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A signal conditioning elements convert the output of sensing elements into a form
suitable for further processing. This form is usually a d.c. voltage, a d.c. current or a
variable frequency a.c. voltage. Signal conditioning / processing is concerned with
improving the quality of the reading or signal at the output of a measurement system, and
one particular aim is to attenuate any noise in the measurement signal that has not been
eliminated by careful design of the measurement system as discussed previously.
However, signal processing performs many other functions apart from dealing with noise,
and the exact procedures that are applied depend on the nature of the raw output signal
from a measurement transducer. Procedures of signal amplification, signal attenuation,
signal filtering, signal linearization and bias removal are applied according to the form of
correction required in the raw signal. In this chapter we will see about deflection Bridges,
amplifiers & Attenuators, Oscillators and Filters.
Deflection bridges are used to convert the output of resistive, capacitive and inductive
sensors into a voltage signal.
Oscillators are feedback systems which rely on the dynamic property of a closed-loop
system, consisting of elements with dynamic characteristics, to sustain continuous
oscillations, if certain conditions are satisfied.
A filter is an element which transmits a certain range (or ranges) of frequencies and
rejects all other frequencies. An analogue filter is an electrical network, consisting
usually of resistors, capacitors and operational amplifiers, which conditions
continuous signals. A digital filter is usually a digital computer programmed to
process sampled values of a signal. Provided that the power spectrum of the
measurement signal occupies a different frequency range from that of the noise or
interference signal, then filtering improves the signal-to-noise ratio.
3.1 DEFLECTION BRIDGE CIRCUITS
Bridge circuits are of immense importance in measurement system technology because so many
transducers measuring physical quantities have an output that is expressed as a change in
resistance, inductance or capacitance. The displacement-measuring strain gauge, which has a
varying resistance output, is but one example of this class of transducers.
Normally, excitation of the bridge is by a d.c. voltage for resistance measurement and by an a.c.
voltage for inductance or capacitance measurement. Both null and deflection types of bridge
exist and, in a like manner to instruments in general, null types are mainly employed for
calibration purposes and deflection types are used within closed-loop automatic control schemes.
Figure 3.1 below shows a general deflection bridge network. ETh is the open-circuit output
voltage of the bridge, i.e. when current i in BD = 0. Using Kirchhoff’s laws:
ZTh is the impedance, looking back into the circuit, between the output terminals BD, when the
supply voltage VS is replaced by its internal impedance. Assuming the internal impedance of the
supply is zero, then this is equivalent to a short circuit across AC.
We see that ZTh is equal to the parallel combination of Z2 and Z3 in series with the parallel
combination of Z1 and Z4, i.e.
If a load, e.g. a voltmeter or amplifier, of impedance ZL is connected across the output terminals
BD, then the current through the load is i = ETh /(ZTh + ZL). The corresponding voltage across the
load is VL = ETh ZL /(ZTh + ZL). Thus in the limit that |ZL|>>|ZTh|, VL → ETh.
DESIGN OF RESISTIVE DEFLECTION BRIDGES
In a resistive or Wheatstone bridge all four impedances Z1 to Z4 are pure resistances R1 to R4.
From the equation of Thévenin voltage for general deflection bridge we have:
We first consider the case when only one of the resistances is a sensing element. Here R1
depends on the input measured variable I, i.e. R1 = RI, and R2, R3 and R4 are fixed resistors. This
gives
From which we see that to design a single element bridge we need to specify the three
parameters VS, R4 and R3 /R2. The individual values of R2 and R3 are not critical; it is their ratio
which is crucial to the design. The three parameters can be specified by considering the range
and linearity of the output voltage and electrical power limitations for the sensor. Thus if IMIN
and IMAX are minimum and maximum values of the measured variable, and RIMIN and RIMAX are
the corresponding sensor resistances, then in order for the bridge output voltage to have a range
from VMIN to VMAX the following conditions must be obeyed:
Often we require VMIN = 0, i.e. the bridge to be balanced when I = IMIN; in this case the equation
for VMIN reduces to:
A third condition is required to complete the design. One important consideration is the need to
limit the electrical power (i2)2 RI ) in the sensor to a level which enables it to be dissipated as
heat flow to the surrounding fluid; otherwise the temperature of the sensor rises above that of the
surrounding fluid, thereby affecting the sensor resistance. Thus if watts is the maximum
power dissipation, using the equation i 2 = we require:
As always in bridge measurement circuits, the unknown quantity is “balanced” against a known
standard, obtained from a high-quality, calibrated component that can be adjusted in value until
the null detector device indicates a condition of balance. Depending on how the bridge is set up,
the unknown component's value may be determined directly from the setting of the calibrated
standard, or derived from that standard through a mathematical formula.
