CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO SURVEYING

1.1: Background

Surveying is an art and science of determining the relative position of point on,
above or beneath the surface of the earth by means of direct or indirect measurements of
distance, direction and elevation. The application of surveying requires skills as well as
knowledge of mathematics, physics, to some extent, astronomy.
The knowledge of surveying is advantageous to many phase of engineering. The earliest
surveys were made in connection with the land surveying. Surveying is the most essential
subject matter before and during all civil engineering works such as designing and
construction of buildings, highways, water supply schemes, transmission line, irrigation
projects, railway, mines, bridges etc. Before plans and estimates are made, boundaries
should be determined and topography of the site should be ascertained. After the plans
are made, the structures must be staked out on the ground. Land area surveys are made to
determine the relative horizontal and vertical position of topographic features and to
establish reference mark to guide construction.
In surveying, all measurement of lengths is horizontal, or else is subsequently
reduced to horizontal distance. The object of survey is to prepare plan or map so that it
may represent the area on a horizontal plane. A plan is horizontal projection of an area
and show only horizontal distance of the points. Vertical distances between the points are
shown on map by contour lines and are usually represented by means of vertical sections
drawn separately.

1.2: Objectives of surveying

 Preparation of plans and maps of area.

 Preparation of detail maps for construction of buildings, bridges
 To establish highly precise control points for laying out of alignments of roads, railways,
canal, tunnels, transmission power line, etc.
 To set out the proposed structure on the ground.
 For making L-section and X-section along the road, bridge, canal alignments etc.

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 1.3: Principles of surveying

 Working from whole to part

 Location of a point by measurement from two control points
 Precision maintained
 Consistency in work
 Independent check
 Safeguarding of works

1.4: Surveying – Character of work

The work of surveyor may be divided into three distinct parts:

 Field work: The field work consists of the measurements of angles and distances and the
keeping of record of what has been done in the form of field notes. It includes
establishment of stations and benchmarks as points of reference, linear and angular
measurements, locating details, surveying past the obstacles and recording all the
measurements and other information in suitable field books.

 Office work: The office work consists of drafting, computing, plotting and designing.
Plans/maps, sections etc. are prepared and area and volume is computed. The surveyor
may also be called upon to do some design work specially.

 Care and adjustments of instruments: The practice of surveying requires experience in

handling the equipment used in field and office work, a familiarity with the care and
adjustments of the surveying instruments, and an understanding of their limitations.
Many surveying instruments such as level, theodolite, compass, total station etc are
delicate and must be handled with great care since there are many parts of an instrument
which if once impaired cannot be restored to their original efficiency.

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 CHAPTER 2
BACKGROUND OF SURVEY CAMP 2070

2.1: Introduction

Camp site for survey camp 2070 was located in the Budhanilkantha School
(Narayanthan, Kathmandu) located about 11k.m. from central Katmandu situated on
the foothills of Shivapuri hill (2,732 meters). It is named after the Budhanilkantha Temple which
is located nearby. The school covers about 29 hectors (574 ropanies) of land and has excellent
topography.

The Survey Camp 2070 organized by Department of Civil Engineering,

Kathmandu Engineering College, Kalimati is the constituent of the course of study (EG 625
CE Survey Camp) included in Surveying for Bachelor’s level of Engineering of Tribhuvan
University.
The first task mainly dealt during the camping is topographic survey. The major
traverse is run to cover the entire area of the Budhanilkantha School. As the area is very large,
major traverse is established to cover most of the natural and physical features of the area. Minor
traverse are established to cover the more details of the building and other structures. The minor
loop may be one or more up to three. The no of station in minor traverse is kept more than two.
Then the topographic map of own area is prepared and presented here. The level is first
transferred from BM to the TBM. Then after TBM to the all major and minor traverse stations.
All the calculation and plotting of the above mentioned task are presented in systematic way in
this report.
The Second task dealt during the camp is Bridge Site Survey. It is mainly oriented on
preliminary knowledge on selection and planning of the site for the future construction of bridge.
This survey focused on collecting the preliminarily data such as normal water flow, high water
level, geological features of the ground for planning and designing of the bridge. The L-section
along the river, few cross-sections of upstream and downstream of the bridge axis and
topographical map of the site and the control survey i.e. Triangulation survey is presented here.

The third task dealt during the project is road alignment survey. It is mainly focused on the fixing
the alignment of the road depending on field condition. The curve designing, L-section along the

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 proposed road alignment, Cross-section at every 20m interval and other geological and
topographical information of the site are also presented in this report.
Different type of curves setting, two peg test, fly Leveling, detailing are also carried out in
this survey camp and the corresponding data are calculated and plotted and finally presented in
this report.
Broadly speaking, this camp contains all type of problems of engineering work in
field, which we have to face in the future. From above mentioned points, we can conclude that
this Survey Camp makes us capable to face the problem on future and make independent to
complete any type of survey works.

