SURVEYING II

Chapter one
Topographic Surveying

By Yidnekachew Debela

Arba Minch University

Contact
Yidnezmikael12@gmail.com
Chapter contents
1.1 Definition of Topographic surveying
1.2 Topographic Mapping
1.3 General methods
1.4 stadia tachometry
1.5 Contour lines
1.6 Characteristics of Contours
1.7 Methods of Contouring
1.8 Interpolation of Contours
1.9 USES OF CONTOUR MAP
1. Introduction
1.1 Topographic surveying
• Topographic surveying is the process of determining the
positions, on the earth's surface, of the natural and artificial
features of a given locality, and of determining the
configuration of the terrain.
• The location of the features is known as planimetry and the
configuration of the terrain is known as topography.
• Topography refers to the characteristics of the land surface.
These characteristics include relief, natural features, and
artificial (or man-made) features.
Cont…
• Planimetric Maps • Show only the horizontal position of geographic
and cultural features • Do not show topographic features • Show
accurate horizontal distances
Cont.…
• Relief is the configuration of the earth’s surface and includes
such features as hills, valleys, plains, summits, depressions, and
other natural features, such as trees, streams, and lakes. Man-
made features are highways, bridges, dams, buildings, and so
forth.
• A graphic representation of the topography of an area is called a
topographic map. A topographic map is simply a drawing that
shows the natural and artificial features of an area.
• A topographic survey is a survey conducted to obtain the data
needed for the preparation of a topographic map. This data
consists of the horizontal and vertical locations of the features to
be shown on the map
Cont.…

• The purpose of the survey is to gather data necessary for the

preparation of the topographic map that displays both the
planimetric and topographic features which are very essential
for the planning and designing of the most engineering
projects such as location of highways, railways, design of
irrigation and drainage systems, the development of
hydroelectric power, layout of city planning and industrial
plant.
Cont.…

• In this chapter, you will study methods and procedures used

to perform topographic surveying and to prepare topographic
maps.
• The fieldwork in a topographic survey consists principally of
(1)the establishment of a basic framework of horizontally and
vertically located control points (called instrument points or
stations) and
(2)the determination of the horizontal and vertical locations of
details in the vicinity of each instrument point. We will
begin our discussions with topographic control.
1.1.1 Topographic control consists of two parts:

• Horizontal control, which locates the horizontally fixed

position of specified control points, and
• Vertical control, in which the elevations of specified bench
marks are established. This control provides the framework
from which topographic details, such as roads, buildings,
rivers, and the elevation of ground points, are located.
Cont.…
• The methods and the instruments used in topographic surveys depend
upon the purpose of the survey, the degree of precision needed, the
nature of the terrain to be covered, the map scale, and the contour
interval.
• For a high degree of accuracy, you should locate azimuths with a total
station. Measure horizontal distances with the chain or the electronic
distance measurement (EDM) device. Determine elevations with a
level.
1.2 Topographic Mapping
• One of the purposes of a topographic map is to depict relief. In
fact, this is the main feature that makes a topographic map
different from other types of maps.  
• Relief is the term for variance in the vertical configuration of the
earth’s surface. You may see relief can be shown in a plotted
profile or cross section.
• These, however, are views on a vertical plane, but a topographic
map is a view on a horizontal plane. On a map of this type, relief
may be indicated by the following methods.
Cont.…
• A  relief  model  is  a  three-dimensional  relief presentation a  molded  or  sculptured
 model,  developed in suitable horizontal and vertical scales, of the hills and valleys in
the area.
• Shading is a pictorial method of showing relief by the use of light and dark areas to
suggest the shadows that would be created by parallel rays of light shining across the
area at a given angle.
• Hachures area pictorial method similar to shading except that the light-and-dark
pattern is created by short hachure lines, drawn parallel to the steepest slopes. Relative
steepness or flatness is suggested by varying the lengths and weights of the lines.
• Contour lines are lines of equal elevation; that is, each contour line on a map is
drawn through a succession of points that are all at the same elevation. A contour is
the real-life equivalent; that is, a line of equal elevation on the earth’s surface.
Cont.…

