Introduction:

• Surveying is defined as …taking a general view of, by observation and

measurement determining the boundaries, size, position, quantity, condition,
value etc. of land, estates, building, farms mines etc. and finally presenting the
survey data in a suitable form…. This covers the work of the valuation surveyor,
the quantity surveyor, the building surveyor, the mining surveyor and so forth, as
well as the land surveyor.
• Another school of thought define surveying …as the act of making measurement
of the relative position of natural and manmade features on earth…s surface and
the presentation of this information either graphically or numerically.
The process of surveying is therefore in three stages namely:
(i Taking a general view
) This part of the definition is important as it indicates the need to obtain an overall
picture of what is required before any type of survey work is undertaken. In land
surveying, this is achieved during the reconnaissance study.
(ii Observation and Measurement
) This part of the definition denotes the next stage of any survey, which in land
surveying constitutes the measurement to determine the relative position and
sizes of natural and artificial features on the land.
(iii Presentation of Data:
) The data collected in any survey must be presented in a form which allows the

information to be clearly interpreted and understood by others. This presentation

may take the form of written report, bills of quantities, datasheets, drawings and
in land surveying maps and plan showing the features on the land.

Types of Surveying
On the basis of whether the curvature of the earth is taken into account or not,
surveying can be divided into two main categories:
Plane surveying: is the type of surveying where the mean surface of the earth is
considered as a plane. All angles are considered to be plane angles. For small areas less
than 250 km2 plane surveying can safely be used. For most engineering projects such as
canal, railway, highway, building, pipeline, etc constructions, this type of surveying is
used. It is worth noting that the difference between an arc distance of 18.5 km and the
subtended chord lying in the earth…s surface is 7mm. Also the sum of the angles of a
plane triangle and the sum of the angles in a spherical triangle differ by 1 second for a
triangle on the earth…s surface having an area of 196 km2.

Geodetic surveying: is that branch of surveying, which takes into account the true
shape of the earth (spheroid).
What Is a Land Survey Exactly?
A land survey incorporates three aspects: research, professionalism and technology.

The three elements can be combined to determine the 3D location of points, distances and
angles between the Earth's surfaces by a specialist land surveyor. A skilled surveyor may
classify the land for maps by discovering certain distances, angles and points.

What are the important of surveying in construction?

Surveying plays an extremely important role in any construction project. Construction
surveying can take many forms. It is used to establish the location and alignment of
highways, bridges, buildings, pipes, and other man-made objects. ... For large
projects, photogrammetric methods will be used to develop the base map.

A construction survey is used to establish or mark the desired position of building

corners, roads, sidewalks, or utilities, that the engineer has designed. Particular
attention is made to ensure the building does not encroach or overlap into or over the
designated setbacks, easements, or property line.

Why is construction survey important?

The purpose of doing a construction survey is to maintain and establish the
necessary vertical and horizontal control needed for a construction project. It
includes taking measurements to ascertain quantities, and then put these
measurements in documentation to corroborate the final payments made to the
contractor.

What is the meaning of construction survey?

Three basic objectives of construction survey- ing are (1) providing layout stakes,
located both horizontally and vertically, that construc tion personnel can utilize in
an accurate and efficient manner to position structures or earthwork projects; (2)
ongoing replacement of layout stakes as a project progresses ...

Civil surveying is an engineering operation that involves assessing and recording

details about an area of land. These observations can then be used to help plan
construction projects. The main purpose of surveying in civil engineering is to determine
the three-dimensional relationships between different locations.

What is the meaning of construction survey?

 Three basic objectives of construction survey- ing are (1) providing layout stakes,
located both horizontally and vertically, that construc tion personnel can utilize in
an accurate and efficient manner to position structures or earthwork projects; (2)
ongoing replacement of layout stakes as a project progresses ...

Civil surveying is an engineering operation that involves assessing and recording

details about an area of land. These observations can then be used to help plan
construction projects. The main purpose of surveying in civil engineering is to determine
the three-dimensional relationships between different locations.

What are the methods of surveying for construction?

Equipment and techniques used in construction surveying

With computerisation, electronic distance measurement (EDM), total stations, GPS

surveying and laser scanning have supplemented (and to a large extent supplanted)
the traditional optical instruments.

How important is survey in civil engineering?

Since civil engineering involves directly impacting the environment (often in a significant way),
surveys are incredibly important. Surveys make sure that protected environment isn't
adversely affected, that the structure is safe, and that the project is overall as efficient as
possible.