2.2: Objectives of survey camp

The main purpose of survey camp is as follows:

 To give the opportunity to use the theoretical knowledge on Civil engineering survey on the real
field condition.
 To become familiar with the surveying problems, that is likely to arise during the field works.
 To become familiar with different surveying equipments, their function, adjustment and handling.
 To become familiar with the team work as the surveying is not a single person work.
 To complete the given work within the scheduled time.
 To collect required data in systematic way.
 To compute and manipulate the observed data in the required accuracy and present it in
diagrammatic and tabular form in order to understand by other engineers and related personnel
easily.
 To know the complete method of report preparation.

2.3: Description of campsite

Budhanilkantha School is located at27° 46′ 55.52″ N and85° 21′ 34.2″ E, at the altitude of
around 2732m in Vishnu V.D.C and about 11km north of Kathmandu. The School Premises
Covers the area of about 574 ropanis. The Survey area consist of physical structures, play
grounds, road, drainage, different variety of trees and various other natural features.

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 Accessibility: Budhanilkantha School which is situated near the famous Budhanilkantha Temple
is easily accessible through the road way. The site is nearly 11k.m from Kathmandu engineering
college and takes about an hour through bus.

 Transport Accessibility at Camp: For camping in Budhanilkantha School, the Transportation

Facility from College to the site was provided by College Bus. For Bridge Site Surveying in
Sallaghari (7 km ahead of Nagarkot), the transportation facility from Budhanilkantha School to
the site was provided by the college Bus. It took about one & half an hour to reach the bridge site
from the school through the bus.

 Climate: The climatic condition of Budhanilkantha School is excellent. The temperature was
moderate with fairly clear day during the camping days. The temperature on the summer is up to
about 35˚C and in the winter, lower temperature is about 1˚C. The site situated on the foothills of
sivapuri national park, is naturally sound.

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  Geographical Features:
i) Terrain: plain ground and mild slope area
ii) Climate: Mild Temperature
iii) Geology: Project area follows the geomorphic form of Siwaliks of mid hilly region.

 Vegetation and socio-economic condition: In Camp site, various species of tall trees with
moderate trunk and plenty of grazing ground were found. Similarly, most part of the site area was
covered with green grasses. The place was thinly populated with various ethnic group living in
harmony. Being very near to the Metropolitan city the place is well developed.. The living
standard of people was medium to high. Many new commercial buildings are beings constructed
around the camp site with the existing old type of houses.

2.4: Time Duration of the Camp

The camp was a closed camp and was scheduled for 11 days from4th of Kartik2070 to 14th of
Kartik 2070 .

2.5: Teacher Allocated and Supervision

 Er. Rocky Shrestha (Co-ordinator)

 Er. Sudip Pathak (Sub Co-ordinator)
 Er. Kapil Gyawali (Resource person)
 Er. Umesh Kaini (Resource person)
 Er. Junga Bdr. Thapa (Resource Person)
 Er. Shovakanta Subedi (Resource person)
 Er. Ramesh Kafle (Resource person)
 Er. Prabesh Adhikari (Resource person)
 Er. Arjun Poudel (Resource person)
 Er. Anjana Bhatta (Resource person)
 Er. Saraswoti Thapa(Resource person)

` 2.6: Field Assistants and Store Keepers

 Mr. Ganesh Raj Basaula

 Mr. Deepak Raj Upreti
 Mr. Ram Krishna Thapa Magar

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  Mr. Deepak Shrestha
 Mr. Bhagwan thapa
 Mr. Budhhi Ram Chaudhary

2.7: Working schedule (For Group-10)

Date Description of Works

Reconnaissance and Major

4 Kartik, 2070
Traverse

5 Kartik, 2070 Major and Minor Traverse

Major , Minor Traverse and

6 Kartik, 2070
Computation

7 Kartik, 2070 Two Peg Test and Fly Leveling

8 and 9 Kartik, 2070 Bridge Site Surveying

Road surveying
10 and 11 Kartik, 2070

12 and 13 Kartik, 2070 Detailing

Detail completion , Inspection and

14 Kartik, 2070
checking

2.8: Equipments used

 Total station: The purpose of the total station is to measure the horizontal distance, horizontal
angle and vertical distance with the greater accuracy. The device is the latest one with a lot may
features.

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 Theodolite: The purpose of the Theodolite is to establish horizontal and vertical control of the
ground points. Theodolite is also used for tacheometric detailing, to establish intersection points
for road surveying, angle measurements etc.

 Level Machine: The main purpose of the level machine is to establish vertical control of the
ground points. It is mainly used for RL transfer from one point to the other points.

 Ranging Rod: It is used for sighting along a line accurately.

 Staff: It is used as a means to transfer RL of station to different points on the ground. It is a

graduated rod .With the help of three wire reading taken on it the horizontal and vertical distance
from the instrument station to staff points are calculated by using trigonometric formula.

 Umbrella: Used to safe guard the instrument from rain water and to give comfort for the
surveyors. They were provided to the student if necessary.

 Tape: It is used to measure the horizontal distance between two stations and any two points when
needed. It is also used to measure the height of instrument of Theodolite. Two tapes with 30m
and 50m length were provided.