Figure 1.2 Methods of indicating topography

Cont.…
• The contour-line method is the one most commonly used on
topographic maps. All engineering construction projects
require maps or site plans. All engineers must know how to
make maps, to be better able to interpret them.
• Maps for ordinary people must be clear and easily understood
if they are to give maximum service.
• Most maps are made for some definite reason. For example
to show topography, boundary of properties, precise location
of traverse points, routes of highways or railways, soil
erosion control areas, forest areas, mineral lands and other
features.
1.2.1 Map drafting

There are four stages:

• Plotting the traverse
• Plotting details
• Drawing the topography and special data
• Finishing the map
1.2.2 Use of Topographic Maps
• The purpose of Topographic surveying is to gather data necessary for the
construction of the topographic map that displays both the planimeter and
topographic features.: -
1. Industrial Plants
2. Rail ways & high ways
3. Irrigation & drainage scheme
4. Hydroelectric power station
5. a building complex
6. Bridges, tunnels and dams etc..
• The user of the map should be able to interpret the map as a model of the
ground. They are necessary aids in the design of any engineering project that
requires consideration of landforms, elevations or gradients.
• They also furnish necessary data for economists, geologists, and others
interested in the general development of natural resources
1.3 General methods applied to gather the necessary data for
the preparation of a topographic map
1. Transit stadia method (Ground method):
• This is done by means of total station or theodolite (stadia tachometer), as well as with
levels, tapes. This method is economic and suitable for relatively small areas.
2. Photogrammetric method:
• Aerial photographs are used to gather the necessary ground data. It is an economic
method for larger areas and projects and it overcomes “difficult access areas “problems
in the area to be mapped.
• The accuracy of photogrammetry mainly depends upon the scale of the aerial
photographs. The ground work is only limited to establishing horizontal and vertical
ground control points (e.g. through traversing and levelling) that must be clearly defined
and well-distributed over the target area and a final terrestrial field check should be
made.
Cont.…

• The aerial photographs are measured stereoscopically (three-

dimensionally) by means of a special instrument called stereo plotter.
• With the help of such stereo plotters the contour lines and positions of
all topographic features can be determined.

3. Remote sensing method: satellite images will be used to produce a

map but with low spatial accuracy comparatively.
1.4 stadia tachometry procedure in topographic
surveying
1. RECONNAISSANCE
• The term reconnaissance means the first inspection of the target area
in terms of existing control points, possible sites for new observation
stations, as well as the permanent marking of those stations, detection
of possible obstacles and possible solutions to overcome them etc.
• With other words, after the first inspection, one has got some idea
(mental map) about the terrain and the features of the ground. In
reconnaissance survey the major activities done are:
• Site observation
• Roughly sketch features
• Roughly sketch control stations
• Estimate duration of time to accomplish
Cont.…

At a minimum reconnaissance surveys should document the following:

 The boundaries of the area to be surveyed
 The method of survey
 Features to be surveyed in the site
2. Establishing control stations
• The establishing of horizontal and vertical control points is the most
essential part and is the first step in the field work process of
topographic surveying, since the three-dimensional coordinates (X, Y,
Z) of each point to be surveyed can only be determined with respect to
well established reference points.
• In stadia method most commonly traversing with theodolite is applied
for establishing reference points.
• with level ,the elevations of the traverse stations are determined. The
controls are used for the basis of the topographic survey measurements.
An error in the control will be reflected in errors in the position and/or
elevation of the topography.
• Types of controls : Horizontal and Vertical
1. HORIZONTAL CONTROL
• Is provided by two or more points on the ground and precisely fixed in
position by distance and direction.
• Is the basis for map scale and locating topographic features.
• For small areas, horizontal control for topographic work is usually
established by a traverse, but sometimes a single straight line may be
used.
1. VERTICAL CONTROL
• Is provided by bench marks in or near the tract to be surveyed.
• Is the foundation for correctly portraying relief and elevation on a map.
• Vertical controls are usually established by lines of levels starting and
closing on bench marks.
Cont.…
Most commonly traversing with EDM (Electronic Distance
Measurement) and/or satellite technology (GPS) is applied for
establishing reference points. It is very important to close the level
circuit in order to check the levelling work
3. Preparation of base map
• In Preparation of base map :
1. Arrange the paper shape in portrait or landscape
2. Determine map area and marginal area
3. Drawing cardinal direction
4. Determine scale
5. Grids drawing and labelling Scale determination:
The scale of a map should be selected according to the purpose of the
map. For the first planning stage of a civil engineering project (e.g. a big
bridge) a small-scale map might be adequate, but for detailed planning
(e.g. for the wing wall of the bridge), large-scale maps would be
required.
The scale is usually selected before commencing the fieldwork. If the
scale is (say) 1:500, distances in the field should be measured to the
nearest 0.10-.15m
4. Stadia tacheometry