A couple of simple bridge circuits are shown below, one for inductance and one for capacitance:
An example of a little extra complexity added to compensate for real-world effects can be found
in the so-called Wien Bridge, which uses a parallel capacitor-resistor standard impedance to
balance out an unknown series capacitor-resistor combination (Figure below). All capacitors
have some amount of internal resistance, be it literal or equivalent (in the form of dielectric
heating losses) which tend to spoil their otherwise perfectly reactive natures. This internal
resistance may be of interest to measure, and so the Wien Bridge attempts to do so by providing
balancing impedance that isn't “pure” either:
Wein Bridge measures both capacitive Cx and resistive Rx components of “real” capacitor.
Being that there are two standard components to be adjusted (a resistor and a capacitor) this
bridge will take a little more time to balance than the others we've seen so far. The combined
effect of Rs and Cs is to alter the magnitude and phase angle until the bridge achieves a condition
of balance. Once that balance is achieved, the settings of Rs and Cs can be read from their
calibrated knobs, the parallel impedance of the two determined mathematically, and the unknown
capacitance and resistance determined mathematically from the balance equation (Z1/Z2 =
Z3/Z4).
It is assumed in the operation of the Wien Bridge that the standard capacitor has negligible
internal resistance, or at least that resistance is already known so that it can be factored into the
balance equation. Wien bridges are useful for determining the values of “lossy” capacitor designs
like electrolytic, where the internal resistance is relatively high. They are also used as frequency
meters, because the balance of the bridge is frequency-dependent. When used in this fashion, the
capacitors are made fixed (and usually of equal value) and the top two resistors are made
variable and are adjusted by means of the same knob.
A reactive bridge has an a.c. supply voltage; two arms are usually reactive impedances and two
arms resistive impedances. Figure 3.2(a) shows the bridge to be used with the capacitance level
transducer and here we have:
Fig 3.2 (a) Bridge for capacitive level sensor (b) Bridge for inductive push-pull displacement
sensor.
This gives:
Thus in order to get ETh = 0 at minimum level hMIN, we require C0 = ChMIN(R3 /R2), giving:
Again if R3 /R2 is made large compared with 1, this approximates to the linear form:
The most common two-element reactive bridges incorporate either capacitive or inductive push-
pull displacement sensors. The capacitive sensor has C1 = εε 0A/(d + x) and C2 = εε 0A/(d − x);
if this is connected into an a.c. bridge so that Z1 = l/( jωC1), Z2 = Z3 = R, Z4 = 1/( jωC2) we
have:
This gives:
i.e. the relationship between ETh and x is linear and independent of frequency ω. We note that the
alternative way of connecting the sensor into the bridge so that Z1 = l/( jωC1) and Z2 = 1/( jωC2)
gives an output voltage which is non-linearly related to x and dependent on the supply frequency
ω. A similar result is obtained with the variable reluctance push-pull displacement sensor. This
has:
From which:
Again the relationship between ETh and x is linear and frequency independent.
Example:
An interesting variation on this theme is found in the next bridge circuit, used to precisely
measure inductances.
