
These are surveys preparatory to, or in
conjunction with the construction or
formation of engineering works such as
roads, railways, dams, tunnels and
sewerage works and construction works
generally including the calculation and
placing of pegs in the fields.

EXAMPLES

• Transmission line route locations

• Route location
• Deformation monitoring
• Mining and precise alignment surveys
• Bridges and plant site layout
• Volume calculations
2. Mine Surveying:
The objective in this type of surveys is to
determine the extent of existing work, to keep
the relationships between surface and
underground work correct, and to
determine which way work must proceed in
order to reach any other point i.e. ore body.

Importance of Mine Survey

1. For legal Aspects such as

plans
2. To direct mining operations
( pegs, grades in
developments )
3. For geological requirements
i.e. location of faults
3. Hydrographic Surveying:

These surveys deal with surveys for the

determination of water areas, volumes, rate of
flow and the form and characteristics of
underwater surfaces, in connection with
rivers, harbours, lakes and along coast lines.
Civil engineering works connected with water
supply, irrigation, flood control and river works
generally, also involve the practice of
hydrographical surveying. It also includes the
determination of mean sea level.

Examples:

• Sub-sea pipeline and cable route locations

• River cross-sections
• Coastal bathymetry (study of ocean/lake
floors)
• Marine development

4. Topographical Surveying:
This branch is concerned with the location
and representation (by plan or map) of the
main natural and artificial features of the
earth's surface including hills, valleys, lakes,
rivers, villages, buildings, roads, railways,
power lines etc.

Examples:
•Land development planning and
construction
• Regional/urban planning
• Pipeline and utility design
• Highway/Geometric design

5. Cadastral Surveying:
These are surveys which, are carried out by
Registered Land Surveyors, and involve the
measurement of land for the preparation of
plans and diagrams, drawn to scale,
showing and defining legal Property
boundaries in order that ownership may be
registered in the Deeds Office. It is illegal for
anyone, other than a Registered Land
Surveyor to undertake or attempt to
undertake Cadastral Surveys.

• Subdivision land
• Land registration and titling
• Mining claims
• Cadastral map compilation
6. Quantity Surveying

7. Photogrammetry
Made to gather data to produce a topographic map
showing the configuration of the terrain and the
location of natural and man-madeobjects.

8.Geograpphical Information System

[GIS]

Survey Methods
To complete any Survey work, the following
methods are used:

Reconnaissance
Resection
Traversing
Intersection
Trilateration
Offset
Triangulation.

NB. Make brief notes on each of the method

The Fundamental Principle Used

in Surveying

It is defined as “the working from whole to

part”,. It is the method used to establish a
system of control points using the basic
principles/methods i.e. traversing and
triangulation etc. The main framework of the
survey should be set out on as large scale as
possible and should involve a minimum
number of measurements to reduce the
impact of errors. The position of these points
are fixed with fairly high standard of accuracy
but between the control points work may be
done by less accuracy and consequently less
expensive methods. The principle of this idea
is to prevent the accumulation of errors.
Attributes/Qualities of a
Surveyor
• He must have a thorough theoretical and
practical knowledge of his work. [Mathematical
background]

• He must be honest and trustworthy and his

judgement must be good

• He must have the outlook of a scientist and

accept no result as correct until confirmed,
preferably by an independent check, and only
satisfied when his work is absolutely complete.
[ Accuracy]
• He must have initiative, think clearly and
reason without prejudice, tackling each job
with energy and perseverance. [Speed]
 Neatness
 Duties of a Mine surveyor

1.Decision Making – selecting method,

equipment and final point locations.

2.Fieldwork & Data Collection – making

measurements and recording data in the
field.

3.Computing & Data Processing – preparing

calculations based upon the recorded data to
determine locations in a useable form.

4.Mapping or Data Representation – plotting

data to produce a map, plan, or chart in the
proper form.

5. Stakeout – locating and establishing

monuments or stakes in the proper locations
in the field.

Theory of Measurement Errors in

Observations
Errors in Measurement
  No Measurement is Exact
 Every Measurement Contain
Errors
 The “True” Value of a
Measurement is Never Known
 The “Exact” Error Present is
Always Unknown

Types of Errors
Mistakes
Systematic
Random

1. Mistakes or Blunders
Caused by:
Carelessness
Poor Judgment
 Incompetence.

Source of Example
error
Natural 1.Tape contracts and expands due
to temperature changes
2.Environmental conditions: wind,
temperature, humidity etc.
Instrumental 1.Theodolite out of adjustment
2.Kinked or damaged Tape
Personal Limits of Human Performance
Factors:
1.Sight
2.Strength
3.Judgement
4.Communication

2. Systematic/Cumulative
Errors that occur each time a
measurement is made.

These Errors can be eliminated by

making corrections to your
measurements.
 1. Tape is too long or too short
2. Theodolite is out of adjustment

3. Random Errors
Errors that remain after removing gross
and systematic errors.
Characteristics
1. Small errors occur more frequently
than larger ones
2. Positive and negative errors of the
same magnitude occur with equal
frequency
3. Large errors are probably mistakes/
large errors seldomly occur

Precision - The “Closeness” of one

measurement to another.
Accuracy - The degree of perfection
Obtained in a measurement.
Exercise

1. What is surveying? [3]

2. What are the requirements of a
good surveyor [5]
3. Write brief notes on the following
blunders, Systematic and Random
errors.
4. Explain the following types of
survey in short, topographical, mine
survey, Cadastral and Geodetic
5. With the aid of a diagram, state
and explain the fundamental
principle used in surveying
Basic Trigonometry for Survey

Pythagorean Theorem

Attributed to and named for the Greek

philosopher and mathematicianPythagoras.
PythagoreanTheorem states:
In a right angled triangle, the square of the
hypotenuse is equal to the sum of thesquares of
the other two sides.