WHAT IS CIVIL SURVEYING?

Civil surveying is an engineering operation that involves assessing and recording details
about an area of land. These observations can then be used to help plan construction
projects.
The main purpose of surveying in civil engineering is to determine the three-dimensional
relationships between different locations. Knowing information like the distances and
angles between points and lines helps engineers determine how to draw up plans for
public buildings, homes, roads, bridges and a variety of other construction and
infrastructure projects.
The points that engineers measure are often located on the surface of the earth, though
they can also be located in space. Because intricate, precise spatial relationships and
boundary lines are so integral to this process, civil surveying draws on aspects of
different disciplines, from mathematics to geography to law.
Civil surveying also involves specific equipment and GPS data acquired from satellites.
High-precision electromechanical and optical equipment is also a necessity for ensuring
measurements are accurate.
So, what is the importance of surveying to civil engineers? Civil surveying is useful in a
tremendous variety of different applications, including:
 Creating topographical or marine navigational maps.
 Preparing plots.
 Planning for new construction projects.
 Estimating projected paths of roads, railways, power lines and irrigation systems.
 Assessing and recording the boundaries of different properties to determine land ownership.
 Analyzing topography.
 Assessing the position of existing structures like highways, canals, dams and bridges.
 Planning and constructing mines.
 Preparing for military operations and engagements.
 Charting navigational routes.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF CIVIL SURVEYING

Although construction is the most common type, engineers need to survey a wide range
of features, from mountains to oceans to rivers. Engineers use several different types of
civil engineering surveys, including:
 Construction surveying: Construction surveying is useful for assessing the arrangement of the
buildings, roads, power lines, gas mains and other structures surrounding potential construction
sites. Analyzing this information makes it easier to plan construction projects.
 Deformation surveying: Deformation surveying helps to establish if a geographical or man-
made feature, such as a road, foundation, coastline or river, is changing shape. In deformation
surveying, engineers record the three-dimensional coordinates of specific points. After some
time has elapsed, they record the coordinates again to see if they have changed. A comparison
of the two data sets can reveal if deformation or movement has occurred.
 Geological surveying: Geological surveying maps out features of the physical landscape, such
as rivers, valleys, mountains and more. Satellite data is essential for geological surveying, and
engineers frequently use satellite data or aerial photographs to help them in their work.
 Hydrographic surveying: Hydrographic surveying is similar to geological surveying, but it
maps out coastlines specifically. Accurate hydrographic surveying is crucial to the work of the
Coast Guard and any marine rescue operations. It also helps create navigational maps for
sailors and assists conservationists in managing coastal resources.
 Topographic surveying: Topographic surveying analyzes the shape and physical features of a
particular landscape. Engineers assess the height of different geographical coordinates and
then draw contour lines to indicate areas of the same elevation. They can then use these
findings to create topographical maps and to assess terrain for future building or infrastructure
projects.
 TECHNOLOGY USED IN CIVIL SURVEYING
Since ancient times, engineers have developed a host of tools to help them survey all
types of features. In civil surveying, different types of technology are available, like:
 Computer-assisted drawing (CAD): Once engineers have gathered survey data, computer-
assisted drawing helps turn that data into a useful visual representation, such as a map or
three-dimensional model. CAD allows for a greater level of precision and detail than could not
be achieved with manual sketching or drawing.
 Global positioning satellite data: GPS data is crucial for civil surveying because it allows for
the pinpointing of precise locations and coordinates. Where a visual assessment alone would be
insufficient for determining whether a corner had shifted or a foundation had sunk, the pinpoint
accuracy of GPS data allows engineers to know for sure.
 Aerial photogrammetry: Drones are often useful for the aerial photography necessary in civil
engineering. Once they have a number of aerial photographs of the landscape or site in
question, engineers can use aerial photogrammetry to extract topographical data from the
photos. Aerial photogrammetry combines multiple shots from different angles to create an
accurate 3D model.
 Point cloud modeling: To develop accurate 3D survey models, engineers also often create a
point cloud or a set of three-dimensional data points. Surveyors use 3D laser-scanning
technology to generate a data map of the area they wish to model. Once they have data that
represents every surface they need, they can then bring the points together through point cloud
modeling into an accurate and detailed 3D model.
What is meant by setting out works?
• Setting out is the process of transferring the distance from the plan
already. prepared, to the ground before starting a construction. • The plan as
designed and prepared is set out on the ground in the correct position.