• A rapid and efficient method of measuring distances. surveys, but is

accurate enough for trigonometric leveling, locating topography
details, and some traverses. transits, and levels.
• The stadia lines on the telescope reticle correspond to the focal
distance.
• This ratio will always be supplied by the manufacturer of the
equipment. For most levels, transits, and theodolites the stadia lines
correspond to hundredth (1/100) of the focal distance.
TELESCOPE HORIZONTAL

The horizontal distance between a and b:

L = 100 x l
The height difference between a and b:
h = h1 - h2
TELESCOPE NOT HORIZONTAL
• Preparation of a field book where all measured features, such as roads,
buildings, trees, ditches, fences, manholes, spot heights etc. are entered.
• In the case of stadia tacheometry all relevant readings, such as
horizontal angles, vertical angles, the three stadia readings, and the
instrument height are booked in a special form.
• The distances and elevations are calculated in the office and
subsequently the three dimensional coordinates (X, Y, Z) of each
surveyed point can be determined if necessary.
• The heights of prominent points of some elevated features such as
mountain summits or hill tops and the bottom of depressions are called
spot heights.
• In addition, the characteristic valley lines and ridge lines, as well as
the lines of steepest slopes have to be surveyed.
• The determination of the location of a point by measuring the
horizontal angle and the distance from instrument station to that point
is also called “radial positioning”
• In case of stadia techeometry the following data are measured and
booked:
1. point number of point to be surveyed
2. instrument height (can be determined with a tape )
3. horizontal angle
4. vertical angle ( most commonly the zenith angle)
5. upper, middle and lower staff reading
Table for Stadia method of topographic surveying (tachometry)
5. Plotting of the topographic (stadia) features

• Plotting: refers to the transfer of survey data to the map.

• Before starting plotting the required size of the map sheet can easily
be determined by examining the extreme station coordinates.
• The plotting of all topographic features, including spot heights, can be
done most easily with the use of a protractor and an engineer scale.
• The centre of the protractor is held with a hand exactly over the
observation station
Cont….

• Then, either the zero degree mark or the known azimuth is lined up
with the respective traverse side in order to orient the protractor
properly.
• The desired angle or azimuth of the points is then taken from the field
notes and noted along the edge of the protractor, and fine points are
marked at these positions (to avoid mixing up of points, the point
numbers are written next to the points).
Cont….
• With a scale, the distances, also taken from the field notes, are then set out
from the protractor centre (traverse station) and going through the respective
previously marked points.
• The end points are marked with a sharp pencil (just a point with a small
circle around), and labeled with their point numbers and elevations. When
all points of one station have been plotted, the protractor is moved to the
next position, and the process continues.
• The points are then connected as illustrated in the field book.
• Plotting and drawing for surveying purposes has nothing to do with
architectural drawing, and therefore an artistic portrayal of the topography
should be avoided. However, a map title with the map scale, a north arrow
and a legend (explanation of the used symbols) are indispensable items of
each topographic map.
Cont….
• The points are then connected as illustrated in the field book.
• Plotting and drawing for surveying purposes has nothing to do with
architectural drawing, and therefore an artistic portrayal of the
topography should be avoided. However, a map title with the map
scale, a north arrow and a legend (explanation of the used symbols)
are indispensable items of each topographic map.
6. Relief representation