C
A

C2 = A 2 + B 2

Where: C is the hypotenuse (side opposite the

rightangle).Aand B are the remaining sides.

Solve for A, B and C

Exercise

Using one of the forms of the Pythagorean Theorem

solve for the unknown side in each triangle.

Side A Side B Side C

1 3 4
2 12 13
3 40 96
4 3.5 8.4
5 2.1 2.9

Be able to use the Sine and Cosine Rule.

2. Units of Angular Measurement

The most common angular units being employed in the
United States is the Sexagesimal System. This system
uses angular notation in increments of 60 by dividing
the circle into 360 degrees; degrees into 60 minutes;
and minutes into 60 seconds. Each unit has a
corresponding symbol: degrees are indicated
by°;minutes by ‘ and seconds by “

Therefore:
1 circle = 360°= 21,600’= 1,296,000”
1°= 60’= 3600”
1́= 60”
Usually angles are expressed in Degrees, Minutes, and
Seconds as applicable, but can be expressed in any
combination. For example,35.37°2122.2’127332”, and
35°22’12”all represent thesame magnitude of angle.
However, in the last form, which is the preferred
notation, notice that minutes and seconds equal to or
greater than 60 are carried over to the next larger unit
and that degrees and minutes do not have decimals.
Decimal seconds are acceptable.

For performing certain mathematical operations with

angles, it is sometimes easier to convert to decimal
degrees first, perform the necessarymath, then convert
back to degrees, minutes, and seconds.

The primary unit of angular measurement in the metric

system is the radian. A radian is defined as the angle
between radius lines from either end of an arc of
radius length.

The circumference of a circle is twice the radius length

times π , or C = 2πr. Therefore, 1 circle = 2πradians.

Since 1 circle = 360°= 2πrad.,then 1 rad. =

360°/2π=57.29578...°
The use of radians and the value of 57.29578°will
bementioned againwhen dealing with circular and
spiral curves. Another unit is the grad or gon. A grad is
defined as 1/400 of a circle.The grad is widely used in
much of the world as part of the metric system, even
though the radian is the primary unit.

3. Chain Surveying
History of Chaining

The Egyptians were one of the first known people to

use some form of chaining in both land surveying and
construction surveying. On a wall in the tomb of
Thebes and carved on a stone coffin are drawings of
rope stretchers measuring a field of grain.
English mathematician Edmund Gunter (1581-1626)
gave to the world the measuring device called the
Gunter’s chain. Edmund also gave us the acre which is
10 square chains.

The Gunter’s chain is 1/80th of a mile or 66 feet long.

It is composed of 100 links, with a link being 0.66 feet
or 7.92 inches long. Each link is a steel rod bent into a
tight loop on each end and connected to the next link
with a small steel ring.

A Chain
Starting in the early 1900’s surveyors started using
steel tapes to measure distances. These devices are
still called “chains” to this day. The terms “chaining”
and “chainman” are also legacies from the era of the
Gunter’s chain.

Procedures for Chaining/Taping

It must be remembered in surveying, that under most

circumstances, all distances are presumed to be
horizontal distances and not surface distances.
This dictates that every field measurement taken be
either measured horizontally or, if not, reduced to a
horizontal distance mathematically.
In many instances, it is easiest to simply measure the
horizontal distance by keeping both ends of the
chain/tape at the same elevation. This is notdifficult if
there is less than five feet or so of elevation change
between points.

A hand level is very helpful for maintaining the

horizontal position of the chain/tape when “level
chaining.”

A pointed weight on the end of a string called a “plumb

bob” is used to carry the location of the point on the
ground up to the elevated chain by simply suspending
the plumb bob from the chain such that the point of
the plumb bob hangs directly above the point on the
ground. When the difference in elevation along the
measurement becomes too great for level chaining,
other methods are called for.

One option, “breakchaining”, involves simply breaking

the measurement into two or more measurements
that can be chained level. This works well for
measurements along a gentle slope where a
reasonable distance can be measured between break
chaining points

The most frequently used method is “slope chaining”,

where the distance along the slope is measured, slope
rate is determined, and the horizontal distance
calculated.

Slope rate angles are measured as Vertical Angles (+/-

from horizontal)

When the vertical angle (v) is used, the horizontal

distance (HD) is calculated by multiplying the slope
distance (SD) by the cosine of the vertical angle.