What is setting out? ... Also known as “staking out” or “laying out”, setting out in surveying is the
practice of transferring the building design ...

What is setting out in engineering surveying?

Setting out is the process of surveying were the positions and levels of buildings,
roads, drainages, sewers, and all other engineering projects are already marked
on a plan are transferred to the ground by a variety of methods and by
specifically manufactured instruments or is the process by which information is
taken ...

What are the objectives of setting out?

The two main aims of a setting out survey are to: a) Place structures in their correct
relative and absolute position, i.e., the structure must be correct size, in correct plan
position and at correct level. b) Be carried out rapidly in an efficient manner to minimize
construction cost and delay but be fully checked

What is the importance of setting out?

IMPORTANCE OF SETTING OUT

Setting out is providing pegs, levels, profiles and other information necessary for
carrying out construction works. The results of setting out should be the true
interpretation of the information given in the drawings.

What is the name of the setting out the work on the ground?
The plan as designed and prepared is set out on the ground in the correct position. The
branch of surveying dealing with the setting out on the ground is known
as construction surveying.

What is the difference between setting out and surveying?

A definition often used for setting out is that it is the reverse of surveying. What is
meant by this is that whereas surveying is the process of producing a plan or map of a
particular area, setting out begins with the plan and ends with some particular
engineering project correctly positioned in the area.
 What is the procedure of setting out?
Setting out a building is the process of transferring architectural proposals from
drawings into the ground. It establishes the location points for site boundaries,
foundations, columns, centre-lines of walls and other necessary structural parts. 27 Apr
2021

What are the types of setting out?

Methods of Setting Out Survey

 Setting out buildings by coordinates.

 Setting out with theodolite and level.
 Checking verticality.
 Setting out and alignment in steel framed buildings.
 Alignment and verticality in form work.
 Control and calculation for route surveying.

Why is setting out also known as reverse of surveying?

A definition often used for setting out is that it is the reverse of surveying. What is meant
by this is that whereas surveying is the process of producing a plan or map of a
particular area, setting out begins with the plan and ends with some particular
engineering project correctly positioned in the area.

What is the name of the setting out the work on the ground?
Setting out of building foundation trenches is the process of laying down the excavation line and
centerline on the ground based on the foundation plan. The setting out process is also called
as ground tracing that is performed before commencing the excavation process.15 Nov 2011

What are the main aims of setting out?

The main reason for setting out (other than to guide the workers as they begin
construction) is to ensure the construction remains within the legal boundary. This
means there will be no legal disputes later on, such as those regarding property
boundaries and rights of access.14 Jan 2019
 Powered by  Tra

Description:  This unit introduces the methods that can be used in order to set out a s
a building.

Author:  Gates MacBain Associates

Section 1 Introduction

This Module is designed to complement your lectures and the practical work within your
course.  It does not replace the lectures or experience that you will need to get by carry
out the practical tasks. You may find it useful to reinforce or clarify the tuition you recei
on your course.  

Section 2 Setting-out 

Aims and Objectives

At the end of this section you should:

 Understand how control points and co-ordinates are used to

set out the position of buildings etc.
 control station—A point on the ground whose position (horizontal, vertical) is used
as a base for a dependent survey. control station, horizontal—A station whose
position has been accurately determined in X and Y, or latitude and longitude. control
survey—See survey, control.

Why do we have to perform control survey?

Control surveys provide the standard for accuracy by establishing horizontal and
vertical positions of points, subsequently used for job site planning. ... A map's
accuracy is only as good as the control network that has been established through the
data collected.12 Feb 2021
What is Project Control surveys?
Project control surveys provide consistent and accurate horizontal and vertical
control for all subsequent project surveys — photogrammetric, mapping, planning,
design, construction, and right of way. ... Today's multiorganizational transportation
project development efforts.1 Jan 2005

What is horizontal control survey?

Horizontal control surveys coordinate horizontal positional data. These positions can be

referenced by parallels or plane coordinate axes. Because they are used as a framework for
other surveys, these surveys must be precise and accurate.

How do you establish control points in surveying?

1. Identify and mark a number of key fixed points that will serve as control (reference) for
all subsequent surveying. ...
2. Establish the baseline, an accurately measured distance between 2 control points. ...
3. Station the tripod over a control point.
4. Mount the transit (theodolite) on the tripod. ...
5. Release the upper set screw.
What is the difference between primary and secondary control in surveying?
It can be an arbitrary point from which all other heights are taken as a primary control.
Alternatively, a level such as a sewer invert or where available Ordnance Survey Bench
Marks (OSBM). The secondary controls points would be formation level, dpc level,
floor levels and so on.
What are horizontal controls?
(mapping) A system of points whose horizontal positions and interrelationships
have been accurately determined for use as fixed references in positioning and
correlating map features.