 Arrows: Used to mark important points on the ground.

 Pegs: Used to mark the station points on the ground.

 Hammer: Used for hammering the pegs and arrows whenever required.

 Brush and Paint : Used to mark the stations where the arrows cannot be inserted and also to mark
other different things where required.

 Compass: Compass is used to measure the bearing of any line with respect to North.

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 CHAPTER 3: SPECIFICATION OF THE WORK (NORMS)

3.1: Area activities

 Topographical map preparation:

 Scale: 1:500
 Area: Approx. 11 Hectares
 Paper Size for Plotting: A1
 Contour Interval: Depending upon the site relief
 Major Traverse: 1:1000 (Or Adjustable)

3.2: Control point establishment

 At least 12 Stations [Main control Stations]

 Two set of horizontal Angles
 One set of Vertical Angles
 Two-way length measurements (Taping), Check or Compare with Tacheometric distance and
Subs tense bar.
 Traverse line Orientation, check graphically (Telescopic Alidade)
 Vertical control by leveling, check by Trigonometric Leveling.
 Fly Level carry at least one kilometer away.
 Leg ratio(Maximum):- 1:2 (Major) & 1:3 (Minor)
 Special Techniques of Surveying:

3.3: Linear structure activities (Road Alignment Survey)

 At Least 600 m stretch

 Scale:
 Plan:- 1:500
 L-Section :- Vertical- 1:100, Horizontal- 1:1000
 Cross-Section 20 m interval & scale same for both Horizontal and Vertical (1:100 )
 Left/Right observation: Minimum 10 m on either side

 Curve Setting:

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 Horizontal Curve:
 Simple Circular: By both Linear and Angular method
 Transition: By both Linear and Angular method
 Lead survey by Abney Level
 Topographic Survey for Major Structure along the Road alignment like Culvert, Retaining Wall
etc.

3.4: Bridge site survey

 Upstream: 150m
 Downstream: 50m
 Scale for plotting minimum area of observation or coverage
 Plan: 1:500
 Contour interval: 2m or depending upon site topography
 Cross-Section : Same for both Vertical and Horizontal (May vary 1:50 or 1:100)
 Center Line Section: Along Flow line(L-Section); Scale: Vertical 1:50 & Horizontal
1:500
 Observation should be taken 20m beyond the bank on the either side of the river or
at least 10m above HFL (High Flood Level) cover line (Contour Line)

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 CHAPTER 4: TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEY

Topographic Surveying is the process of determining the positions, both on plan and
elevation, of the natural and artificial features of a locality for the purpose of delineating them by
means of conventional signs upon a topographic map. The survey is carried out to depict the
topography of the mountainous terrain, rivers, water body, wooden areas and other cultural details
such as roads, railways etc. Topography is meant for shape or configuration of the earth’s surface.
The basic purpose of the topographic map is to indicate the three dimensional relationships for
the terrain of any given area of land. Thus, on topographic map, the relative positions of the
points are represented both horizontally and vertically. The representation of the difference in
elevation is called the relief. The topographic maps are very essential for the planning and
designing of the most engineering projects such as location of highways, location of bridge site,
design of irrigation and drainage systems, the development of water power, layout of industrial
plants and city planning.

4.1: Traversing

Traversing is a type of surveying in which a number of connected survey lines form the
framework. It is also a method of control surveying. The survey consists of the measurement of:

 Angles between successive lines or bearings of each line

 The length of each line

The directions and the lengths of the survey lines are measured with the help of an angle-
measuring instrument such as theodolite and a tape. If the co-ordinates of the first station and the
bearing of the first line are known, the co-ordinates of all successive points can be computed.
There are two types of traverse. They are as follows:

i. Closed traverse:
If the figure formed by the lines closes at a station i.e. if they form a polygon or it starts and
finishes at the points of known co-ordinates then the traverse is called closed traverse.

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 ii. Open traverse:
If a traverse starts from known point and finishes at a point of unknown co-ordinates, then the
traverse is called open traverse.

While forming the major traverse which ran out covering internal periphery of
Budhanilkantha School, we were given with the length and bearing of one line, i.e. line joining
CP1-CP2. By the reconnaissance we established 21 major stations which formed one closed loop
and 2minor traverse containing 4 and 3 minor stations which formed a link minor loop between
two major stations.

The instruments used while traversing are:

 Total Station
 Theodolite
 Staffs
 Ranging rods
 Tapes
 Leveling instruments

 Hammer
 Pegs
 Compass
 Arrows
 Paint and brush

Fig : Type of Traverse

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 4.2: Objective of traversing

The main objective of traversing is to build up a framework of traverse legs and traverse
stations with the visibility of all the features on the ground at least from each station so that it can
be located from the instrument. There are two types of traverse according to the purpose: major
traverse and minor traverse.
Major traverse run around the project area. While making such traverse, different traverse
stations called major stations are fixed assuring the inter-visibility and maintain the leg ratio. The
major traversing is done with maximum accuracy and then we proceed to other survey works
following the principle of surveying i.e. working from whole to part.
Minor traverse are the traverse starting from a given major traverse station and ending in the
same or different major traverse station. They run in the field by fixing the traverse station known
as minor traverse stations. They are formed with the intentions of taking the details of features in
field.

