Outline:

1. Measurement systems and standards

2. Electrical and electronic measurements
3. Sensors and transducers input mechanisms
4. Analogue and digital signal conditioning
5. Interfacing with digital systems
6. Noise and coherent interference in measurements
7. AC and DC Null measurements
8. Design of measurement systems
Assessment:
One 3-hour written final examination 60%
Course work 40%
Course work will consist of:
One industrial case study* 20%
One 1-hr in-course test 20%
Required Readings
1. Morris, A. S. & Langari, R., (2015). Measurement and Instrumentation, 2nd
edition. Academic Press.
2. Northrop, R. B., (2014). Introduction to Instrumentation and
Measurements, 3rd edition. CRC Press.

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Image – Weston Standard Cell

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Image - One-volt NIST Josephson Junction array standard having 3020 junctions. The
chip was designed and built by staff of the Electromagnetic Technology Division in
Boulder in the cryoelectronic fabrication laboratory. It operates at liquid-helium
temperatures; microwave energy is fed to four chains of junctions through the
finguide structure at the left. The thin tapered structures at the end of each chain are
terminations to prevent reflection of energy back up the chain.

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 𝐸𝑗 = 𝑛 𝑓Τ(2𝑒Τℎ) 𝑉
n is the step number, f is the microwave frequency in GHz, e is the electron charge,
and h is Plank’s constant.

When using a JJ array as a primary (SI) standard, the microwave frequency is seen to
be quite critical. Thus, the Gunn oscillator is phase locked to an ultra-stable frequency
source, such as a cesium beam clock. The frequency source which has been used for
several designs of JJ array voltage standards has been a 50–60mW, 93–95GHz Gunn
oscillator.

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Image – a 1 Ω standard Thomas type resistor

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 𝐸𝐻 𝑅𝑘−90 ℎ
𝑅𝐻 𝑗 = = = 2 Ω
𝐼𝑥 𝑗 𝑞 𝑗
h – plank’s constant
q – electron charge
j – step #

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Comparisons between quantum Hall resistance measurements made in various
standards laboratories around the world suggest that the QHR method of defining the
ohm has an uncertainty of less than one part in 10^8

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Metallic silver is electroplated at a rate proportional to the dc current flowing in the
circuit. After a specific time, the cathode is removed, dried, and weighed. The
accumulated weight of silver is proportional to the total charge transferred over the
time.

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This method of measurement requires accurate knowledge about the M and the local
acceleration due to gravity. The displacement distance has to be measured without
interfering with the balanced forces (use of lasers).

The resistance and voltage have to be measured appropriately. (JJs and QHRs)

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10
R_m>>R_TH

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I_MFS is the current drawn by the voltmeter when at its full scale voltage.

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Image: Typical micro-ammeter movement D’arsonval meter. A. Face view of the
innards of a D’Arsonval meter movement. Note: P=pointer, PM=permanent magnet.
C=pivoted rectangular coil, SP=helical spring, SIC=soft iron core to concentrate
magnetic flux. B. Vertical section (AA’) through D’Arsonval meter. Cross hatched
material is bakelite. Note: TB, BB=top and bottom bearings, B=base.

Also known as permanent magnet moving coil voltmeters.

Most common kind of electomech. dc meter.

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B – flux density, I – current in the coil, h – height of coil, w – width of coil, N – number
of turns in coil.

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although special, sensitive D’Arsonval meter movements with torsion spring
suspensions have been built with full scale currents of 1 mA or less.

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Image: Equivalent circuit of D’Arsonval Meter coil. EMF due to coil motion is given by
V_B

For eg. An R_T for a 500V_FS with a 20,000Ω/V movement will be 10MΩ

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Image: Transparent face view of an electrostatic, capacitor voltmeter. The electric
field between the plates generates the deflection torque. The scale is nonlinear.

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C_0 – capcacitance between the plates at θ =0°.
K_c is the capacitance constant.
Θ is the rotor angle (pointer angle)

C(θ_max) can range from 200pF to several hundred pF.

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A typical electrostatic voltmeter, such as the Sensitive Research model ESD, has a
scale calibrated for 1–5 kV, with the most sensitive (expanded) scale at the center of
the meter at about 2.75 kV. This meter has a guaranteed accuracy of 1% of full scale
voltage, a capacitance of 18 pF at full scale, and an insulation resistance of 10^15Ω.
Θ_max is about 65°
for this meter, which is less than the 90° typical of most D’Arsonval meter
movements.

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Image: Face view schematic of an electrodynamometer meter movement connected
as a voltmeter. The scale is nonlinear.

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i_M is the current in the coils. L_R is the self-inductance of the rotor coil. L_S is the
self-inductance of the two stator coils together and M_SR(θ) is the mutual inductance
between the stator coils and the rotor coil.

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Sensitivities of 10-50Ω/V
Accuracies typically 0.1-0.25% of FSR
Can be calibrated for dc, or ac voltage and current from 25-500Hz.

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Image: Chopper Type Nano-voltmeter

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Image: Block diagram of a chopper nano-voltmeter.

If a D’Arsonval analog meter is used as the display mechanism, the meter movement
itself acts as an electromechanical low-pass filter. However, additional low-pass
filtering may be required to improve the dc nanovoltmeter’s resolution.

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For example, the Fluke model 80K-40 high voltage probe is designed to be used with
any dc voltmeter having an input
resistance of 10MΩ. It makes a 1000 : 1 voltage divider, so 1 kV applied to the probe
gives 1V at the meter. The probe and meter present a 1000MΩ load to the high
voltage circuit under test, hence the probe and meter draw 1 mA/kV from the CUT.

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