CHAPTER THREE

Signal Conditioning
And
Signal Processing Elements
 Signal Conditioning Elements
Introduction
• As stated in Chapter 1, signal conditioning elements convert the output of sensing
elements into a form suitable for further processing.
• This form is usually a d.c. voltage, a d.c. current or a variable frequency a.c.
voltage.
Deflection bridges
• Deflection bridges are used to convert the output of resistive, capacitive and
inductive sensors into a voltage signal.
• Resistive elements are some of the most common sensors.
• They are inexpensive to manufacture and relatively easy to interface with signal
conditioning circuits.
• Resistive elements can be made sensitive to temperature, strain (by pressure or by
flex), and light.
• Using these basic elements, many complex physical phenomena can be
measured; such as fluid or mass flow (by sensing the temperature difference
between two calibrated resistances) and dew-point humidity (by measuring two
different temperature points), etc.
• Sensor elements resistances can range from less than 100Ω to several hundred kΩ,
depending on the sensor design and the physical environment to be measured
 Signal Conditioning Elements
• Figure 3.1 shows a general deflection bridge network. 𝐸𝑇ℎ is the open-
circuit output voltage of the bridge, i.e. when current i in BD = 0. Using
Kirchhoff’s laws:
𝑉𝑆
• Loop PABCQ 𝑉𝑆 = 𝑖1 𝑍2 + 𝑖1 𝑍3 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑖1 = (3.1)
𝑍2 +𝑍3
𝑉
• Loop PADCQ 𝑉𝑆 = 𝑖2 𝑍1 + 𝑖2 𝑍4 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑖2 = 𝑆 (3.2)
𝑍1 +𝑍4

Figure 3.1 Calculationof Thévenin equivalentcircuit for a deflection bridge.

 Signal Conditioning Elements
• Assuming Q is at earth potential, then:
• Potential at P and A = 𝑉𝑆
• Potential at 𝐵 = 𝑉𝑆 − 𝑖1 𝑍2
• Potential at 𝐷 = 𝑉𝑆 − 𝑖2 𝑍1
• 𝐸𝑇𝑕 is equal to the potential difference between B and D, i.e.
𝐸𝑇𝑕 = (𝑉𝑆 − 𝑖1 𝑍2 ) − (𝑉𝑆 − 𝑖2 𝑍1 )
= 𝑖2 𝑍1 − 𝑖1 𝑍2
Using [3.1] and [3.2] we have
𝑍1 𝑍2
𝐸𝑇𝑕 = 𝑉𝑆 − (3.3)
𝑍1 +𝑍4 𝑍2 +𝑍3

• ZTh is the impedance, looking back into the circuit, between the output terminals
BD, when the supply voltage 𝑉𝑆 is replaced by its internal impedance.
• Assuming the internal impedance of the supply is zero, then this is equivalent to a
short circuit across AC (see Figure 3.1). We see that ZTh is equal to the parallel
combination of 𝑍2 and 𝑍3 in series with the parallel combination of 𝑍1 and 𝑍4 , i.e.
𝑍2 𝑍3 𝑍1 𝑍4
Z𝑇𝑕 = + − (3.4)
𝑍2 +𝑍3 𝑍1 +𝑍4
 Signal Conditioning Elements
• If a load, e.g. a voltmeter or amplifier, of impedance 𝑍𝐿 is connected across
the output terminals BD, then the current through the load is i =
𝐸𝑇ℎ /(𝑍𝑇ℎ + 𝑍𝐿 ).
• The corresponding voltage across the load is
• 𝑉𝐿 = 𝐸𝑇ℎ 𝑍𝐿 /(𝑍𝑇ℎ + 𝑍𝐿 ). .
• Thus in the limit that |ZL| ≫ |ZTh|, VL → ETh.
Design of resistive deflection bridges
• In a resistive or Wheatstone bridge all four impedances 𝑍1 to 𝑍4 are pure
resistances 𝑅1 to 𝑅4 . From [3.3] we have
𝑅1 𝑅2
𝐸𝑇𝑕 = 𝑉𝑆 − (3.5)
𝑅1 +𝑅4 𝑅2 +𝑅3
• We first consider the case when only one of the resistances is a sensing
element.
• Here R1 depends on the input measured variable I, i.e. 𝑅1 = 𝑅𝐼 , and 𝑅2 ,
𝑅3 and 𝑅4 are fixed resistors. This gives
1 1
ETh = VS − (3.6)
1+R4 /R1 1+R3 /R2
 Signal Conditioning Elements
• from which we see that to design a single element bridge we need to
specify the three parameters VS , R 4 and R 3 /R 2. The individual values of R 2
and R 3 are not critical;
• it is their ratio which is crucial to the design. The three parameters can be
specified by considering the range and linearity of the output voltage and
electrical power limitations for the sensor.
• Thus if IMIN and IMAX are minimum and maximum values of the measured
variable, and R IMIN and R IMAX are the corresponding sensor resistances,
then in order for the bridge output voltage to have a range from VMIN to
VMAX the following conditions must be obeyed:
1 1
VMIN = VS − (3.7)
1+R4 / RIMIN 1+R3 /R2