• How to show the ups and down (relief) on a plane sheet of

paper is one of the many problems that have been facing the
mapmakers throughout the history of map making.
• Still the maker cannot ignore the problem because the relief
is one of the most important properties of the earth’s surface,
with vital influence upon man and his activities.
• It is therefore, very important that the map should inform us
as accurately as possible about the relief of an area.
• Topography may be represented on a map by relief models, shading,
color gradients, hachure, form lines or contour lines. Of these
representation techniques, only contour lines indicate elevations
directly and quantitatively.
• The rest of the chapter is mainly devoted to representation of
topography by contour lines and conventional symbols. But first the
uses of the plane-table instrument will be discussed, as it is the most
versatile instrument used in compiling topographic maps by any of
the field methods.
• The topographic features and contour lines, plotted in a certain scale,
form the topographic map(plan). This map shows the horizontal
distances between the features, their location and elevations above a
given datum
1.5 Contour lines

• Contour lines are an imaginary line on the ground surface joining the
points of equal elevation is known as contour.
• Contours begin at sea level, normally the zero contour, and each
contour line represents an elevation above (or below) sea level.
• The distance between adjacent contour lines is as the contour interval.
 Starting at zero elevation the topographer draws every fifth contour
line with a heavier line.
• These are known as index contours.
• At some place along each index contour, the line is broken and its
elevation is given. The contour lines falling between index contours
are called intermediate contours. They are drawn with a finer line than
the index contours and, usually, do not have their elevations given.
1.5.1 Contour Interval and Horizontal Equivalent

• The constant vertical distance between two consecutive contours is

called the contour interval.
• On a given map the successive contour lines represent elevation
differing by a fixed vertical distance called the contour interval.
• The horizontal distance between two points on the consecutive contour
lines for a given slope, is the horizontal equivalent.
• The contour interval is constant between the consecutive contours
while the horizontal equivalent is variable and depends upon the slope
of the ground.
1.5.2 Factors on which Contour Interval depends

• The contour interval depends upon the following factors:-

i) The Nature of the Ground. In flat and uniformly sloping country, the
contour interval is small, but in broken and mountainous region the
contour interval should be large otherwise the contours will come too
close to each other.
ii) The Purpose and extent of the survey. Contour interval is small if the
area to be surveyed is small and the maps are required to be used for
detailed design work or for determining the accurate quantities of earth
work etc. while wider interval shall have to be kept for large areas and
comparatively less important works. .
• In case of location surveys, for lines of communications and for reservoir
and drainage areas, where the extent of survey is large, a large contour
interval should be used.
• If the contour interval is small, greater time and funds will be required in
the field survey, in reduction and in plotting the map.
• iii) The Scale of the Map. The contour interval should be in the inverse
ratio to the scale of the map i.e. the smaller the scale, the greater is the
contour interval.
• iv) Time and Expense of Field and Office work. The smaller the interval,
the greater is the amount of field-work and plotting work.
1.5.3 Common Values of the Contour Interval
• The following are the common values of the contour interval adopted for
various purposes:-
• For large scale maps of flat country, for building sites, for detailed design
work and Calculation of quantities of earth work; 0.2 to 0.5 m.
• For reservoirs and town planning schemes; 0.5 to 2m
• For location surveys; 2 to 3m.
• For small scale maps of broken country and general topographic
work; 3m,5m,10m,or 25m.
1.6 CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOURS
• The following characteristics help in plotting or reading a contour map
• 6.) Contour lines cannot begin or end on the plan. A contour line
must close itself but need not be necessary within the limit of the
map.

7. A closed contour indicates either a summit or depression.

A hachured, closed contour line indicates a depression
• 8. As contour lines represent contours of different elevation on the
ground, they cannot merge or cross one another on the map, except in
cases where there is an overhanging cliff or cave, or bridge abutments.

9. As contour lines represents level lines, they are perpendicular to the lines of steepest slope.
They are perpendicular to ridge and valley lines where they cross such lines
 10. On uniform slopes, the contour lines are spaced uniformly.