4.3: Methodology of traversing

4.3.1: Reconnaissance
The preliminary task while starting the traversing is the reconnaissance (also called recci
survey), which is performed by visiting the whole project area. Reconnaissance is accompanied
by seeing the suitable site for the placement of major stations. Then at the chosen site, wooden
pegs were driven with the hammer if the ground is soft otherwise it was painted with some paint
to mark the major station with the group notation. Furthermore while selecting the site for major
stations the distance between any two traverse legs should not be greater than 2:1.
The major and minor traverse stations were selected considering the following points:
 Inter-visibility of back and forward stations.
 Permanent marking of the stations.
 Legs within permissible limits.
 Easiness of measurement of leg.
 Minimum number of stations.
 Presence of obstacles and intervening medium.
 The marking of the stations were made by pegging and enameling with the identifications of
group no. job type (Major/ minor) and station number.

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4.3.2: Measurement of traverse length
After the pegs are driven, the next step is to measure the distance between the major traverse
stations (known as ‘major traverse leg’). The distance is measured by ranging with ranging rod
and measuring by tape. The two way measurement is performed for each traverse leg to minimize
the error in length. The precision is checked while taking the lengths. The precision for the major
traverse legs is 1:2000. Minor traverse stations are also fixed by maintaining the leg ratio of 1:3
and length measurement precision of 1:1000. Minor stations are also fixed by locating the
suitable site on the reconnaissance and driving the wooden peg marked to represent minor
stations.

4.3.3: Measurement of angles and bearing

After the completion of fixing the traverse stations, survey work is proceeded with the
measurement of angles. The measurements of interior angles of major traverse are measured with
the help of theodolite or total station within the specified accuracy. Two sets of reading were
taken for each angle for major traverse and one set of reading is taken for minor traverse. The
first set is taken by adjusting the initial angle at 0°0'00'' at the backward station and taking interior
angle in the forward station. The other set is taken by adjusting the initial angle at 90°0'00''. The
average angle minutes and seconds is taken between two sets of reading. If there is difference in
degree between two sets of reading, the observation is repeated noting that there may be change
in seconds but not in minutes or degree. The same methods are employed with the measurements
of the minor traverse.
The two sets include both horizontal and vertical angle. After the measurements of internal
angles, compass is fixed over a major station and sighted to other consecutive station to obtain the
whole circle bearing of the given traverse legs. All the bearings of other traverse legs are
computed with the help of the internal angles and the bearing of the previously measured line.

4.3.4: Correction of angles and bearings

For a closed traverse, the sum of all the interior angles should be equal to (2N-4) x
90˚, where N stands for total number of traverse stations. The error found which was the
difference between sum of all the observed angles and (2N-4) x 90˚, were calculated and the error
was distributed to the entire angle if within the permissible limit. The distribution of the error is
shown in calculation table later. Then corrected horizontal angle were calculated using the
correction. The sum of the horizontal angle after the correction matched with (2N-4) x 90˚.

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 For minor traverse (which is a link traverse between two major stations), bearing was
corrected as following:
𝑒
Bearing correction per leg =
𝑁
∗𝑛
Where, e = error in bearing
N = no. of legs in minor traverse
n = 1, 2, 3…….N
4.3.5: Traverse adjustment
Using the corrected horizontal angles and observed bearing of one traverse leg, bearings of all
the traverse leg were calculated. We had already calculated the length of each traverse leg and the
consecutive co-ordinates of each station.
The latitude and the departure of each station were calculated using the relation:
Latitude = L * Cosθ
Departure = L * Sinθ
Where, L = Distance of traverse leg
θ = bearing of that line in WCB

For a closed loop sum of all the consecutive co-ordinates should be equal to zero. But
it may not be obtained exactly zero, for which we had to balance the co-ordinate. We had
obtained some error within the permissible limits. This error is technically known as closing
error. It is given by,

Closing error (e) = √ (ΣL2 +ΣD2)

Where, ΣL = sum of all consecutive latitudes
ΣD = sum of all consecutive departures
(The permissible closing error was 1 in 2000 for major traverse.)

We had adjusted the traverse using Bowditch’s rule. Bowditch’s rule is based on the
assumption that the errors in liner measurement are proportional to the length of the traverse leg.
According to this method, corrections are calculated as:

δL = (l / Σl) * ∆L
δD = (l / Σl) * ∆D
Where, δL = Correction for latitude
δD = Correction for departure
l = Length of that traverse line
Σl = Total perimeter of traverse

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 ∆L = Total error in latitudes
∆D = total error in departures
(Error and correction are of opposite sign so as to reduce it to zero.)

For minor traverse (which is a link traverse between two major stations), the latitude
and departure difference between two major stations obtained by computation of minor legs
should be the same as that in Gale’s table for major traverse. The variation in difference is the
error and correction is applied by Bowditch method as mentioned above.