1 1
VMAX = VS − (3.8)
1+R4 / RIMAX 1+R3 /R2
• Often we require VMIN = 0, i.e. the bridge to be balanced when I = IMIN ; in
this case [3.7] reduces to:
R4 R3
= (3.9)
RIMIN R2
 Signal Conditioning Elements
• A third condition is required to complete the design. One important
consideration is the need to limit the electrical power 𝑖2 2 𝑅𝐼 in the sensor to
a level which enables it to be dissipated as heat flow to the surrounding
fluid; otherwise the temperature of the sensor rises above that of the
surrounding fluid, thereby affecting the sensor resistance . Thus if wˆ watts
is the maximum power dissipation, we require:
𝑅𝐼
𝑉𝑆 2 ≤ wˆ (3.10)
𝑅𝐼 +𝑅4 2
For 𝑅𝑀𝐼𝑁 ≤ 𝐼 ≤ 𝑅𝑀𝐴𝑋
 Signal Conditioning Elements
• A bridge measures resistance indirectly by comparison with a similar
resistance.
• The two principle ways of operating a bridge are as a null detector or
as a device that reads a difference directly as voltage.
 Signal Conditioning Elements
𝑅 𝑅
• When 𝑅1 = 𝑅2, the resistance bridge is at a null, irrespective of the mode of
4 3
excitation (current or voltage, AC or DC), the magnitude of excitation, the
mode of readout (current or voltage), or the impedance of the detector.
𝑅2
• Therefore, if the ratio of is fixed at K, a null is achieved when
𝑅3
𝑅1 = 𝐾. 𝑅4 . If 𝑅1 is unknown and 𝑅4 is an accurately determined variable
resistance, the magnitude of 𝑅1 can be found by adjusting 𝑅4 until null is
achieved. Conversely, in sensor-type measurements, 𝑅4 may be a fixed
reference, and a null occurs when the magnitude of the external variable
(strain, temperature, etc.) is such that 𝑅1 = 𝐾. 𝑅4 .
• Null measurements are principally used in feedback systems involving
electromechanical and/or human elements.
• Such systems seek to force the active element (strain gage, RTD,
thermistor, etc.) to balance the bridge by influencing the parameter being
measured.
 Signal Conditioning Elements
• For the majority of sensor applications employing bridges, however, the
deviation of one or more resistors in a bridge from an initial value is
measured as an indication of the magnitude (or a change) in the measured
variable.
• In this case, the output voltage change is an indication of the resistance
change. Because very small resistance changes are common, the output
voltage change may be as small as tens of millivolts, even with VB = 10V
(a typical excitation voltage for a load cell application).
• In many bridge applications, there may be two, or even four elements which
vary.
• Fig. 3-2 shows the four commonly used bridges suitable for sensor
applications and the corresponding equations that relate the bridge output
voltage to the excitation voltage and the bridge resistance values. In this
case, we assume a constant voltage drive, VB.
• Note that, since the bridge output is directly proportional to VB, the
measurement accuracy can be no better than that of the accuracy of the
excitation voltage.
 Signal Conditioning Elements
• In each case, the value of the fixed bridge resistor, R, is chosen to be
equal to the nominal value of the variable resistor(s).
• The deviation of the variable resistor(s) about the nominal value is
proportional to the quantity being measured, such as strain (in the case of a
strain gage) or temperature (in the case of an RTD).