This is the solution of a right angled triangle for the

side adjacent(horizontal distance) with the hypotenuse
(slope distance) known. From basic trigonometry, we
know that:

Cosine(v) = Adjacent Side / Hypotenuse

Substituting the observed measurements , we have;

cos(v) = HD / SD

Solving for HD by multiplying both sides of the

equation by SD, we get;

HD = SD.cos(v)

If the zenith angle (z) is measured rather than the

vertical angle, the calculations are nearly identical.
The only variation is that the zenith angle is the
complimentary angle of the vertical angle, so the sine
function must be used.

The formula is becomes;

HD = SD.sin(z)

Taping
All points are located by measured distances. This
method is only suitable on small areas on open ground.

Advantages of using a Chain

It is robust, easily read and easy to repair in the field
when broken, cheaper than steel tapes.

Disadvantages
It tends to vary in length
Tends to wear on metal surfaces
Tends to bend
It’s heavy

Synthetic Tape
It is made up of fibre glass and has a PVC coating. They
have good length keeping properties but are mainly
used for short distances.

Steel Tapes
Because of its tensile strength and the tendency to
obey the laws of physics it is the most accurate. It may
be coated with PVC or can be plain

Disadvantages
1. Easily broken when kinked or bend
2. Cannot be repaired in the field when broken
3. Expensive than a chain.

Care and Maintenance of tapes

1. Dust is the biggest single trouble; hence all tapes
must be cleaned and wiped.
2. Steel tapes may be oiled to prevent rust
3. In the field avoid kinking and do not drag the tape
4. Do not allow vehicles to run over the tape
5. Never use metal polish on your steel tape, it
removes graduations and affects the mass of the
tape.

Tape Corrections
 1. A tape which is too long measures less.
So add the allowance
2. A tape which too short (has shrunk)
measures more so subtract the
allowance.

Tape correction is the application of a formula to tape

measurements in surveying to smooth out errors and
yield accurate results. Manufacturers of survey tapes
design durable products and test them extensively, but
in the field, conditions are not controlled, and a
number of problems can create errors. When a high
degree of accuracy is critical for a project, it is
necessary to apply tape correction formulas to correct
these issues and return accurate survey results. These
are noted in the documentation that accompanies the
survey for the benefit of anyone who wishes to review
the results.

A certain amount of tension must be maintained on

survey tapes while in use, and they can sag, if they are
not supported in the middle, reading long; a length of
tape 10 units long might, with sag, generate a reading
of 10 units when the distance is really 9.8 units, for
example temperature, slope, and other conditions on a
site can also impact the accuracy of survey tape.
Manufacturers test their products and develop
certificates with information about the errors and
tolerances for ease of tape correction.

In tape correction, the surveyor takes the

measurements, notes the conditions, and then corrects
for any errors that may be present. This can be done by
subtracting or adding to the measured distance to yield
a correct result. Tape correction is also necessary when
tapes are spliced or repaired, as these activities can
change the length of the tape and create problems
with measurements. The surveyor may confirm results
with other measuring instruments to make sure the
finished survey is complete.

The following are the corrections that are to be

applied to measured distances.

1. Standardisation
2. Temperature correction
3. Tension or pull correction
4. Sag correction
5. Slope correction
6. Mean Sea Level [MSL] correction
7. Curvature and Refraction.
In all cases, correct for standardisation and slope.
For relative accuracy, correct for tension, temperature
and sag.
For special cases, accuracy of 1 in 50 000, correct for
MSL, Curvature and Refraction.

Standardisation
It is the checking of the length of a tape against a
correct base or a tape on flat surface or on catenary
stand. This should be done at a standard Temperature
and Tension

True Length
Measured Length = TapeActual Length
Nominal Length

Actual Length x Measured Length

Therefore: True Length = Tape Nomina Length

Example
To be given in class.

Temperature Correction
A tape is standardised at a given Temperature. The
tape will expand or contract according to whether the
Temperature is below or above the Temperature of
standardisation. The coefficient of linear expansion is
defined as the increase per unit length when this
Temperature increases by 10C.

Temperature Correction is given by

C=Lm(Tm−Ts) α
Lm = Length measured
Tm = Measured Temperature
Ts = Standard Temperature
α = Coefficient of linear expansion.

Give example
Class work

Tension
Tapes and chains are designed for standard tension.
Use a spring balance and roller grip to achieve this.Use
the spring balance at the leader'send of the tape, not
the follower's or zero end.

For other than standard tension, correction, C is:

C = Lm ( Tf −Ts ) ¿ . E

Lm= Length measured

Tf= Tension in the Field
Ts= Tension, Standard
A= cross-sectional Area
E= Young's modulus

Sag Correction
Tapes are normally standardised on a normally flat
surface. When a tape hangs freely under applied
tension between two supports our tape tends to sag.

Sag Correction is given by:

W 2 Lm 3
Csg = - 24 n2 Tm2

Where :
W = mass of tape per unit length
Tm = Applied tension in Newton
n = is the number of intervals
Lm = measured length

Slope Correction
This may be based on the angle of inclination of the
line to be measured or can be based on the height
difference between two points

B
 Lm
h

A α
x
X = LmCosα

Slope correction = Lm – x
= Lm – LmCosα
= -Lm(1- Cosα)
NB The minus sign shows that you are going to
subtract the slope correction to correct the measured
length.