4.4: Tacheometric detailing

` Tachometry is a branch of angular surveying in which the horizontal and vertical distances of
points are obtained by optical means. Though it has less accuracy, about 1/300 to 1/500, it is
faster and convenient than the measurements by tape or chain. It is very suitable for steep or
broken ground, deep ravines, and stretches of water or swamp where taping is very inconvenient
or even impossible. The objective of the tachometric survey is the preparation of the topographic
map or plan with both horizontal and vertical controls. For the survey of high accuracy, it
provides a check on the distances measured by tape.

The formula for the horizontal distance is,

H = K*S*Cos2 + C*cos
where, s = staff intercept =(Top reading – Bottom reading)
K = 100 and C = 0
Similarly, the formula for the vertical distance is,

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 V = (K*S*(Sin2)/2) + C*sin
where, s = staff intercept =(Top reading – Bottom reading)
K = 100 and C = 0

4.5: Levelling

Leveling is done in the field for the following purpose:

 To find the elevation of given points with respect to given or assumed datum.
 To establish points at a given elevation or at different elevations with respect to a given or
assumed datum.
 The first operation is required to enable the works to be designed while the second operation is
required in the setting out of all kinds of engineering works. Leveling deals with measurements in
a vertical plane.
 To provide vertical controls in topographic map, the elevations of the relevant points must be
known so that complete topography of the area can be explored. Leveling was performed to
determine the elevation (relative height) from a given datum.

4.5.1: Temporary adjustments of Level

The temporary adjustments for a level consist of the following:
i. Setting up the level: The operation of setting up includes fixing the instrument on the stand and
leveling the instrument approximately.
ii. Leveling up: Accurate leveling is done with the help of foot screws and with reference to the
plate levels. The purpose of leveling is to make the vertical axis truly vertical and horizontal line
of sight truly horizontal.
iii. Removal of parallax: Parallax is a condition when the image formed by the objective is not in
the plane of the cross hairs. Parallax is eliminated by focusing the eyepiece for distinct vision of
the cross hairs and by focusing the objective to bring the image of the object in the plane of cross
hairs.

4.5.2: Permanent adjustments of Level

To check for the permanent adjustments of level two-peg test method should be
performed. The collimation error will not be permissible below 1:10,000

4.5.3: Two–Peg Test

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 A level, an instrument used for leveling, consists of the following fundamental lines:
i. The axis of the bubble tube.
ii. The vertical axis.
iii. The axis of the telescope and
iv. The line of collimation.

Desired relationship of the fundamental lines is:

i. The line of collimation should be parallel to the axis of the bubble tube.
ii. The axis of the telescope & line of collimation should coincide.
iii. The axis of the bubble tube should be perpendicular to the vertical axis of the level.

Though, all the instruments are properly adjusted by the manufactures, their
fundamental lines get disturbed due to mishandling, continuous use of the instruments in the site.
When the line of collimation is not parallel to the axis of the bubble tube, it is called collimation
error. The collimation error in the instrument can be calculated and adjusted by the two peg test
method.

Fig. Two peg test

For two peg test, two staffs are placed at two points A and B of known length
between them. First, the instrument is setup at the center of A & B and staff readings (top,

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middle, and bottom) are taken at both points. Then the instrument is placed near A and again both
staff readings are taken. Then computation is done in order to check whether the adjustment is
required or not. The error is given as:
e = (a-b)-(a’-b’)
Precision = 1: (L/e)
(The collimation error will not be permissible below 1:10,000. The calculation is done in Index.)

4.5.4: Fly Leveling

The operation of sprit leveling which is employed to determine the elevations of a
number of points some distance apart to establish Bench Marks in the area, is called fly leveling.
It is done regardless of the horizontal positions of the points with respect to each other. It is
sometimes also known as Differential Leveling. In short, fly leveling is done in order to transfer
RL between two points.

 Transferring RL from given Bench Mark (B.M.) to Temporary Bench Mark (T.B.M.) :
To provide vertical controls in topographic map, the elevation of relevant points must
be known so that contour lines can be traced. Leveling was performed to determine the elevation
of different points.
The nearby bench mark (B.M) is on inside the premises of Budhanilkantha Temple
which is about 600m 1.7 from the School main entrance gate. The given RL of bench mark is
,,..,.,.,.,.,., RL was transferred from BM to TBM inside the area and again from TBM to the BM to
close the loop. Closing error should not exceed permissible error i.e. 25 √K where K is distance in
Km.

 Transferring the RL from TBM to the Major and Minor Control Points:
The RL of TBM was found to be …………m. The fly leveling was closed to TBM.
The closing error was within the given accuracy.
The method used during the fly leveling is rise-fall method.

Closing error: The observed value of RL of TBM returning back to the TBM minus the actual RL
of TBM gives closing error, which has to be eliminated before detail surveying.
The closing error was adjusted as below:
Correction to the first leg = error * L1 /ΣL
Correction to the second leg = error * (L1 +L2)/ΣL
Correction to the nth leg = error * (L1 + L2 + …….. +Ln)/ ΣL
Similarly, the Fly Leveling was carried out to transfer RL to minor station by sighting
back sight to major known control points & error was distributed.