• Fig 3.2
 Signal Conditioning Elements
• Bridges may also be driven from constant current sources as shown in Fig.
3.3 Current drive, although not as popular as voltage drive, has an
advantage when the bridge is located remotely from the source of
excitation because the wiring resistance does not introduce errors in the
measurement.
• Note also that with constant current excitation, all configurations are linear
with the exception of the single-element varying case.

• Fig 3.3
 Signal Conditioning Elements
• A bridge with two metal resistance sensor elements can be designed to
give an output voltage approximately proportional to temperature
differences 𝑇1 − 𝑇2 . The bridge incorporates one element at 𝑇1 °C and
another at 𝑇2 °C so that 𝑅1 = R0(1 + α 𝑇1 )
• and 𝑅2 = 𝑅0 (1+α𝑇2 ), as shown in Figure 3.4(a). In order to balance the
bridge when 𝑇1 − 𝑇2 = 0, we require 𝑅4 /𝑅1 = 𝑅3 /𝑅2 when 𝑇1 = 𝑇2 ;
this implies 𝑅4 /𝑅0 = 𝑅3 /𝑅0 , i.e. 𝑅4 = 𝑅3 .

Figure 3.4 (a) Two-element resistance sensor bridge (b) Four-element

strain gauge bridge.
 Signal Conditioning Elements
Using [3.6], we have
1 1
𝐸𝑇ℎ= −
𝑅 1 𝑅3 1
1+ 3 1+
𝑅0 1 + 𝛼𝑇1 𝑅0 1 + 𝛼𝑇2
𝑅3
And if we choose 𝑅3 𝑆𝑜 𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑡 ≫ 1 this is approximates to:
𝑅0
1 + 𝛼𝑇1 1 + 𝛼𝑇2
𝐸𝑇ℎ= 𝑉𝑆 −
𝑅3 /𝑅0 𝑅3 /𝑅0
i.e.
𝑅0
𝐸𝑇ℎ= 𝑉𝑆 𝛼 𝑇1 − 𝑇2
𝑅3
• Bridges with four active strain gauges, mounted on elastic elements, are
commonly used for the measurement of force, torque, acceleration and pressure.
• Provided the gauges are correctly connected into the bridge, so that one opposite
pair (𝑒. 𝑔. 𝑅1 , 𝑅3 ) are in tension and the other opposite pair (𝑒. 𝑔. 𝑅2 , 𝑅4 ) are in
compression, then the sensitivity is greater than for a single-element bridge.
• This bridge also compensates for changes in gauge resistance due to temperature
Signal Conditioning Elements
 Signal Conditioning Elements
• For metal strain gauges the effect of temperature is to multiply each
gauge resistance by the factor (1 + 𝛼𝑇); this cancels out in the output
voltage eqn [3.5].
• For the cantilever load cell and torque elements we have 𝑅1 = 𝑅3 = 𝑅0 (1 + 𝐺𝑒),
and 𝑅2 = 𝑅4 = 𝑅0 (1 − 𝐺𝑒), where 𝑅0 is the unstrained gauge resistance.
• for the torque element. Using [3.5] the output voltage of the bridge
(Figure 3.3) is thus given by:
𝑅0 (1 + 𝐺𝑒) 𝑅0 (1 − 𝐺𝑒)
𝐸𝑇ℎ= 𝑉𝑆 −
𝑅0 1 + 𝐺𝑒 + 𝑅0 (1 − 𝐺𝑒) 𝑅0 1 − 𝐺𝑒 + 𝑅0 (1 − 𝐺𝑒)