OR
If you are given the height difference between two
points the formula for Slope correction is given as
below.

h2
Slope correction = - 2 Lm
Mean Sea Level Correction
R
C=Lm(1− )
R+H

Where
R = Radius of the earth
H = Average height or altitude

Curvature and Refraction Correction

2
C=−0.0667 D

Where D is in kilometres and the correction is always

negative.

NB. Practical exercise on the Use of Steel tape.

Students are expected to be able to measure distance
using a tape and applying corrections.
4. Areas and Volumes

One of the objectives of Surveying is to find the area of

a tract of land. The area is required for the title
documents of a land parcel.
In construction of bridges, dams and reservoirs area
and capacity are of paramount importance before any
work is initiated.
Most engineering projects involves, earthwork
excavation, dumping of earth material as is in mining,
involves breaking of ground and moving of overburden
as well as dumping of waste in the process of ore
extraction.
Volume and Area computations are also required to
determine such variances and to check ore stockpiles
and any other material.

Areas of Regular figures

A regular figure is a shape with regular sides.

NB. Recall the formulas for calculating area of the

following shapes
 1. Square
2. Rectangle
3. Circle

1. Area of a Triangle

base x height
Area = 2
But suppose, you have some oddly-shaped triangle and
have no way of knowing the height? How, then, can
you find the area? Let's suppose it's some odd-shaped
triangular plot of land. You can measure the three
sides, but what about the height? You don't need it!

Using Heron's formula for the area of a triangle

involves using only the lengths of the three sides to
find the area.
The formula makes use of the "semi-perimeter" , semi-
perimeter, which is half the actual perimeter (which
you know since you can measure three sides and
determine the sum of the lengths of the three sides
will is the perimeter.). So, the semi-perimeter has the
following formula:
a+ b+c
S=
2

where a, b, and c are the lengths of the three sides.

Heron says the Area of that Triangle can be determined

by the following formula:

Example: Heron’s formula for the area of a triangle

when all three sides known.
2.Trapezium

3. The parallelogram

a
 b h b

Area =1/2(a+a) x h

Sides included known but not h use:

Area = ab.SinA or ab.CosB.

4. Computing Area using Coordinate Method

Double area(2 A ) = XAYB+XBYc+XcYD+XDYE+XEYA-XBYA –XcYB–XDYC –XEYD -XAYE

=SUM OF BOLD =SUM OF DOTTED

1
AREA = 2 ( SUMOFDOTTED−SUMOFBOLD)
Be sure to begin and end at the same coordinate. The
products are computed along the diagonals with
dashed arrows considered plus and solid ones minus.
This method computes the double area so you need to
divide the result by 2 to get the area.

Volumes for Regular Shapes

GEOMETRIC VOLUME FORMULA (in cubic
SHAPE units)
Cube V = a3, where a is the side
Rectangular V = LBH, where L = length, B =
Prism width and H = height
V = (4/3)πr3, where r is the
Sphere
radius
V = πr2h , where r is the radius
Cylinder
and h is the height
V =( 1\3) πr2h, where r = base
Cone
radius and h = height.
Pyramid V = 1\3 * base area * height
V =( 2\3 )πr3, where r is the
Hemisphere
radius
Frustum of a V = (πh\3) (R2+Rr+r2), where R =
 radius of the lower base, r =
cone radius of the upper base and h =
height.

Cube

Rectangular

Sphere
Cylinder

Cone
Pyramid

Exercise
Question 1: Find the volume of a pyramid with square
base of side 10 cm and a height of 14 cm. [462 cm3]
Question 2: Find the volume of a sphere of radius 14m
[11488.21m3]
Question 3: Find the volume of a cone whose base
radius is 5.2 cm and height is 9 cm using π = 22\7.
[254.72cm3]

NB : A student should be able to use the formulas of a

Cone and Frustum to calculate tonnage.
Give a class example.
Areas of Irregular Shapes/Figures
Five Basic methods
1. The Give and Take Method
2. Method of counting Squares
3. The Trapezoidal Rule
4. Simpson’s Rule
5. Use of a Planimeter)

NB: To find the area of irregular shapes, the first thing

to do is to divide the irregular shape into regular
shapes that you can recognize such as triangles,
rectangles, circles, squares and so forth...

Example
The area of irregular shapes can be as challenging as
the figure above, so study it carefully!
The figure above has 4 regular shapes. It has a triangle,
two rectangles, and half a circle
Find the area for each of those 4 shapes and add the
results:
Rectangle: Area rectangle = length × width
Area rectangle = (12 × 16)
Area rectangle = 192
Since we have two of the same dimensions, the area is
192 + 192 = 384
Triangle: Area triangle = (base × height)/2
Area triangle = (16 × 12)/2
Area triangle = (192)/2
Area triangle = 96
Circle:
To get the area of the half circle, we need to know the
diameter.
Notice that the diameter is the hypotenuse of a right
triangle, so use the Pythagorean Theorem to find the
length of the diameter.
C2 = A 2 + B 2
C2 = 122 + 162
c = √400
c = 20
Therefore, the diameter is 20. Since the diameter is 20,
the radius is 10
Area circle = πr2
Area circle = 3.14 × 102
Area circle = 314
Since you only have half a circle, you have to multiply
the result by 1/2
1/2 × 314 = 157
Area of this shape = 384 + 96 + 157 = 637

1. The Give and Take Method

With this method irregular boundaries will be reduced
to straight lines in which the areas taken from total
area balance with the area given to total area.
NB: The Assumption is that the area removed is equal
to given

2. The Method of Counting Squares

Area concerned is dived into unit squares which are
easily counted and area is determined by multiplying
the area of each unit square by the total number of
squares.