What is vertical control surveying?

A vertical control survey is performed for accurately determining the orthometric
height (elevation) of permanent monuments to be used as bench marks for lower
quality leveling. Spirit leveling is the usual method of carrying elevations across the
country from “sea level” tidal gauges.

What is traverse or traversing in surveying?

Traversing in Surveying. A traverse is a series of connected lines whose lengths and
directions are to be measured and the process of surveying to find such
measurements is known as traversing. In general, chains are used to measure length and
compass or theodolite are used to measure the direction of traverse lines.1 Sept 2019

Why is traversing important?

The purpose of traverse is to locate the unknown points relative to each other and
to locate all points within the traverse relative to a common grid. Three elements of
starting data are needed. They are the coordinates and height of a starting point and an
azimuth to a visible azimuth mark.
1. Background

A traverse is a form of control survey used in a wide variety of engineering and property

surveys. Essentially, traverses are a series of established stations tied together by angle
and distance. Angles are measured by theodolites or total stations; the distances can be
measured by electronic distance measurement (EDM) instruments, sometimes by steel
tapes. Traverses can be open, as in route surveys, or closed, as in closed geometric figures
(Figures 1 and 2). Traverse surveying has been one of the most basic survey types being
used for ages by surveyors. Closed traverse survey using total station has particularly
become popular in recent times. It is however pivotal to understand the underlying concepts
of open traverse calculations and closed traverse calculations.

Figure 1: Open traverse

Traverse computations are used to do the following: balance field angles, compute latitudes
and departures, compute traverse error, distribute the errors by balancing the latitudes and
departures, adjust original distances and directions, compute coordinates of the traverse
stations, and compute the area enclosed by a closed traverse. In modern practice, these
computations are routinely performed on computers and/or on some total stations or their
electronic field books/data collectors. In this article, we will perform traverse computations
manually (using calculators) to demonstrate and reinforce the mathematical concepts
underlying each stage of these computations.

Figure 2: Closed traverse or loop traverse

In engineering work, traverses are used as control surveys
(1) to locate topographic detail for the preparation of topographic plans
and engineering design plan and profiles,
(2) to lay out (locate) engineering works, and
(3) for the processing and ordering of earthwork and other engineering quantities. Traverses
can also help provide horizontal control for aerial surveys in the preparation of
photogrammetric mapping.

1.1 Open Traverse

An open traverse (Figure 1) is particularly useful as a control for preliminary and

construction surveys for highways, roads, pipelines, electricity transmission lines, and the
like. These surveys may be from a few hundred feet (meters) to many miles (kilometers) in
length. The distances are normally measured by using EDM (sometimes steel tapes). Each
time the survey line changes direction, a deflection angle is measured with a theodolite or
total station. Deflection angles are measured from the prolongation of the back line to the
forward line (Figure 1); the angles are measured either to the right or to the left (L or R), and
the direction (L or R) is shown in the field notes, along with the numerical values.
 Figure 3: Field notes for open traverse

Angles are measured at least twice to eliminate mistakes and to improve accuracy. The
distances are shown in the form of stations (chainages), which are cumulative
measurements referenced to the initial point of the survey, 0 + 00. See Figure 3 for typical
field notes for a route survey. Open traverses may extend for long distances without the
opportunity for checking the accuracy of the ongoing work. Thus, all survey measurements
are repeated carefully at the time of the work, and every opportunity for checking for
position and direction is utilized (adjacent property surveys and intersecting road and
railroad rights-of-way are checked when practical.) Global positioning system (GPS)
surveying techniques are also used to determine and verify traverse station positioning.

Many states and provinces have provided densely placed control monuments as an
extension to their coordinate grid systems. It is now possible to tie in the initial and terminal
survey stations of a route survey to coordinate control monuments. Because the Y and X
(and Z) coordinates of these monuments have been precisely determined, the route survey
changes from an open traverse to a closed traverse and is then subject to geometric
verification and analysis. Of course, it is now also possible, using appropriate satellite-
positioning techniques, to directly determine the easting, northing, and elevation of all
survey stations.