1 + 𝐺𝑒 1 − 𝐺𝑒
𝐸𝑇ℎ= 𝑉𝑆 −
2 2
• i.e.
• Output voltage for cantilever and torque elements
𝐸𝑇ℎ= 𝑉𝑆 𝐺𝑒
 Signal Conditioning Elements
Design of reactive deflection bridges
• A reactive bridge has an a.c. supply voltage; two arms are usually reactive
impedances and two arms resistive impedances. Figure 3.5(a) shows the
bridge to be used with the capacitance .

• Figure 3.5 (a) Bridge for capacitive level sensor(b) Bridge for inductive
push-pull displacement sensor.
• here we have
𝑍1 = 1 𝑗𝜔𝐶 , 𝑍2 = 𝑅2 , 𝑍3 = 𝑅3 and 𝑍4 = 1 𝑗𝜔𝐶
0 ℎ
 Signal Conditioning Elements
Design of reactive deflection bridges
• This gives
𝑍1 𝑍2
𝐸𝑇𝑕 = 𝑉𝑆 −
𝑍1 + 𝑍4 𝑍2 + 𝑍3
1 1
ETh = VS −
1 + Z4 /Z1 1 + Z3 /Z2
1 1
ETh = VS − (3.6)
1+C0 /Cℎ 1+R3 /R2
• Thus in order to get 𝐸𝑇𝑕 = 0 at minimum level hMIN , we require
C0 = ChMIN (R 3 /R 2 ), giving:
1 1
ETh = VS ChMIN 𝑅3 −
1+ 1+R3 /R2
Cℎ 𝑅2

Again if R 3 /R 2 is made large compared with 1, this approximates to the linear form:
𝑅2 Cℎ
ETh = VS −1
𝑅3 Cℎ𝑀𝐼𝑁
and from Figure 3.5(b) we have 𝑍1 = 𝑗𝜔𝐿1 𝑍2 = 𝑍3 = 𝑅 and 𝑍4 = 𝑗𝜔𝐿4 giving
𝐿1 1
𝐸𝑇𝑕 = 𝑉𝑆 −
𝐿1 + 𝐿4 2
 Signal Conditioning Elements
• In summary, there are many design issues relating to bridge circuits. After
selecting the basic configuration, the excitation method must be
determined. The value of the excitation voltage or current must first be
determined.
 Signal Conditioning Elements
Amplifiers
• Amplifiers are necessary in order to amplify low-level signals, e.g. thermocouple,
or strain gauge bridge output voltages, to a level which enables them to be further
processed.
The ideal operational amplifier and its applications
Ideal operational amplifier characteristics
• The operational amplifier can be regarded as the basic building block for modern
amplifiers.
• It is a high gain, integrated circuit amplifier designed to amplify signals
from d.c. up to many kHz.
• It is not normally used by itself but with external feedback networks to produce
precise transfer characteristics which depend almost entirely on the feedback
network.
• Usually there are two input terminals and one output terminal, the voltage at the
output terminal being proportional to the difference between the voltages at the
input terminals.

• Figure 3.4 shows the circuit symbol and a simplified equivalent circuit for an
operational amplifier. Table 9.1 summarizes the main characteristics of an ideal
operational amplifier together with those of a typical practical amplifier OPA27.
 Signal Conditioning Elements
Amplifiers

Fig 3.4 Circuit symbol and simplified equivalent circuit for operational amplifier.

Table 1.1 Ideal and typical operational amplifier characteristics.