Some shapes are more complex that you would need

even to add parts to form a full square.
3. The Trapezoidal Rule
Area is dived into strips and the area can be found as
follows.

NB. Question: State the Trapezoidal Rule

4. Simpson’s Rule
It states that one third the distance between
coordinates multiplied by the sum of the first and last
offset plus four multiplied by sum of even ordinates
plus two multiplied by the sum of odd ordinates gives
the total area.
In Simpson's Rule, we will use parabolas to
approximate each part of the curve. This proves to be
very efficient since it's generally more accurate than
the trapezoidal rule.
It assu

Examples to be given in Class

5. Use of a Planimeter – A Class Practical to be done.
Make your own Notes on the Use of a Planimeter.

Volumes of Irregular figures

Volumes are calculated by relating the cross-
sectional areas to the distance between them.
Volumes from spot heights
This make use of a grid of spot heights. The method is
restricted to small sites since setting out and levelling
of a large grid is extremely tedious and time
consuming.
It is suitable for calculating the volume material to be
removed when excavating for the formation of a new
building or structure. The site is divided into squares
or rectangles or triangles or a combination of the
figures. The size of these figures depends on the
degree of accuracy required.

Volume is then calculated from the product of the

mean length of the sides and the sectional area.

The depth of excavation required at the grid points are

hA, hB hC and hD
A B

D C

hA hB
hD

hC

q
P

Mean depth of Excavation = hA + hB + hC + hD

4

Volume = pq ( hA + hB + hC + hD)
 4

Example: Class Exercise

If the plan area of each grid square is 100m2calculate
the total volume of the surface

h1 h2 h4
h3
4.76 5.14 6.72 8.10

h5 h6 h7 h8
3.21 4.77 5.82 6.07

h11
h9 h10
1.98 2.31 3.55

V= ¿

Solution: 2 394m3

Volumes from contours

When a plan contains contours it is often possible to

compute volume directly without any further
fieldwork. The method used, is simply the end area
method or the prism formula moulded, the cross
sectional areas being replaced by the areas contained
within succession contours and the distance between
cross sections by the contour interval.

The most convenient way of calculating the areas

contained within the contours which are invariably
irregular in shape is to use the planimeter. This
method is particularly useful when the capacity of the
proposed new reservoir is required.

490
480
470
460
450

In the site above the hatched area, namely the area

enclosed by the 450 contour, is first calculated, and
then the area of successive contours is determined in
turn. It should be noted that the area required for a
particular contour is the total area i.e. the area
enclosed by 460 contour includes that enclosed by
450m contour and so on.
Assuming a dam water level of 490m

End area method

V = 10 [A450 + A490 +2 (A460 + A470 + A480)]

2

Prismoidal Formula

V = 10 [A450 + A490 +4 (A460 + A480) +2 (A470)]

3
5. CONTOUR SURVEYING

A contour may be defined as a line of intersection of a

level surface with the surface of the ground. This
means every point on the contour line has the same
altitude as that of the assumed intersecting surface.

Contouring

The process of tracing contour lines on the surface of

earth is called contouring. A contour map gives the
idea of the altitudes of the surface features as well as
their relative positions on a plan.

Contour lines
Contour lines are a method of depicting the 3-
dimensional character of the terrain on a 2-
dimensional map. Understanding contours is a very
useful navigation skill because you can identify the
layout of the land and landscape features as they
appear on the ground.
Contour Lines Characteristics

1. A contour line is an isoline ( certain variable i.e.

temp. pressure, height)
2. Contour line passes through points having the
same elevation
3. Contour lines don’t intersect
4. Close together contour line means steep slope,
otherwise ,it’s a flat surface.

Steep slopes - contours are closely spaced

Gentle slopes - contours are less closely spaced
Valleys - contours form a V-shape pointing up the hill –
these V's are always an indication of a drainage path
which could also be a stream or river.
Ridges - contours form a V-shape pointing down the
hill
Summits - contours forming circles
Depressions - are indicated by circular contour with
lines radiating to the centre

Why do you need to know the terrain features on a

map?
•In order to locate a point on a map
• In order to navigate from one point to the next

Methods of Contouring
1.Direct Methods
2.Indirect Methods

Direct Method – Write your own notes.

Indirect Method
In this method, selected spot heights points are taken
with a level and their levels are computed. The
horizontal positions of these points are measured or
computed and the points are plotted on the plan.
The contours are then drawn by a process called
interpolation of locations from the levels of the guide
points.

NB. Give a Practical Exercise.