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 4.5.5: Reciprocal levelling
The operation of leveling in which difference in elevations between the points is
accurately determined by two sets of reciprocal observations, is called reciprocal leveling.
Reciprocal leveling is employed when it is not possible to set up the level between two points due
to an intervening obstruction such as large water body.

Let A and B be two points on opposite banks of a river. The difference of level
between A and B may be determined as follows:

i. Set up the level very near to A.

ii. Keeping the bubble of the level tube central, take readings on the staff held at A and B.
iii. Let the staff readings on A and B be 'a1' and 'b1' respectively.
iv. Transfer the instrument to B and set it up very near to B.
v. With the bubble at centre of its run, read the staff held at A and at B.
vi. Let the staff readings at A and B be 'a2' and 'b2' respectively.

Let,
h = true difference of level between A and B
e = combined error due to refraction, curvature and imperfect adjustment of the line of
collimation.

Fig. Reciprocal leveling first position

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First position of the level:
The correct reading on staff B = b1 - e
The correct reading on staff A = a1
Assuming A to be higher than B, the true difference of level
h = (b1 – e) – a1
h = (b1–a1) –e ………… (i)

Fig. Reciprocal leveling second position

Second position of the level:

The correct reading on staff B = b2
The correct reading on staff A = a2 - e
The true difference of level
h = b2 – (a2 – e)
h = (b2–a2) + e ……….. (ii)
Adding equation i and ii and dividing by 2, we get
h = (b1-a1) +(b2-a2)
2
I.e. the true difference of level between A and B is equal to the mean of the two apparent
differences of levels.

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 The combined error can be obtained by equating the equations i and ii
i.e. (b1–a1) –e = (b2–a2) + e
e = (b1-a1)- (b2-a2)
2
i.e. the combined error is equal to the half of the difference of the apparent
differences of level.
(The Calculations are shown in the Appendix.)

4.6: Contouring

A contour is an imaginary line, which passes through the points of equal elevation. It is a
line in which the surface of ground is intersected by a level surface. While drawing the contour
lines, the characteristics of the contours should be approached.
Taking the reading at the change point on the ground does the indirect method of locating
contours. The interpolation method is used to draw the contour lines. Interpolation of contours is
done by:
i) Estimation
ii) Arithmetic calculations
iii) Graphical method.

Estimation method is extremely rough and is used for small-scale work only. Generally,
arithmetic calculation method of interpolation is used to draw the contour lines and is performed
as follows:

X−A
Distance from point A = ( )∗D
B−A

Where, X = Elevation of required contour line

A = Elevation of point A
B = Elevation of point B
D = Distance between points A and B

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 CHAPTER 5: ROAD ALIGNMENT SURVEY

5.1: Introduction

Roads are simply the prepared ways between different places for the use of
transportation. Among all forms of transportation, road transport is the nearest to the people.
Roads are one of the most important structures of a country. In case of landlocked country like
ours where we have no boundary connected to sea and the airway is not affordable, road becomes
a major means of transportation. Thus, it has great importance for us.
In this part of the report, we have covered the Road Alignment Survey done along the
left side boundary of the School.

Road alignment survey was done to accomplish the following objectives:

 To Lay the Road around the School area, connecting the two known major stations.
 To select the best possible route for the Road.
 To make the route of the Road such that the number of IP’s were as less as possible to decrease
the number of turnings along the road, making the road smooth and comfortable for vehicles.
 To select number of IP’s at points where road changed its direction; and to design a horizontal
curve at these deflected points.
 To take data for L-section and Cross-section along the suggested route of the road at intervals and
to study the profile and nature of ground along the route. This helps to determine the cut and fill
required for road construction.
 To calculate elevations along road alignment and surrounding area for the preparation of
topographic map of the proposed route.

5.2: Methodology

5.2.1: Reconnaissance
The reconnaissance survey was performed along the proposed route from starting
point and works were done for establishing intersection points where the direction had to be
changed. While returning back the route, the IP’s were fixed. For this the inter visibility of the
stations were checked. Meanwhile the pegs with IP number were driven at these points.

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 5.2.2: Horizontal Alignment
 IP’s were fixed where the route changes horizontal alignment.
 After determining the IP’s for road alignment, the theodolite was set at each IP and the deflection
angles were measured.
 The IP to IP distance was measured by using tape with required accuracy.
 The horizontal curves were set out using the Theodolite at IP and tape.

5.2.3: Setting out curves

 The radius of the curve was first fixed, which was always taken greater than 12m.
 The tangent length and apex distance of the curve were calculated as below:

Let T1MT2 be a simple circular curve.