 Signal Conditioning Elements
Amplifiers
An ideal op amp is an amplifier with infinite open-loop gain, infinite
input resistance, andzer o output resistance.
• For circuit analysis, the ideal op amp is illustrated in Fig. 3.4. Two
important characteristics of the ideal op amp are:
1. The currents into both input terminals are zero:
𝑖− = 𝑖+ = 0
• This is due to infinite input resistance (𝑍𝐼𝑁=∞ ). An infinite resistance
between the input terminals implies that an open circuit exists there
and current cannot enter the op amp.
2. The voltage across the input terminals is negligibly small; i.e.,
𝑉+ − 𝑉− ≈ 0
𝑉− = 𝑉+
• The second condition results from assuming that 𝐴𝑂𝐿 → ∞: since
𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇 = 𝐴𝑂𝐿 ( 𝑉+ − 𝑉− ) and 𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇 is finite, then the differential
voltage (𝑉+ − 𝑉− ) → 0 i.e. 𝑉+ = 𝑉− . We now derive the transfer
characteristics for six voltage amplifier circuits.
 Signal Conditioning Elements
Amplifier
Inverting amplifier :- In this and the following sections, we consider some useful op
amp circuits that often serve as modules for designing more complex circuits.
• The first of such op-amp circuits is the inverting amplifier shown in Fig. below.
• In this circuit, a signal source VIN , RIN connected to an inverting amplifier. Since
𝑉+ = 𝑉− = 0:
𝑉𝐼𝑁 𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇
𝑖𝐼𝑁 = , 𝑖𝐼𝐹 = ,
𝑅𝐼𝑁 𝑅𝐹
Also Applying KCL at a node
𝑖𝐼𝑁 + 𝑖𝐼𝐹 = 𝑖− = 0
Giving
𝑉𝐼𝑁 𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇
𝑅𝐼𝑁
+ 𝑅𝐹
=0

𝑅𝐹 𝑉𝐼𝑁
𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇 = −
𝑅𝐼𝑁
Thus the output voltage 𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇 is proportional to the input voltage 𝑉𝐼𝑁 with gain
𝑅
− 𝑅 𝐹 . The resistance R is set equal to the resistance of 𝑅𝐼𝑁 in parallel with 𝑅𝐹 , i.e.
𝐼𝑁
𝑅𝐹 𝑅𝐼𝑁
𝑅=
𝑅𝐼𝑁 + 𝑅𝐹
This is to balance the d.c. bias currents to inverting and non-inverting inputs.
Signal Conditioning Elements
Amplifier
Inverting amplifier

Non-inverting amplifier.
 Signal Conditioning Elements
Amplifier
• We are interested in the output voltage and the voltage gain.
• The Figure shown above is a non-inverting amplifier circuit. Since
𝑖+ = 0, 𝑉+ = 𝑉𝐼𝑁; also 𝑅𝐹 and 𝑅1 form a potential divider so that:
𝑅1
𝑉− = 𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇
𝑅1 + 𝑅𝐹
Also since 𝑉+ = 𝑉−
𝑅1
𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇 = 𝑉𝐼𝑁
𝑅1 + 𝑅𝐹
𝑅𝐹
𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇 = 1 + 𝑉𝐼𝑁
𝑅1
Thus output voltage 𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇 Is proportional to input voltage𝑉𝐼𝑁 with gain
𝑅𝐹
1+
𝑅1
 Signal Conditioning Elements
Amplifier
• Voltage follower:- Figure shown below is a signal
source 𝑉𝐼𝑁 , 𝑅𝐼𝑁 connected to a voltage follower circuit. Here 𝑉− = 𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇 ,
and since 𝑖+ = 0, 𝑉+ = 𝑉𝐼𝑁 . Since 𝑉− = 𝑉+ then: 𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇 = 𝑉𝐼𝑁
• This circuit has unity gain, high input impedance and low output
impedance and is used as a buffer amplifier to connect a voltage signal
source with high output impedance to a low impedance load.
Voltage follower
 Signal Conditioning Elements
Amplifier
• Differential amplifier:- Figure shown below has two voltage sources 𝑉1 , 𝑅𝐼𝑁 and 𝑉2 , 𝑅𝐼𝑁
connected to a differential amplifier. 𝑉2 , 𝑅𝐼𝑁 and 𝑅𝐹 form a potential divider, so that:
𝑅𝐹
𝑉+ = 𝑉2
𝑅𝐹 + 𝑅𝐼𝑁
Also:
𝑖𝐼𝑁 + 𝑖𝐹 = 𝑖− = 0
Where
𝑉1 −𝑉− 𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇 −𝑉−
𝑖𝐼𝑁 = , 𝑖𝐹 =
𝑅𝐼𝑁 𝑅𝐹
Giving
𝑉1 −𝑉− 𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇 −𝑉−
+ =0
𝑅𝐼𝑁 𝑅𝐹
And
𝑅𝐼𝑁 . 𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇 𝑅𝐹 𝑉1
𝑉− = +
𝑅𝐹 + 𝑅𝐼𝑁 (𝑅𝐹 +𝑅𝐼𝑁 )
Since 𝑉− = 𝑉+
𝑅𝐼𝑁 𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇 𝑅𝐹 𝑉1 𝑅𝐹 𝑉2
𝑅𝐹 +𝑅𝐼𝑁
+ (𝑅 = (𝑅
𝐹 +𝑅𝐼𝑁 ) 𝐹 +𝑅𝐼𝑁 )
giving:
𝑅𝐹
𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇 = 𝑉 − 𝑉1
𝑅𝐼𝑁 2
 Signal Conditioning Elements
Amplifier