6. Levelling
Introduction
Levelling: The general term applied to any of the
various processes by which elevations of points or
differences in elevation are determined.
Levelling results are used:
1. To design highways, railroads, canals, sewers,
water supply systems etc., having grade lines that
best conforms the existing topography.
2. To lay out construction projects according to
planned elevations.
3. To calculate volume of earthworks and other
materials.
4. To investigate drainage characteristics of an area,
etc.
Definitions of Basic Terms Used in Levelling
Definitions
Differential levelling is the term applied to any
method of measuring directly with a
graduated staff the difference in elevation
between two or more points.
Precise levelling is a particularly accurate
method of differential levelling which uses
highly accurate levels and with a more
rigorous observing procedure than general
engineering levelling. It aims to achieve high
orders of accuracy such as 1 mm per 1 km
traverse.
A level surface is a surface which is
everywhere perpendicular to the direction of
the force of gravity. An example is the surface
of a completely still lake. For ordinary
levelling, level surfaces at different elevations
can be considered to be parallel.
Level line a line on which all points are
equidistant from centre of gravity. Therefore
it is a curved line. For more precise
determination of the geoidal shape of the
earth a level line must be taken into
consideration.
Horizontal line is a line tangential to a level
line and is taken as the line of collimation or
line of sight of a perfectly adjusted levelling
instrument. Since the length of sight in
levelling are usually less than 150m, the level
line and the horizontal line coincide.
A level datum is an arbitrary level surface to
which elevations are referred. The most
common surveying datum is mean sea-level
(MSL), but as hydrological work is usually just
concerned with levels in a local area, we often
use: An assumed datum, which is established
by giving a benchmark an assumed value (e.g.
100.000m) to which all levels in the local area
will be reduced. It is not good practice to
assume a level which is close to the actual
MSL value, as it creates potential for
confusion.
A reduced level is the vertical distance
between a survey point and the adopted level
datum.
A bench mark(BM) is the term given to a
definite, permanent accessible point of
known height above a datum to which the
height of other points can be referred.
A set-up station refers to the position of a
level or other instrument at the time in which
a number of observations are made without
moving the instrument.
Height of Collimation is the elevation of the
optical axis of the telescope at the time of the
set-up.
The line of collimation is the imaginary line at
the elevation.
Change points are points of measurement
which are used to carry the measurements
forward in a run. Each one will be read first as
a foresight, the instrument position is
changed, and then it will be read as a
backsight.
Backsight(B/S) is the first sight taken after
setting up of the instrument and usually it is
made to some form of a Benchmark.
Foresight(F/S) is the last sight taken after the
setting up of instrument or before moving
instrument
Intermediate sight(I/S) is any other sight
taken between backsight and foresight in a
run.
Parallax occurs when the image formed by
the object glass does not fall in the same
plane as the cross hairs. This is due to the
cross hairs not being in focus and this can be
detected by moving the eye slightly from side
to side when sighting an object. If the image
appears to move relative to the cross hairs
parallax is said to be present and should be
eliminated before observations are taken.

Types of Levels:
Dumpy Levels
Tilting Levels
Automatic Levels
Digital Levels.
NB:Write your own notes about the above
levelling instruments.
Question
Describe with the aid of a diagram the basic
principle of a tilting level and state the
advantages and disadvantages of this level as
compared to a dumpy level [10]
The most commonly used is the automatic
level.
 

All have two common components:

1. A telescope to create a line of sight
and enable a reading to be taken on a
graduated rod.
2. A system to orient the line of sight in
a horizontal plane
 Level vials (dumpy and tilting levels)
 Automatic compensators (automatic
and digital levels)
A Level
Ancillary equipment for levelling
Staff
Tripod
Levelling Routine
1. Set up the trip legs equidistant on a level ground. On
slopy ground, one leg is set uphill and the other two
downhill.
2. Push the tripod legs firmly into the ground and
clamp.
3. Mount your instrument
Levelling the instrument
1. Place the telescope parallel to two foot screws.
2. Centre the bubble carefully using 2 foot screws
turning them simutaneously in differrent directions
using the first finger and thumb. The bubble moves in
the same direction with the left thumb.
3. When the bubble is now central, turn the telescope
900 to lie over the 3rd foot screw. Repeat the process as
a quick check. When the telescope is turned 180 0 the
bubble should remain central.If it does not then the
permanent adjustment should be done and this can
only be done by the manufacturer.If the bubble is not
very much out , it is still possible to use the level by
centring the bubble immediately before any reading.

Parallax Elimination
1. Turn the eyepiece in a clockwise direction until it is
out of focus and aim at a light background.
2. Looking through the telescope, slowly turn the
eyepiece until the cross hairs appears sharp and black.
3. To check, focus a distant object and then move the
eye up and down.
4. If there is apparent movement between cross hairs
and the object the adjustment is incorrect.
Determining Differences in Elevation
When carrying out a levelling exercise the position of
the instrument is arbitrary (not important). To
eliminate the effect of instrumental errors, the side
length should be of approximately of equal length. The
staff is held vertically on the first point usually a
benchmark. The telescope is directed towards the staff
and focused. The staff reading is booked after making
sure the level bubble is central. The staff is then held
on second point and second staff reading obtained and
again making sure the level bubble is central.
Reduced Level Determination
zw

Elevation of BM Rock = 820.00

Collimation Elevation = Elevation of BM Rock + Staff reading @ BM Rock

Elevation of X = Collimation level – staff reading @ X

From the diagram above the reading taken at BM Rock
is the backsight and at X is the Forsight. Usually the
backsight is taken from some form of a benchmark
whose elevation is known.