1.2 Closed Traverse

A closed traverse is one that either begins and ends at the same point or begins and ends
at points whose positions have been previously determined (as described above). In both
cases, the angles can be closed geometrically, and the position closure can be determined
mathematically. A closed traverse that begins and ends at the same point is called a loop
traverse (Figure 2). In this case, the distances are measured from one station to the next
and verified, using a steel tape or EDM instrument. The interior angle is measured at each
station, and each angle is measured at least twice. Figure 4 illustrates typical field notes for
a loop traverse survey. In this type of survey, distances are booked simply as dimensions,
not as stations or chainages.
What are the uses of traverse in surveying?

Traverse is a method in the field of surveying to establish control networks. It is also used in
geodesy. Traverse networks involve placing survey stations along a line or path of travel, and
then using the previously surveyed points as a base for observing the next point.

What is the difference between closed traverse and open-ended traverse?

Measuring a series of positions in this way is known as "running a traverse." A traverse that
begins and ends at different locations is called an open traverse. Figure 5.10. 1 An open
traverse. A traverse that begins and ends at the same point, or at two different but known
points, is called a closed traverse.

What is the major disadvantages of open traverse?

OPEN TRAVERSE Does not end at a previously determined position. “ Open
traverses may extend for long distances without the opportunity for checking the
accuracy of the ongoing work.

What is coordinate in survey?

coordinate–1adj. Any one of a set of numbers used in specifying the location of a
point on a line, in space, or on a given plane or other surface (latitudes and longitudes
are coordinates of a point on the Earth's surface). ...
What are the two common methods of booking levels used in surveying and construction explain
the difference between them?
There are two common methods of booking levels used in surveying and construction.
These are the height of collimation method and the rise and fall method. In this
article I will guide you through how the rise and fall method is done, with the aid of a
worked example.
What is booking in levelling?

What is the difference between lateral and horizontal?

As adjectives the difference between horizontal and lateral

is that horizontal is perpendicular to the vertical; parallel to the plane of the horizon;

level, flat while lateral is to the side; of or pertaining to the side.
What is a detail survey?
Detail Surveys

A detail survey is a plan that shows the features and levels across a property and any
relevant adjoining property that maybe required. It will be used by
builders/architects/draftsman to design any future works.
Detail surveys are a basic prerequisite for building and land development. In most cases, the
purpose of detail surveys is to indicate features on, and adjacent to, a property. There are a
number of site features and levels required by architects and planners.

What is the aim of detail survey?

A detail survey is carried out to locate all features on a piece of land. This includes
both natural and man-made structures. Natural features include vegetation of all sorts –
rocks, trees, stumps and so on. Man-made structures include anything built above the
ground – buildings, walls, driveways, utilities and so on.

What is the purpose of detail survey?

Detail surveys are a basic prerequisite for building and land development. In most cases, the
purpose of detail surveys is to indicate features on, and adjacent to, a property. There are a
number of site features and levels required by architects and planners.

What is a detailed survey in construction?

A detail survey is carried out to locate all features on a piece of land. This includes
both natural and man-made structures. Natural features include vegetation of all sorts –
rocks, trees, stumps and so on. Man-made structures include anything built above the
ground – buildings, walls, driveways, utilities and so on.

What is booking in survey?

(i) Booking is commenced at the bottom of the page and worked upwards and carried
continuously through the successive pages so that while writing, the centre line of the
book and the chain on the ground correspond with the Surveyor's own direction.
What is plotting in survey?
Plotting means to represent on paper, to a suitable scale, the previously surveyed
objects in accordance with their shape and size. Plotting is commenced after the field-
work is over.
Booking is the same as the rise and fall method for back-, intermediate- and
foresights. There are no rise or fall columns, but instead a height of collimation column.
The first backsight reading (staff on datum, benchmark or RL) is added to the first RL
giving the height of collimation.
 What is the difference between land and plot?

Although one can buy land through home loans, it may seemingly be costly compared to buy
an apartment of the same size. A plot gives you the freedom to build your own home. ... One
can buy land in Tier-II cities, as the land costs would be less and you might acquire a good
portion of the plot.

How do you plot a chain survey on paper?

Chain Survey Procedures

1. Firstly, inspect the area to be surveyed and prepare key plan. ...
2. Then, mark stations using suitable means such as fixing ranging poles, driving pegs,
and digging and fixing a stone.
3. After that, specify the way for passing the main line which should go through the center
of the field.
 What are the steps in road construction?
5 Basic Steps of Road Construction
1. Step 1: Planning.
2. Step 2: Setting Out.
3. Step 3: Earthworks.
4. Step 4: Paving.
5. Step 5: Quality Control.
6. i.) Rigid Paving.
7. ii.) Flexible Paving.

