CHAPTER ONE

Definition, Categories, and Purpose of Surveying

Definition

Surveying is the process of determining the relative position of natural and manmade features on
or beneath the earth’s surface, and presentation of this information either graphically in the form
of plans or numerically in the form of tables, and the setting out of measurements on the earth’s
surface. It usually involves measurement, calculations, the production of plans, and the
determination of specific locations.

The surveyor may be called on to determine heights and distances; to set out buildings, bridges
and roadways; to determine areas and volumes and to draw plans at a predetermined scale.

Before any project work commence, Reconnaissance Survey is carried out

Survey it is the preliminary survey. It is used at commencement of any project work through
suggesting possible alternative paths and routes. It needs to be done with greater efficiency and
cost accuracy for identifying these alternative paths and routes. It is the process of identifying
variable possible routes and evaluating possibility of these routes in a highway between the
specific points. This is done especially for new projects in some cases the aerial photographs are
primarily used.

The process of surveying may be of three stages namely:

(i) Taking a general view this part of the definition is important as it indicates the need to
obtain an overall picture of what is required before any type of survey work is
undertaken. In land surveying, this is achieved during the reconnaissance study.
(ii) Observation and Measurement This part of the definition denotes the next stage of any
survey, which in land surveying constitutes the measurement to determine the relative
position and sizes of natural and artificial features on the land.
(iii) Presentation of Data: the data collected in any survey must be presented in a form which
allows the information to be clearly interpreted and understood by others. This
presentation may take the form of written report, bills of quantities, datasheets, and
drawings and in land surveying maps and plan showing the features on the land.
THERE ARE THREE MAJOR CATEGORIES/BRANCHES OF SUEVEYING:

(I) Aerial Surveying:

Aerial surveys are undertaken by using photographs taken with special cameras
mounted in an aircraft viewed in pairs. The photographs produce three-dimensional
images of ground features from which maps or numerical data can be produced
usually with the aid of stereo plotting machines and computers.
(II) Land Surveying:
Land surveying is the art and science of establishing or re-establishing corners, lines,
boundaries, and monuments of real property (land) based upon recorded documents,
historical evidence, and present standards of practice. Land Surveying also includes
associated services such as analysis and utilization of survey data, subdivision
planning and design, writing legal descriptions, mapping, construction layout, and
precision measurements of angle, length, area, and volume.
(A) Geodetic Survey:
In geodetic survey, large areas of the earth surface are involved usually on national basis
where survey stations are precisely located large distances apart. Account is taken of the
curvature of the earth; hence it involves advanced mathematical theory and precise
measurements are required to be made. Geodetic survey stations can be used to map out
entire continent, measure the size and shape of the earth or in carrying out scientific
studies such as determination of the Earth’s magnetic field and direction of continental
drifts.
(B) Plane Surveying:
In plane surveying relatively small areas are involved and the area under consideration is
taken to be a horizontal plane. Plane surveying deals with areas of limited extent and it is
assumed that the earth’s surface is a plane and therefore no corrections necessary for the
earth’s curvature.

1. The measurement of areas.

2. The making of plans in connection with legal document (including land transfer),
Parliamentary bill etc.

3. The making of plane connection with the work of the civil engineer, architect, builder,
structural engineer and two planners.

4. The making of plans and map for military, geographical, geological and other purposes.

Plane Surveying is subdivided into three branches.

 Cadastral surveying
 Topographical surveying
 Engineering surveying
Cadastral surveying

• These are surveys undertaken to define and record the boundary of properties, legislative area
and even countries.

• It may be almost entirely topographical where features define boundaries with the
topographical details appearing on ordinance survey maps.

• In the other hand, accurately surveyed beacons or markers define boundaries, corner or line
points and little account may be taken of the topographical features.

Topographical Survey

• These are surveys where the physical features on the earth are measured and maps/plans
prepared to show their relative positions both horizontally and vertically.

• The relative positions and shape of natural and man –made features over an area are established
usually for the purpose of producing a map of the area of for establishing geographical
information system.

Engineering Surveying

• Are surveying undertaken to provide special information for construction of Civil Engineering
and building projects.
• The survey supply details for an engineering schemes and could include setting out of the work
on the ground and dimensional control on such schemes.

Differences between Geodetic and Plane Surveying

 In Geodetic Surveying: the curvature of earth is considered.

 In Plane Surveying: Curvature of the earth is not taken into consideration.
 In Geodetic Surveying: The survey is done on large area greater than 250km2.
 In Plane Surveying: The survey is done on smaller area less than 250km2.
 In Geodetic surveying, line joining two points of triangle formed by three points is
considered as curved line of spherical triangle and angles of triangle are considered as
spherical angles.
 In plane surveying, line joining any two points of triangle formed by any three points is
considered as straight line and plane triangle are assumed to be plane angles.
 In plane surveying, line joining any two points of triangle formed by any three points is
considered as straight line and plane triangle are assumed to be plane angles.
 In Geodetic Surveying: High accuracy is required.
 In Plane Surveying: The required accuracy is competitively low.
 In Geodetic Surveying: Very refined methods and instruments are used.
 In Plane Surveying: Simple methods and instruments can be used as the required
accuracy is low.
 In Geodetic, it is done by the government department while in Plane can be done by
individual.