In figure,
T1 = Beginning of Curve
T2 = End of curve
M = Midpoint of curve
e = Apex distance
IT1 = IT2 = tangent length
∆ = Deflection angle
R = Radius of curve

Fig. Circular curve

Then,
Tangent length, VT1 = VT2 = R * tan(∆/2)
Apex distance, VM = R (sec (∆/2) – 1)
Length of curve, T1MT2 = π * R * ∆ /180˚

 The points T1 and T2 were fixed by measuring the length equal to the tangent length from IP
using a tape.

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 For fixing the midpoint on the curve, the line bisecting the interior angle at IP was found using
theodolite.
 For this, the theodolite was set at angle equal to (180˚-∆)/2 from the preceding road direction.
Then along the bisecting line, point M was fixed at distance equal to apex distance from IP.

5.2.4: Calculation of Chainage of points

 Chainage of Beginning of curve, T1= Chainage of IP – Tangent length.

 Chainage of midpoint of Curve, M = Chainage of T1 +½*Curve length.
 Chainage of end of curve, T2 = Chainage of T1 + Curve length
 Chainage of next IP = Chainage of end of curve T2 + IP to IP distance – tangent length.

5.2.5: Leveling
The level was transferred from given BM to all the IP’s. After covering the road
length, the fly leveling was continued back to the BM making a closed loop for check. The
difference between the RL of BM initially and finally after closing must be less than 25√K mm
where K is distance in Km.

5.3: Map of Road Alignment

The topographic map of road alignment was prepared to a scale of 1:500 using the
various details points taken from the IP.
(The map is shown in Appendix.)

5.4: L-Section

The L-section of road was drawn to have an idea about the nature of the ground
surface and its elevations along the length of the road. RL of points on centre line at 20m interval
was calculated and also that of beginning of curve, midpoint and end of curve were calculated.
The L-section of road was plotted to a scale of 1:1000 horizontally and 1:100 vertically.

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5.5: Cross-Section

Cross-section was drawn at right angle to the longitudinal section of road on either
side of the road centerline, for the purpose of lateral outline of the ground. These are used to
determine the cut and fill required for the construction of road. Cross-sections were prepared at
every 20m interval and at the points: beginning of the curve, midpoint and end of the curve. The
cross-sections were plotted to a scale of 1: 200 for both horizontal and vertical distance.

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 CHAPTER 6: BRIDGE SITE SURVEYING

6.1: Introduction

Bridges are structures constructed to connect localities separated by depressions and

obstructions like deep valley, gorges and rivers. They usually comes as a part of road and helps to
lay and continue the road across these natural obstructions as mentioned above and thereby
making the road short and convenient.
For countries like us where the areas are mostly mountainous and with a number of
rivers flowing, also being a land locked country road becomes a very important means of
transportation. And thus, there may be a number of places where bridges are needed to be
constructed.
This part of the report covers the bridge site survey done at Sallaghari, Nagarkot
during the Survey Camp 2070. The duration of the survey was for two days from 8th of Kartik,
2070 to 9th of Kartik, 2070.

Bridge site survey was carried out with the following objectives:
 Decide the best possible alignment for a bridge to be constructed across the river.
 Determine the bridge axis.
 Take sufficient data to get the length of the bridge proposed.
 Take data for L- section, X- Section of river upstream and downstream for the bridge axis to
study the properties of river, like – discharge of water, bed slope, velocity of water etc.
 Take spot heights of area around the bridge axis for preparation of topographic map.

6.2: Control Points By Triangulation

Fig. Bridge
traverse

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During the survey of bridge we could not measure the length of each side of the traverse by tape
since the river was in deep gorge and also the land topography was very harsh. In case of bridge
survey this type of problem is common. The control points are established using the principle of
triangulation. Thus, we also used triangulation to measure traverse legs that were not possible to
measure by direct means. In this method, base line on each side was measured, and using the
measured angle, the distance was determined by using the sine rule.

6.3: Base Line Measurements

The base lines Z1Z2, Z2Z3 and Z4Z5, Z5Z6 are measured by tape on each side of the
river as base line, although only one leg on each side is sufficient. This is found by two-way
taping with high accuracy. From these lines, the bridge axis and other non-measurable legs were
calculated independently using the sine Rule.

6.4: Field Observation:

The co-ordinate and R.L. of BM was given. R.L of BM was ………and the latitude
and departure was ……… and ……….. respectively. The instrument was set at station Z2 as
shown in figure above and zero set was done at BM and horizontal angle at Z3 was read. Bearing
of line BM to Z2 was measured by compass. From the observed bearing and the horizontal angle
to Z3, bearing of Z2Z3 was determined as in calculation latter. From station Z5, one set
horizontal angle and one set vertical angle were read to stations Z4, Z1, Z2, Z3 and Z6. Similarly,
this process was repeated to all other stations and the data were recorded on the angle
measurement sheet. Two base lines, one on each side were measured accurately to find the bridge
axis independently and to check the accuracy of each other. The three wire staff reading,
horizontal angle and vertical angle at each detail points were read to calculate the distance of
these points from station point and to transfer the RL of instruments to these points by
tacheometry. The R.L. of bench mark (BM) was transferred to each station by fly leveling.