How Do You Build a Road Step by Step?

While road construction methods vary depending on the type of road under construction, here’s a
step-by-step guide outlining how roads are made using asphalt and/or concrete.

5 Basic Steps of Road Construction

Step 1: Planning

Step 2: Setting Out

Step 3: Earthworks

Step 4: Paving

Step 5: Quality Control

1. Planning
This is the initial step in any road construction project. It involves assessing the current and
future traffic patterns and performing a cost-benefit study to ensure the road will serve its
purpose.

Layout drawings, funding, legal, and environmental issues are all sorted out during this initial
stage of road construction to ensure the project runs smoothly without running into financial or
legal problems.

2. Setting Out
Setting out refers to the process of transferring design proposals from drawings into the ground.
It demarcates site boundaries, foundations, and other necessary structural parts.

In most road construction projects a series of boards are placed at intervals along the proposed
line of the road. A profile board with a fixed height, often referred to as traveller, is deployed to
control the excavated levels between the profile boards.
The traveller is placed in the sight-line between two level boards to ensure it can be seen before
and after the excavation to adjust levels accordingly.

Like in any other construction project, the level of profile board is measured using a line level –
a short spirit level suspended on a nylon string. The string is moved up or down until the bubble
is centred.

3. Earthworks
This is easily the most labor-intensive procedure in road construction.

It entails the deployment of a tractor shovel, grader, or bulldozer on site to remove the topsoil
before scraping and grading the site to expose the underlying ground, often known as formation
level.

This is the level at which excavation ceases and construction starts.

The soil below the formation level is known as subgrade and it should be tested for strength
before embarking on excavation.

If the quality of the subsoil is undesirable, the material may be removed or stabilized. If the cost
of excavation of subsoil is deemed uneconomical, sand wicks and sand drains may be applied.

Sand wicks are sand-filled boreholes underneath the road embarkment. They offer greater
stability to the soil by reducing the length that water travels in a drainage path to disintegrate
water pressure.

On the other hand, sand drains are used to capture ground water.

It is important to provide subsoil drainage to help deal with leakage through pavements and
verges from higher ground as well as periodic rise and fall of the water table.

Since the thickness of the pavement depends on the strength of the subgrade, it is important to
reinforce the subgrade by removing poor material in cuttings and substituting them with selected
fill, providing adequate subsoil drainage, and compacting subgrade to a high dry density.

The subgrade can also be reinforced through soil stabilization procedures such as the use of
chemicals, cement, or bituminous materials.

Since the strength of subgrade diminishes as moisture content increases, it is important to cover
the surface in case it will be left exposed for some time. This can be done by covering the
subgrade with a medium gauge plastic sheet with 300mm laps or spraying a bituminous binder
with a sand topping.

4. Paving
This road construction procedure begins once the subgrade has been prepared and drainage
systems fitted. Paving can either be rigid or flexible depending on the precise requirements of a
project.

Rigid pavements have a higher flexural strength, longer design life, and lower maintenance costs,
while flexible pavements are cheaper to erect and have a higher capacity to expand and contract
with temperature variations, hence they do not require expansion joints.

i.) Rigid Paving

This consists of a reinforced or unreinforced insitu concrete slab placed over a thin granular base
course. The inflexibility and strength of rigid pavements enable the loads and pressures to be
dispersed over a wide area of the subgrade to reduce the potential impact.

From top to bottom, rigid paving is made up of these layers:

a. Subgrade (existing soil).

b. Subbase course of crushed stone with a thickness of 60 cm.
c.  Lubricous sheath made of polythene sheeting.
d. Insitu concrete paving slab, which can be reinforced using steel fabric or re-bar.
e. Asphalt or similar topping as necessary.

Rigid pavements do not have the capacity to expand and contract due to changes in temperature
and moisture changes. Traverse and longitudinal joints are fitted between slabs to prevent
cracking that happens as a result of restrained deformations caused by temperature and moisture
variations.

The spacing of the joints is usually determined by the temperature at which the concrete is laid,
the thickness of the slab, expected traffic load, and the presence or absence of slab
reinforcement.

ii.) Flexible Paving

Flexible pavements are made of several layers of asphalt or bituminous material overlying the
ready subgrade to which all the traffic loads are distributed. They are called “flexible’ because
the entire pavement structure bends or deflects when subjected to traffic loads.