Remote Sensing can be done for both Plane and Geodetic Surveying

This is the science and art of obtaining information about an object, area or phenomenon through
the analysis, interpretation, classification and identification of data acquired by a device that is
not in contact with the object, area of phenomenon under investigation. The data are remotely
collected by sensors. These sensors measure and record the variation in the electromagnetic
energy emitted or reflected by various features on the earth surface. They are usually operated
from an airborne platform. The data collected may be of any form – variation in force
distribution, acoustic wave distribution or electromagnetic energy distribution.
 (III) Marine/Hydrographic Surveying
Marine or Hydrographic Survey is conducted to find depth of water at various points
in bodies of water like sea, river and lakes fall under this category. Finding depth of
water at specified points is known as sounding.
Hydrographic surveys Integrate Ocean and Coast Mapping program, providing
information for a number of purposes, including seafloor structural construction,
laying pipelines and cables, dredging, anchoring and understanding fish habitats.

• Hydro survey is undertaken to gather information in the marine environment such as mapping
out the coast lines and seabed to produce navigational charts.
• It is also used for offshore oil exploration and production, design, construction and
maintenance of harbors, inland water routes, river and sea defense, pollution control and ocean
studies.

Application of Hydrographic Surveying

(1) Dock and Harbor Engineering (2) Irrigation Engineering River Works
(3) Land reclamation (4) Waterpower (5) Floor Control (6) Sewage Disposal.

CLASSIFICATIONS OF SURVEYING BASE ON OBJECT OF SURVEY

On the basis of object of survey the classification can be as engineering survey, military survey,
mines survey, geological survey and archeological survey.

(a) Engineering Survey: The objective of this type of survey is to collect data for designing
civil engineering projects like roads, railways, and irrigation, water supply and sewage
disposals. Reconnaissance Survey is carried for determining feasibility and estimation of
the scheme.
(b) Military Survey: This survey is meant for working out plans of strategic importance.
(c) Mines Survey: This is used for exploring mineral wealth.
(d) Geological Survey: This survey is for finding different strata in the earth’s crust.
(e) Archeological Survey: This survey is for unearthing relics of antiquity.

Classification of Surveying Based on Instruments Used

(i) Chain survey (ii) Compass survey (iii) Plane table survey (iv) Theodolite survey (v)
Tachometric survey (vi) Modern survey using electronic distance meters and total station (vii)
Photographic and Aerial survey.

Classification Based on Methods Employed

On this basis surveying is classified as triangulation and traversing.

(i) Triangulation: In this method control points are established through a network of
triangles.
(ii) Traversing: In this scheme of establishing control points consists of a series of
connected points established through linear and angular measurements. If the last
 line meets the starting point it is called as closed traverse. If it does not meet, it is
known as open traverse

CLASSIFICATION OF SURVEYORS

Surveying is made up of various specializations known as sectors or classes as shown below:

1. General Practice Surveyors:

 Surveyors under this class are mostly concerned with valuation and investment.
Valuation surveyors deal with property markets, land and property values, valuation
procedures and property law. Investment surveyors help investors to get the best
possible return form property.
 They handle a selection of properties for purchase or sale by pension funds, insurance
companies, charities, and other major investors. They also specialize in housing
policy advice, housing development and management.
2. Planning and Development Surveyors:
 They are concerned with preparing planning applications and negotiating with local
authorities’ planners to obtain planning permission.
3. Building Surveyors •
 Their work involves advising on the construction, maintenance, repair, and
refurbishment of all types of residential and commercial property.
 The analysis of building defects is an important part of a building surveyors’
discipline.
4. The Quantity Surveyors:
  They evaluate project cost and advice on alternative proposals. They also ensure that
each element of a project agrees with the cost plan allowance and that the overall
project remains within budget.
5. Rural Practice Surveyors:
 Surveyors in rural practice advice landowners, farmers, and others with interests in
the countryside.
 They are responsible for the management of country estates and farms, the planning
and execution of development schemes for agriculture, forestation, recreation, sales
of properties and livestock.
6. Mineral Surveyors:
 They plan the development and future of mineral workings. They work with local
authorities and the landowners on planning applications and appeals, mining laws and
working rights, mining subsidence and damage, the environmental effects of land and
rehabilitation of derelict land and deep underground mines.
7. Land surveyors:
 They measure land and its physical features accurately and record them in the form of
a map or plan for the purpose of planning new building and by local authorities in
managing roads, housing estates, and other facilities.
 They also undertake the positioning and monitoring for construction works.

OBJECTIVE AND USES OF SURVEYING

As stated in the definition, objective of surveying is to show relative positions of various objects
of an area on paper and produce plan or map of that area. Various uses of surveying are listed
below:

(i) Plans prepared to record property lines of private, public and government lands help in
avoiding unnecessary controversies.
(ii) Maps prepared for marking boundaries of countries, states, districts etc., avoid disputes.
(iii) Locality plans help in identifying location of houses and offices in the area.
(iv) Road maps help travelers and tourist.
(v) Topographic maps showing natural features like rivers, streams, hills, forests help in
planning irrigation projects and flood control measures.
(vi) For planning and estimating project works like roads, bridges, railways, airports, water
supply and waste water disposal surveying is required.
(vii) Marine and hydrographic survey helps in planning navigation routes and harbors.
(viii) Military survey is required for strategic planning.
(ix) Mine surveys are required for exploring mineral wealth.
(x) Geological surveys are necessary for determining different strata in the earth crust so that
proper location is found for reservoirs.
(xi) Archeological surveys are useful for unearthing relics of antiquity.
(xii) Astronomical survey helps in the study of movements of planets and for calculating local
and standard times.