6.5: Topographic map

The R.L. of each detail points were calculated by tacheometry as explained on

previous section. The topographic map of bridge site was prepared to a scale of 1: 400. These
points were plotted with reference to the six traverse stations.
(The topographic map is shown on Appendix.)

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 6.6: L-Section

 The L-Section of river is needed to have an idea about the nature of riverbed and elevations at
different points and its change in gradient along the length of river.
 Using the traverse stations located along the river bank, staff reading at the centre of river at a
distanced of 20m interval and at a point where the river change the direction was taken up to
60m upstream and 40m downstream of the river axis.
 The R.L. was calculated for each of these points.
 The L-section of the river bed was plotted on the graph with horizontal distance and vertical
elevation to a scale of 1:500 and 1:50 respectively.

6.7: Cross-Section
 Cross- section of river at a point extends laterally on either side of the centerline of river at right
angle to the L-Section.
 They are used to determine the lateral outline of the riverbed and to calculate volume of ware
flowing at particular section and also the discharge of water, knowing the velocity at that section.
 Cross-sections were taken at 20m interval extending 60m upstream and 40m downstream of river.
 The cross-section was plotted by using the Topomap of bridge site previously plotted.
 The cross-sections were plotted on the scale of 1:100 for both horizontal distance and vertical
elevation.

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 CHAPTER 7: CURVE SETTING

7.1: Transition Curve

A transition curve is a curve of varying radius introduced between a straight and a

circular curve or between two of a compound or reverse curve. The transition curve provides a
gradual change from the straight line to the circular curve and again from the circular curve to the
straight line. Transition curves are required on road and the rail- ways to minimize discomfort at
the sudden change in curvature at the junction of a straight and a curve.

A transition curve should satisfy the following basic criteria

 It should be tangential to the straight line, and meet the circle curve also tangentially at the
junction.
 Its curvature should be zero (radius = infinity) at the one end where it meets the straight, and it
should be equal to the radius the circular curve.
 The rate of change of curvature of curve along the transition curve should be equal to the rate of
increase of super – elevation.
 The length of the transition curve should be fixed such that full super elevation is achieved at the
junction with the circular curve.

7.2: Elements of Transition Curve

Shift: The distance through which the main circular curve is shifted inward to accommodate transition
curve is called the shift. It is denoted by ‘S’.
S= L2 /24R

Spiral Angle: The angle between the back tangent and tangent at the junction of the spiral transition
curve with the circular curve is called spiral angle, Ø.
Ø = L /2R radian

Tangent length of Transition Curve: The total length from the straight point of transition curve to the
point of intersection of curve is the tangent length of transition curve. The length T’1B is the tangent
length.

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T’1B = (R+S) tan Δ/2 + L/2
Length of Composite Curve: The total curve length from start to end of the curve including length
of circular curve is the length of composite curve.
Length of composite curve = 2L + πR (Δ -2Ø)
180º
Length of circular curve = πR (Δ -2Ø)
180º

Chainage of T’1 = Chainage of B - {(R+S) tan Δ/2 + L/2}

Chainage of T’2 = Chainage of T’1 + 2L + πR (Δ -2Ø)

180º

Fig. Position of transition curves

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 7.3: Setting out of transition curve
Deflection method (refer Fig 2)
 The positions of tangent points (T& T’) are located by measuring back and along the forward the
tangent length from P.I.
 The thodolite is set at T and line of sight is directed towards V with zero set.
 The vernier plate is released and set the vernier to first deflection angle α1. Thus the line of sight
is directed to the first peg on the transition curve.
 The length of tape equal to first chord length is swing with zero of tape at T, till the aero held at
that distance along the tape is bisected by line of sight.
 The angle α2 is set in the circle so that line of sight is directed to the second point. With zero of
the tape pinned at T and aero is hold at a distance equal to length of second chord along the line
of sight, thus second point is fixed.
 The procedure is repeated till the junction point of transition and simple circular curve is
obtained. Its position is checked by measuring offset equal to L2/6R (=4s).
 To set out the circular curve, the theodolite is shifted to junction point. To orient the theodolite
with reference to the common tangent, the line of sight is directed towards DT with reading equal
to (360o-2/3(Δs)) for right hand curve. When the theodolite is rotated at an angle 2/3Δs, the line
of sight is thus directed along DD1. The line of sight is then directed along the tangent D1D by
transiting it, with reference to which deflection angles of circular curve have been calculated. The
reading on the circle would be zero when line of sight is thus correctly oriented. The vernier plate
is released and the first deflection angle Δ1 is set and with zero end of tape at D and arrow held at
a distance equal to first sub-chord, the first peg on the circular curve is located by bisecting the
arrow. The other pegs are located by setting the vernier reading equal to corresponding deflection
angle and taking the length equal to normal chord of 5m. For every point chord distance is
measured from previous point.
 The other transition curves is set out from T’ as before. For transition curve portion the chord
distance is measured from T/T’ and not from the previous point as in circular curve.

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Fig 2: Deflection method

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