There are two Methods of Levelling:

1.Height of Collimation Method
2. Rise and Fall Method
Levelling or Field Procedures
The Rise and Fall Method
Back- Inter- Fore- Reduced
Rise Fall Distance Remarks
sight mediate sight level
2.554         50.00 0 Datum RL+50 m
  1.783   0.771   50.771 14.990 A
  0.926   0.857   51.628 29.105 B
  1.963     1.037 50591 48.490 C
1.305   3.587   1.624 48.967 63.540 D / change point 1
  1.432     0.127 48.840 87.665 E
3.250   0.573 0.859   49.699 102.050 F / change point 2
  1.925   1.325   51.024 113.285 G
3.015   0.496 1.429   52.453 128.345 H / change point 3
    0.780 2.235   54.688 150.460 J
Sum of B-sight & F-
10.124   5.436 7.476 2.788 54.688   sight,
Sum of Rise & Fall
Take smaller from
-5.436     -2.788   -50.000  
greater
Difference should be
4.688     4.688     4.688  
equal
Height of collimation method (height of instrument)
Back- Inter- Fore- Height of Reduced
Distance Remarks
sight mediate sight collimation level
2.554     52.554 50.00 0 Datum RL+50 m
  1.783     50.771 14.990 A
  0.926     51.628 29.105 B
  1.963     50591 48.490 C
1.305   3.587 50.272 48.967 63.540 D / change point 1
  1.432     48.840 87.665 E
3.250   0.573 52.949 49.699 102.050 F / change point 2
  1.925     51.024 113.285 G
3.015   0.496 55.468 52.453 128.345 H / change point 3
    0.780   54.688 150.460 J
Sum of B-sight & F-sight,
10.124   5.436   54.688   Difference between RL's
-5.436       -50.000   Take smaller from greater
4.688         4.688   Difference should be equal

Inverted staff
To determine reduced level of points such as
underpass or tunnel or under a bridge the staff is held
upside down in an inverted position with the base of
the staff on the elevated point. When booking an
inverted staff reading it is entered with a bar on top or
a negative sign.
Example: To be given in class.

COMPARISON OF THE RISE & FALL AND THE HEIGHT

OF COLLIMATION METHOD
Height of Collimation Method
This method is simple and easy.
Reduction of levels is easy.
Visualization is not necessary regarding the nature of
the ground.
There is no check for intermediate sight readings.
This method is generally used where more number of
readings can be taken with less number of change
points for constructional work and profile levellings.
Rise and Fall Method
This method is complicated and is not easy to carry
out.
Reduction of levels takes more time.
Visualization is necessary regarding the nature of the
ground.
Complete check is there for all readings.
This method is preferable for check levelling where
number of change points are more.
Testing and Adjusting the Line of Sight
(RB - 2ε) – (rA – ε) = (rB – ε) – (RA -2ε)

Therefore the Colimation error ε is given by

[ Solve above equation]
Example
 A horizontal collimation test is performed on an
automatic levelas in the following figure. With the
instrument setup at point 1,the rod reading at A was
1.667 m, and to B it was 1.722 m. After moving and
levelling the instrument at point 2, the rodreading to A
was 1.543 and to B was 1.586 m. What is the
collimation error of the instrument, and the corrected
readingto B from point 2?
7. Compass surveying
Compass is an instrument which can be used to
measure the direction of a survey line with respect to
magnetic north-south. The magnetic north-south
direction which is the reference direction is called
meridian (reference direction) and the angle between
the line and the meridian is called bearing.Use of
compass for measuring direction of a line simplifies the
surveying to a great extent.
Types of Compass
The types of compass that are used commonly are:
(i) Prismatic compass
(ii) Surveyors compass.
The essential parts of both types are:
(i) a magnetic needle
(ii) a graduated circle
(iii) a line of sight
(iv) a box to house them.
Surveyors Compass
In this type of compass graduation disc is fixed to the
box and magnetic needle is free to rotate above it.
There is no prism provided at viewing end, but has a
narrow slit. After fixing the line of sight, the reading is
directly taken from the top of the glass cover. Hence,
graduations are written directly (not inverted). In this
compass graduations are from zero to 90°, zero being
to north or south and 90° being to east and west. An
angle of 20° to north direction to the east is written as
N 20° E, and an angle of 40° to east from south is
written as S 40° E. Always first direction indicated is
north or south and the last letter indicates east or west
direction. In this system graduated circle rotates with
line of sight and magnetic needle is always towards
north. The reading is taken at the tip of needle. Hence,
on the compass east and west are marked
interchanged and marked‘
Photograph of a surveyors compass.