The thickness of every individual layer must have the capacity to distribute loads to avert
permanent deformation of the road surface.

In flexible paving, the subgrade is compressed with the subbase on top. The subbase layer is
usually made of crushed stone or dry lean concrete that is laid and compressed by a road roller
machine.

The subbase should not exceed 15 cm and is usually placed once waterproofing is completed.
Above the subbase is the surfacing layer, which consists of the base layer and the wearing
course.

The wearing layer is the topmost layer of bituminous material and is often thicker and stronger
than the base layer. Its thickness depends on the material requirements and the anticipated traffic
loads.

Common materials used for the wearing course include porous asphalt, hot rolled asphalt, dense
bitumen tar macadam, and dense bitumen macadam.

On the other hand, the sub layer is usually at least 6 cm thick and is made up of dense bitumen
macadam or asphalt. It is applied with the suitable crossfalls and gradients.

5. Quality Control
After a road surface has been put in place, a series of quality tests must be performed before the
road construction project can be deemed complete. This procedure involves checking to confirm
drainage, grading levels and other aspects of the road are satisfactory.

Once all the checks return positive results, the road can now be opened for use by motorists.
Most roads can last for up to 40 years – with major upgrade works due every decade or so.

     
   
  The Profile Board Method  
   
     
commonly used setting out procedure for rural road works is based on the
use of a series of profile boards and a string line level, thereby providing
control of levels during construction. As a result, the method has become
known as the Profile Board Method.

The basic principle when using profile boards is to place a series of level boards that
  show the exact level 1 metre above the completed construction levels. With practice,  
this method provides a simple but sound method, providing adequate precision and
finally delivers the required quality standards for the completed road construction
works.

The method is best described by imagining the excavation of a ditch from point A to
point B at the level of the dotted line as shown in the figure below.
   

To ensure a correct and uniform level of the ditch, profile boards are placed at
  positions A and B, with the level boards 1 metre above the level of the excavated  
ditch.

   

  Equipment  
The Traveller
A third profile board with a fixed height is useful for controlling excavated
levels between the adjustable profile boards. It is known as the travelling
profile or traveller. During excavation along the line, from points A to B, the
traveller can be used to control that the correct levels have been achieved.
  By placing the traveller in the sight line between A and B, it is easy to  
determine whether the excavation has been carried out to correct levels. If
the top of the traveller is below the sight line between the two fixed profile
boards, the ditch has been excavated to a too low level. If the traveller
sticks up above the sight line the ditch needs to be dug deeper.

   

To provide good guidance, it is therefore useful to dig slots at regular intervals of 4 to

  5 metres along the sight line.
 

   
 When sufficient slots have been dug, the workers can start excavating the ditch by
  joining up the excavated slots. The traveler is then used once again to control that  
the finished work is to the correct level and that there are no high or low spots.

  The Line Level  

The level of each of the profile boards can be
controlled by using a line level. The line level is a
  short spirit level, (about 100 mm long) with a hook  
at each end to hang it from a nylon string.

This instrument needs two

persons to operate - one at the
end of the line and the second to
watch the spirit level. The line
operator moves the string up or
  down until the bubble is centered  
in the middle between the spirit
level marks. The string line will
then indicate a horizontal line.

  The line level can be used to:  

 transfer the exact level of one profile board to another, thereby ensuring that
both profiles are at the same level,
 measure up or down from the horizontal level shown, and set another profile
board so that there is a certain difference of level between the two profiles,
  and  
 measure the slope between two fixed profile boards, and determine which
one is higher.

  Points to Remember when Using a Line Level  

 The string should preferably be of thin nylon fishing line,
allowing for the line level to easily slide along the string,
 the line must be placed half-way between the two ranging
rods - use a measuring tape to establish the exact middle
point,
   keep the string tight - do not let it sag,  
 the line level is a delicate instrument, look after it - do not
throw it around and treat it roughly, and
 check the accuracy of the line level regularly.

  Checking the Line Level  

Take two ranging rods across the road and transfer a level from one rod to the other.
Mark the level on the second rod. Keeping the string in the same position on the first
rod, take the line level and turn it around on the string. Adjust the string on the
second rod until the bubble is in the middle again and mark the new level. Check to
see if the two marks are at the same place. If not, measure the difference between
  the two marks. If the difference between the two marks is less than 10 cm, you can
 
get the right level by taking the point half way between the two marks. If the
difference is greater than 10 cm you should replace the line level for an accurate
one. It is always a good idea to turn the line level around every time you use it and
take the middle of the two marks as the horizontal level.
    