This ingenious bridge circuit is known as the Maxwell-Wien bridge (sometimes known plainly
as the Maxwell bridge), and is used to measure unknown inductances in terms of calibrated
resistance and capacitance. Calibration-grade inductors are more difficult to manufacture than
capacitors of similar precision, and so the use of a simple “symmetrical” inductance bridge is not
always practical. Because the phase shifts of inductors and capacitors are exactly opposite each
other, capacitive impedance can balance out inductive impedance if they are located in opposite
legs of a bridge, as they are here.
Example:
3.2 AMPLIFIERS
Amplifiers are necessary in order to amplify low-level signals, e.g. thermocouple or strain gauge
bridge output voltages, to a level which enables them to be further processed.
The differential amplifier which uses a single operational amplifier is inadequate: in order to
obtain high gain, RIN must be low. This means low input impedance; also the differential
amplifier is highly susceptible to any mismatch in resistance values.
Figure 3.3 shows a typical instrumentation amplifier system consisting of three operational
amplifiers, A1, A2 and A3. The two input non-inverting amplifiers A1 and A2 provide an overall
differential gain of (1 + 2R1/RG) and a common mode gain of unity. The output amplifier A3 is a
unity gain differential amplifier. A typical precision instrumentation amplifier, INA 115, has:
Now let’s see how an attenuator with various input levels and constant output can be designed.
Example: Design an attenuator that has input voltage of 1, 3, 10, 30, and 100V with a
constant output voltage of 500mV and 10MΩ of input resistance as shown below.
VCC
VCC R1
5MΩ 1
100V
R2
3.3MΩ
R3
1.74MΩ
Rotary switch
R4
332kΩ
R5
115kΩ
R6
50kΩ
0
3.3 Oscillator Circuits:
A voltage or current with deliberately induced and time-varying characteristics is called a signal.
Signal generating circuit is called an oscillator. An oscillator is a circuit that outputs a periodic
signal. The circuit is basically energy converter in that dc power usually is fed into the device
and a time-varying signal as a function of time is the result or output. Oscillating circuits play a
central and increasingly important role in digital and analogue electronic system. Digital devices
require precise system timing, a function provided by oscillators and similar timing sources.
Oscillators, clocks and timers are essential to the performance of most modern electronic
devices. Signal - generating devices perform the following things: i.e. conversion of direct or
constant voltage to a particular periodically varying voltage, the manipulation of that voltage to a
desired wave shape, and the precise control of the magnitude and frequency of that voltage.
Filter Classification
Filters are commonly classified according to the filter function they perform. The basic functions
are: low-pass, high-pass, band pass, and band stop.
If a filter passes frequencies from zero to its cutoff frequency W c and stops all frequencies
higher than the cutoff frequencies, then this filter type is called an ideal low pass filter. In
contrast, an ideal high-pass filter stops all frequencies below its cutoff frequency and passes all
frequencies above it. Frequencies extending from W1 to W2 are passed by an ideal band pass
filter, while all other frequencies are stopped. An ideal band stop filter stops frequencies
fromW1 to W2 and passes all other frequencies. Figure above depicts the magnitude functions of
the four basic ideal filter types. So far we have discussed ideal filter characteristics having
rectangular magnitude responses. These characteristics, however, are physically not realizable.
As a consequence, the ideal response can only be approximated by some non ideal realizable
system. Several classical approximation schemes have been developed, each of which satisfies a
different criterion of optimization. This should be taken into account when comparing the
performance of these filters characteristics.
A common need for filter circuits is in high-performance stereo systems, where certain ranges of
audio frequencies need to be amplified or suppressed for best sound quality and power
efficiency. You may be familiar with equalizers, which allow the amplitudes of several
frequency ranges to be adjusted to suit the listener's taste and acoustic properties of the listening
area. You may also be familiar with crossover networks, which block certain ranges of
frequencies from reaching speakers. A tweeter (high-frequency speaker) is inefficient at
reproducing low-frequency signals such as drum beats, so a crossover circuit is connected
between the tweeter and the stereo's output terminals to block low-frequency signals, only
passing high-frequency signals to the speaker's connection terminals. This gives better audio
system efficiency and thus better performance. Both equalizers and crossover networks are
examples of filters, designed to accomplish filtering of certain frequencies.