Method of using a compass

To take a reading from a compass, the following
temporary adjustments are required:
(i) Centring: The compass should be fixed to the stand
and set over the station or hand held. To centre the
compass legs of the tripod stand should be moved
inward-outward or in a circumferential direction. To
check centring plumb may be used or a pebble/stone
dropped from the centre of the compass.
(ii) Levelling: In compass survey perfect levelling is not
necessary, but it should be sufficient to permit free
suspension of magnetic needle. For checking levelling a
bubble level is provided in many compasses. After
centring bubble should be ensured in the middle of the
circle provided for it in the level. If it is not within that
circle, circumferential movements may be provided to
the legs of tripod so that without disturbing centring
the levelling is achieved.
(iii) Focussing the prism: In prismatic compass, to focus
the prism on graduated circle, its attachment is slide up
or down till the readings are clearly visible. There is no
such requirement in surveyors compass.
The following steps are required for observing bearing
of a line, say, AB:
(i) Centre the compass over A.
(ii) Level the compass.
(iii) Focus the prism, if prismatic compass is used.
(iv) Rotate the box till ranging rod at B is sighted
through the line of sight.
(v) Bring/Allow the needle to rest using knob.
(vi) Take the reading and note it in the field book.
Care should be taken to see that the line of sight is not
disturbed between the time of sighting the object and
the time of reading the bearing.
Bearing
A bearing of a line is the angle made by the line with
respect to a reference direction, the reference
direction being known as meridian. The direction
shown by a freely suspended and properly balanced
magnetic needle is called magnetic meridian and the
horizontal angle made by a line with this meridian is
known as magnetic bearing.
The points of intersection of earth’s axis with surface
of the earth are known as geographic north and South
Pole. The line passing through geographic north, south
and the point on earth is called true meridian at that
point and the angle made by a line passing through
that point is called true bearing.

While traversing along line A B, the bearing of line AB is

called forward bearing of AB and the bearing of BA is
called back bearing. Fore bearing and back bearing
differ by 180°.
Whole circle Bearing
In whole circle bearing (WCB) the bearing of a line at
any point is measured with respect to a meridian. Its
value varies from zero to 360°, increasing in clockwise
direction. Zero is north direction, 90° is east, 180° is
south and 270° is west. This type of bearing is used in
prismatic compass.
The magnetic meridian and the true meridian may not
coincide with each other in a place. The horizontal
angle between these two meridians is known as
magnetic declination. The magnetic north at a place
may be towards east or west of true north.If it is
towards east, it is known as eastern or +ve declination.
Western declination is known as –ve declination as
indicated on the diagrams below. Eastern declination is
to be added to observed magnetic bearings to get true
meridian. To find magnetic declination at a point true
meridian should be established from astronomical
observations and magnetic meridian by a compass.
Maps are made with respect to true meridian.
Magnetic declination varies from time to time and also
from place to place. In the noon sun is exactly on the
geographical meridian. In India, ‘Survey of India’
department conducts astronomical survey and
publishes Isogonic Charts from which magnetic
declinations at any point can be found.
The lines joining the points at which declination is the
same at the given time are called ‘Isogonic Lines’. Lines
joining points of zero declinations are called ‘Agonic
Lines’. The isogonic lines are quite irregular near
geographic poles. The isogonic charts show lines of
equal annual change in declination.
The following types of variations are observed in
declination:
(i) Secular variation,
(ii) Annual variation,
(iii) Daily variations, and
(iv) Irregular variations.
Secular Variation
The magnetic meridian swings like a pendulum to the
left and to the right of true meridian. Its period of
variation is approximately 250 years.
Annual Variation
It is observed that in a year declination varies from 1 0
to 20 .
Daily Variation
The daily variation of magnetic declination is as much
as 100. This variation is also known as ‘Diurnal
Variation’. The following factors influence its
magnitude:
(a) It is more in day and less in night.
(b) It is more in summer and less in winter.
(c) The amount of variation changes from year to year.
(d) It is more near magnetic poles and less near
equator.
Irregular Variation
Due to earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, magnetic
storms occur, resulting into changes in magnetic
meridian. Such changes are from 1° to 2°.
Local Attraction
A freely suspended and properly balanced magnetic
needle is expected to show magnetic meridian.
However, local objects like electric wires and objects of
steel attract magnetic needle towards themselves.
Thus, needle is forced to show slightly different
direction. This disturbance is called local attraction.
The list of materials which cause local attraction are:
(i) Magnetic rock or iron ore
(ii) Steel structures, iron poles, rails, electric poles and
wires
(iii) Iron buttons, steel rimmed spectacles,chain,arrows,
hammer, clearing axe etc.
Surveyor is expected to take care to avoid local
attractions listed in (iii).
Detecting Local Attraction
For detecting local attraction it is necessary to take
both fore bearing and back bearing for each line. If the
difference is exactly 180°, there is no effect of local
attraction on both points. If difference is not 180°,
better to go back to the previous station and check the
forward bearing. If that reading is same as earlier, it
may be concluded that there is local attraction at one
or both stations.
Correcting Observed Bearings
If local attraction is detected in a compass survey
observed bearings may be corrected as follows:
Method:
In this method, errors due to local attraction at each of
the affected station are found starting from the
bearing of station unaffected by local attraction. The
bearing of the successive lines are adjusted
accordingly.
Exercise
Give a class example.
NB A practical on compass traversing to be given.