The line level has a range of up to about 50 meters. It is easy to carry around and
  with care can be used for setting out levels and slopes not less than 1 in 300.
 

  The Profile Board  

The other requirement of the profile method is the use of adjustable profiles that can
be moved and locked in the desired position. A long-lasting profile board is made
from thin steel plate which is welded to a short length of metal tubing that can slide
up and down and be clamped to a metal ranging rod. A useful size for the metal
  profile boards has been found to be 40 cm by 10 cm, painted red to make them easy
 
to be seen. Ranging rods are made of hollow metal tubes, often 12.5 mm diameter
galvanized water pipe, with a pointed end of sharpened reinforcement steel. They
are painted red and white to make them easy to see during setting out.

   

Two basic principles of surveying are: • Always work from whole to the part, and • To locate a
new station by at least two measurements (Linear or angular) from fixed reference points. area
is first enclosed by main stations (i.e. Control stations) and main survey lines.

Working from Whole to Part. As the name itself implies, the survey work must be carried
out from whole to part. This means that when an area is to be surveyed, first of all, a system of
control points is established such that it covers the entire area with a higher degree of precision.

What is the main principle of working from whole to part?

The main idea of working from whole to part is to localize errors and prevent their
accumulation. On the contrary, working from part to whole, the errors accumulate and expand
to a greater magnitude and the survey work becomes uncontrollable at the end.
What is the process of Levelling?
Levelling is a process of determining the height of one level relative to another. It
is used in surveying to establish the elevation of a point relative to a datum, or to
establish a point at a given elevation relative to a datum. 31 Aug 2020

What is elevation in survey?

When the height of a point is its vertical distance above or below the surface of a
reference plane* you have selected, it is called the elevation* of that point.

Plotting means to represent on paper, to a suitable scale, the previously surveyed objects in
accordance with their shape and size. Plotting is commenced after the field-work is over. The
plotting of a chain survey is done in the following steps: (i) A suitable scale is chosen before
starting the plotting work.

What is difference between longitude and latitude?

The geographic coordinates that indicate the distance of a location north-south of the
equator are referred to as latitude. Longitude refers to a geographic coordinate that
indicates a point's east-west distance from the Prime Meridian.

Why longitudes are called meridians?

Longitudes are known as meridians because in Geographical sense, meridians are
great circles which are not parallel to each other but intersect each other at the
North and the South Poles. Same stands true of the longitudes. All longitudes are
great circles which meet at the Poles.25 Jun 2017

What is 0-degree meridian is called?

The prime meridian is the line of 0° longitude, the starting point for measuring distance
both east and west around the Earth. The prime meridian is arbitrary, meaning it could
be chosen to be anywhere.16 Feb 2011
What is a setting out point?
“Setting out” is the process of locating points for columns, site boundary level, pile
position and other necessary structural parts according to the construction drawing.
Errors should be avoided because the whole structure will be build based on the respective
setting out.5 Aug 2016

What are the principles of setting out?

3 main principles of setting out operations: 1. Horizontal control technique 2. Vertical
control technique 3. Positioning technique • 3 stages of setting out need to be
carried out in construction works: 1.

What are the steps in setting out?

There are three major steps to setting out: Orientation of the building on the site; Marking a
simple outline of the building's foundation on the ground; Placing "batter boards" around the
foundation outline and marking the position of inside walls, doors, and windows on the boards.

What is the purpose of setting out?

What is setting out? Also known as “staking out” or “laying out”, setting out in surveying
is the practice of transferring the building design onto the land itself so that the
workers can follow it during construction. Key points and guide markers are set out
to ensure accurate building takes place.14 Jan 2019

What is a vertical curve?

A vertical curve provides a transition between two sloped roadways, allowing a
vehicle to negotiate the elevation rate change at a gradual rate rather than a sharp
cut. ... These curves are parabolic and are assigned stationing based on a horizontal
axis.30 Apr 2021

Where the vertical curves are provided?

As per the existing provisions by Indian railways, vertical curves are provided only at
the junction of gradients, when the algebraic difference between the gradients is
equal to or more than 0.4 per cent.

What is mean by vertical curve?

i. The curve between two lengths of a straight roadway that possess different
gradients. The curve provides a gradual change for haulages from one inclination to
the other. The curve leading to the top or brow of an inclined plane would be convex
and at the bottom would be concave.