• Figure 9.11 Straingauge bridge connected to differential amplifier.

• The output voltage 𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇 is therefore proportional to the voltage

𝑅𝐹
difference 𝑉2 − 𝑉1 , and the closed-loop gain is .
𝑅1
 Signal Conditioning Elements
Amplifier
• a strain gauge bridge connected to a differential amplifier is shown in the figure above.
Here 𝑅1 and 𝑅3 experience tensile strain +e so that:
𝑅1 = 𝑅3 = 𝑅0 (1 + 𝐺𝑒)
while 𝑅2 and 𝑅4 experience compressive strain −e so that:
𝑅2 = 𝑅4 = 𝑅0 (1 − 𝐺𝑒)
• RIN is the Thévenin resistance of the potential divider 𝑅1 , 𝑅4 (also 𝑅2 , 𝑅3 ): RIN is
therefore equal to the resistance of 𝑅1 and 𝑅4 in parallel. Since the strain e is much less
than 1, we have:
𝑅𝐼𝑁 ≈ 𝑅0 /2
𝑉2 is the potential at B and is set by the potential divider 𝑅3 , 𝑅2 giving:
𝑅4 𝑅𝑆
𝑉𝑆 = 1 − 𝐺𝑒
𝑅4 + 𝑅1 2
Since
𝑅𝐹
𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇 = 𝑉 − 𝑉1
𝑅𝐼𝑁 2
We obtain.
𝑅𝐹
𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇 = 2 𝑉𝑆 𝐺𝑒
𝑅0
• Typically 𝑉𝑆 = 15 V, e = 10−5 , R = 120 Ω and G = 2; therefore to give 𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇 = 5 V,
𝑅𝐹 must be 1 MΩ.
 Signal Conditioning Elements
Amplifier
• Voltage adder Figure 9.14 shows a set of voltages V1, V2, . . . , Vn
connected into a summing amplifier. Here: 𝑉− = 𝑉+ = 0 And
𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑉𝑛
𝑖1 = , 𝑖2 = , , …., 𝑖𝑛 =
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅𝑛
Also
𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇
𝑖𝐹 = , I = 𝑖𝐹 = 𝑖− = 0, 𝑖𝐹 = −𝐼
𝑅𝐹
𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑉3 𝑉𝑛
Giving 𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇 = −𝑅𝐹 + + + ⋯
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅𝑛
 Signal Conditioning Elements
Amplifier
• Instrumentation amplifiers An instrumentation amplifier is a high-performance
differential amplifier system consisting of several closed-loop operational
amplifiers. An ideal instrumentation amplifier gives an output voltage which
depends only on the difference of two input voltages 𝑉1 and 𝑉2 ,
i.e.𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇 = 𝐾(𝑉1 − 𝑉2 )
• where the gain K is precisely known and can be varied over a wide range. A
practical instrumentation amplifier should have a gain which can be set by a single
external resistor and should combine the following:
• High input impedance
• High common mode rejection ratio
• Low input offset voltage
• •Low temperature coefficient of offset voltage.
 Signal Conditioning Elements
Amplifier