11. Contours deflect uphill at valley lines and downhill at ridge line; line crossing are perpendicular: U-shaped for
ridge crossings; V-shaped for valley crossings. The concavity in contours lines is towards higher ground in the case
of ridge and towards lower ground in the case of valley.

Valley Ridge
 12.A series of closed contour lines on the map represent a hill, if the
higher values are inside.

13. A series of closed contour lines on the map indicate a depression if the higher values are
outside.
• 14. Contours of different elevations cannot unite (never run into one
another) to form one contour, except in the case of a vertical cliff. In
this case, several contours coincide and the horizontal equivalent
becomes zero

15. Depressions between summits is called a saddle. It is represented by four sets of contours as shown. It represents a
dip in a ridge or the junction of two ridges. And in the case of a mountain range, it takes the form of a pass. Line passing
through the saddles and summits gives water shed line.

16. Contours do not have sharp turnings

Figure 1.4 Typical contour characteristic
Figure 1.4 Typical contour characteristic
1.7 Interpolation of Contours
• Interpolation refers to the process of determining intermediate values
between two observed data points.
• The assumption is made that the ground slope between two adjacent
points is constant (in a straight line).
• The interpolation is therefore linear. Interpolation is necessary because
the series of points observed in the field do not necessarily lie exactly
on the contour lines shown on the map; it is not practical to locate and
measure every point on a “round” or whole-number contour.
Cont…
• Two methods are mainly applied for linear interpolation, namely the
mathematical interpolation and the graphical interpolation.
• No matter which method is applied, the linear interpolation is always
done along the direction of the steepest slope! Mathematical method:
Also sometimes referred to as calculation method.
• The following example shows the principle:
 Mathematical method

• Figure 8 illustrates a vertical section through the ground. Point A and B are observed
ground points with its elevations 125,40 m and 127,70 m respectively. The horizontal
distance between the two points is 24,0 m.
• Wanted is the position of the “round-number” contour lines 126,0 m and 127,0 m
along the line AB: X1: (126,0-125,4) = 24,0:2,30 X2: (127,0-125,4) = 24,0:2,30
X1 = 6,26 m X2 = 16,70 m
Graphical method
• Graphical method: with this interpolation method the work is done
very quickly and also quite accurate, some practice provided.
• A sheet of tracing paper is needed on which parallel lines are drawn to
represent the desired contour interval.
• The distance between two parallel lines on the tracing paper must be
chosen that way, that the distance, perpendicular to the parallel lines
on the tracing paper, for the elevation difference between point A and
B is shorter than the distance AB itself. Figure 13 illustrates the
method:
Cont…
1.7.1 Drawing the Contour lines
• Contour lines are drawn as fine and smooth free hand curved lines.
Sometimes they are represented by broken lines .They are inked in
either in black or brown color.
• A drawing pen gives a better line than a writing pen and French curves
should be used as much as possible .Every fifth contour is made thicker
than the rest.
• The elevation of contours must be written in a uniform manner, either
on the higher side or in a gap left in the line .
• When the contour lines are very long, their elevations are written at two
or three places along the contour .
• In the case of small scale maps, it is sufficient to figure every fifth
contour.
1.9 USES OF CONTOUR MAP

• Determination of the characteristics of the terrain or features of the

ground, whether it is flat, undulating or mountainous.
• Selection of suitable site
• Determination cross-section. From a contour map, sections may be
easily drawn in any direction.
• Inter-visibility between two points. Inter-visibility between two
ground points plotted on map can be ascertained.
Cont..
• It enables an engineer to approximately select the most economical or
suitable site for an engineering project such as a road, a railway, a
canal or a pipe line etc.
• Location of route. A route of a given grade can be traced on the map.
• Determination of the catchments area. Catchment area and capacity of
a reservoir may be determined from the contour map.
• Contour map may be used to determine the quantities of earth work.
eg. Estimation of reservoir capacity
Match the contour line with the profile of land
Answer
Thank you