Outline:

1. Measurement systems and standards

2. Electrical and electronic measurements
3. Sensors and transducers input mechanisms
4. Analogue and digital signal conditioning
5. Interfacing with digital systems
6. Noise and coherent interference in measurements
7. AC and DC Null measurements
8. Design of measurement systems
Assessment:
One 3-hour written final examination 60%
Course work 40%
Course work will consist of:
One industrial case study* 20%
One 1-hr in-course test 20%
Required Readings
1. Morris, A. S. & Langari, R., (2015). Measurement and Instrumentation, 2nd
edition. Academic Press.
2. Northrop, R. B., (2014). Introduction to Instrumentation and
Measurements, 3rd edition. CRC Press.

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Image: DC electrometer voltmeter with special probe to measure voltage due to
static field.

Note: 𝐶1 is the input capacitance of the electrometer voltmeter plus the capacitance
to ground of the wire connecting the proximal plate of 𝐶2 to the electrometer input.
𝐶2 is the capacitance between the proximal plate of 𝐶2 and the charged object.

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Image: The equivalent circuit for the dc electrometer field meter. (𝑉𝑠 → 𝐶3 )

The probe acts as a potential divider.

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Eg. If 𝐶2 = 10−11 𝐹 and 𝐶1 = 10−7 𝐹 then 𝑉0 = 10−4 𝑉𝑆

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Image: A charge amplifier configuration.

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𝐶2
is designed to be 10−3 to 10−4
𝐶𝐹

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Image: The Equivalent circuit of a field mill, dc voltmeter.

There are several ways in which 𝐶2 can be modulated. One common method is to
have the blades of a grounded, rotating chopper wheel alternately cover and uncover
the proximal plate of 𝐶2 . Another method physically modulates the distance between
the proximal plate and the charged surface.

For example, if 𝜔=100 r/s, VS=100 kV, R=105ohms and C=1011 F, then the peak
value of Vo is 10V.

the input resistance of the ac voltmeter used to measure Vo should be over 108 .

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Notable in the D’Arsonval design was the use of a soft iron cylinder inside the
rectangular coil to concentrate the magnetic flux perpendicular to the sides of the
coil.
The Weston version of the D’Arsonval meter is what is widely used today as the
universal, dc microammeter movement which has applications in all analog
multimeters and in most instruments with analog readouts.

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A shunt is a precision resistor of very low value designed so that, by Ohm’s law, when
the full scale current for the meter is flowing, the voltage drop across the resistor and
the meter is around 50mV.

The lead resistances to the meter are generally not important when measuring IFS in
excess of 10 A. In cases where IFS is less than 10A and an insensitive dynamometer
meter movement is used, the meter lead resistance ( from shunt to meter) may be
important and a specified set of meter leads with known resistance must be used to
obtain readings with rated accuracy.

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Image: Circuit of a shunt ammeter. The meter is a dc microammeter.

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Noise from the electrometer amplifier also confounds resolution. Also, there can be
measurement errors caused by dc bias current and offset voltage.

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Image: Simple Shunt Picoammeter.

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A transresistance amplifier converts an input of current to an output of voltage. It is
also called a voltage to current converter or V to I converter. It is called
transresistance because the efficiency of the amplifier is measured in units of
resistance.

The size of 𝑅𝐹 is restricted by size and cost. Also, as the size increases, the accuracy
drops.

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