• Instrumentation amplifiers such as the AD620,

AD623, and AD627 can be used in single supply
applications provided the restrictions on the gain
and input and output voltage swings are observed.
 Signal Processing Elements
• The output signal from the conditioning elements is usually in the form
of a d.c. voltage, d.c. current or variable frequency a.c. voltage.
• In many cases calculations must be performed on the conditioning
element output signal in order to establish the value of the variable
being measured.
• Examples are the calculation of temperature from a thermocouple e.m.f.
signal, and the calculation of total mass of product gas from flow rate
and density signals.
• These calculations are referred to as signal processing and are usually
performed digitally using a computer.
• These elements take the output of the conditioning element and
convert it into a form more suitable for presentation. Examples are:
• Analogue-to-digital converter (ADC) which converts a voltage into
a digital form for input to a computer
• Computer which calculates the measured value of the variable from
the incoming digital data.
 Signal Processing Elements
Analog-to-Digital (A/D) & Digital to Analog conversion
 Discrete-time signals are often generated from corresponding
continuous-time signals through the use of an analog-to-digital
(A/D) conversion.

 An A/D conversion typically comprises three components, namely, a

sampling, a quantization, and an encoding.

 The first operation is performed by a sample-and-hold device;

 the second and third are combined in an analogue-to digital
converter.

 Similarly, continuous-time signals can be obtained by using a digital-

to-analog (D/A) interface.
 The D/A interface comprises two modules, a decoder and a
smoothing device.
 Signal Processing Elements
Sampling of Analog Signals
The process of Conversion continuous-time signals into
discrete-time signals by taking samples of the continuous-
time signal at discrete-time instants is called sampling.
 Signal Processing Elements
• In order for a sampled signal to recover it back during
reconstruction, the sampling rate must be at least twice the
maximum frequency of the signal [Nyquist theorem]- otherwise an
aliasing occurs.
𝐹𝑠 ≥ 2𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥
where 𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 is the largest frequency component in the analog signal
• Aliasing - several frequency components are projected onto the
same digital waveform, and hence, provoke ambiguity, confusion
and loss of information (i.e. prevent the reconstruction of Y(t) from
ys[t])

• Converting a discrete-time continuous-amplitude signal into a

digital signal by expressing each sample value as a finite number of
digits, is called quantization.
 Signal Processing Elements
• In quantization the sample voltages are rounded either up or down to
one of Q quantization values or levels 𝑉𝑞 , where q = 0, 1, 2, . . . , Q
− 1. These quantum levels correspond to the Q decimal numbers 0,
1, 2, . . . , Q − 1. If 𝑉0 = 𝑦𝑀𝐼𝑁 and 𝑉𝑄−1 = 𝑦𝑀𝐴𝑋 , then there are (Q −
1) spacings occupying a span of 𝑦𝑀𝐴𝑋 − 𝑦𝑀𝐼𝑁 .
• The spacing width or quantisation interval ΔV is therefore:
𝑦𝑀𝐴𝑋 − 𝑦𝑀𝐼𝑁
∆𝑉 =
Q−1
 Signal Processing Elements

The operation of quantisation produces an error 𝑒𝑞 = 𝑉𝑞 − 𝑦𝑖 termed the

quantisation error. Normally if 𝑦𝑖 is above the halfway point between two
levels q, q + 1 it is rounded up to 𝑉𝑞+1 1; if 𝑦𝑖 is below halfway it is rounded
down to 𝑉𝑞 as shown in the figure above.
The maximum quantisation error e𝑞 𝑀𝐴𝑋 is therefore ±ΔV/2, or expressed
as a percentage of span 𝑦𝑀𝐴𝑋 − 𝑦𝑀𝐼𝑁 :
 Signal Processing Elements
Encoding
• The encoder converts the quantization values 𝑉𝑞 into a parallel digital
signal corresponding to a binary coded version of the decimal
numbers 0, 1, 2, . . . , Q − 1.
• The commonly used decimal or denary number system uses a base or
radix of 10, so that any positive integer is expressed as a series of
powers of 10 (decades):
• The number of binary digits n required to encode Q decimal
numbers is given by:
𝑄 = 2𝑛
i.e.
log10 𝑄
𝑛 = log 2 𝑄 =
log10 2
 Signal Processing Elements
• Example
log10 200 2.301
• Thus if Q = 200, 𝑛 = = = 7.64. Since, however, n
log10 2 0.301
must be an integer, we require eight bits, which corresponds to
𝑄 = 28 = 256. the corresponding maximum quantization error is
±100/2(255)% = +0.196%. If the input range of the converter is 0 to
5 V, then the corresponding analogue input, decimal numbers and
digital output signals are as shown in Table below.
 Signal Processing Elements
• The circuit has only one input with ‘n’ number of digital outputs. The
figure shown below shows this situation.

A DAC, on the other hand, inputs a binary number and outputs an analog
voltage or current signal. In block diagram form, it looks like this:
 Signal Processing Elements
• Together, they are often used in digital systems to provide complete
interface with analog sensors and output devices for control systems
such as those used in automations

We have a number of Analog to Digital Converters. The commonly

used ones are
 Flash ADC
 Digital Ramp ADC
 Successive Approximation ADC
 Signal Processing Elements
Flash ADC
• Flash analog-to-digital converters, also known as parallel ADCs, are
the fastest way to convert an analog signal to a digital signal.
• Flash ADCs are ideal for applications requiring very large
bandwidth, but they consume more power than other ADC
architectures and are generally limited to 8-bit resolution.

• It is formed of a series of comparators, each one comparing the

input signal to a unique reference voltage.
• The comparator outputs connect to the inputs of a priority encoder
circuit, which then produces a binary output. Figure 3.5 shows a
typical flash ADC block diagram.
 Signal Processing Elements
• It is the fastest type of ADC available, but requires a comparator for
each value of output

• Fig 3.5
 Signal Processing Elements
Digital Ramp ADC
• Conversion from analog to digital form inherently involves
comparator action where the value of the analog voltage at
some point in time is compared with some standard.

• A common way to do that is to apply the analog voltage to one

terminal of a comparator and trigger a binary counter which
drives a DAC.
• The output of the DAC is applied to the other terminal of the
comparator. Since the output of the DAC is increasing with the
counter, it will trigger the comparator at some point when its
voltage exceeds the analog input.
• The transition of the comparator stops the binary counter,
which at that point holds the digital value corresponding to the
analog voltage. Figure 3.9 shows a digital ramp ADC.
Signal Processing Elements
Digital Ramp ADC
 Signal Processing Elements
Successive Approximation ADC:
• Illustration of 4-bit Successive Approximation ADC with 1 volt step
size is shown in Figure below
• The successive approximation ADC is much faster than the digital
ramp ADC because it uses digital logic to converge on the value
closest to the input voltage.
• A comparator and a DAC are used in the process. The flow chart of
the Successive Approximation ADC is shown in Figure
 Signal Processing Elements
Successive Approximation ADC
 Signal Processing Elements
Microcontroller:
• A microcontroller is a microprocessor (=CPU on a chip) with also
memory and peripherals on the same die. It is a complete system on
one chip.

• Historically, the 'computer' was first, and then came the

microprocessor and the microcontroller appeared only afterwards.

• A lot of improvements have been made since the invention of

microcontroller. To our discussion let us focus on one family of
microcontroller called PIC18F4550.
The End of chapter three

Thank you!

Any questions?