protection

RELAY OPERATION PRINCIPLES

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 2.1 Detection of fault :-
In general, as faults (short-circuit) occur, current increase in magnitude, and
voltages go down. Besides these magnitude changes of the ac quantities, other
changes may occur in one or more of the following parameters:
Phase angles of current and voltage phasors.
Harmonic components.
Active and reactive power.
Frequency of the power system.
Relay operating principles may be based upon detecting these changes, and
identifying the changes with the possibility that a fault may exist inside its
assigned zone of protection . We will divide relays into categories based upon
which of these input quantities a particular relay responds to :-
Level detection :- this is the simplest of all relay operating principles. Fault
current magnitudes are almost always greater than the normal load current that
exist in a power system.
As an example, consider the motor connection to a 4kv power system. The full
load current for the motor is I=245 ampers.

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 Allowing for an emergency overload capability of 25%, a current of I
=1.25×245=306 amperes or lower should correspond to normal operation .
Then any current above a set level(346 amperes ) may be taken to mean
that a fault, or some other abnormal condition exists inside the zone of
protection of the motor. The relay should be designed to operate and trip
the circuit breaker for all currents above the setting value.
The level above which the relay operate is known as the pickup setting of
the relay . For all currents above the pickup , the relay operates, and for
currents smaller than pickup value, the relay takes no action.
The operating characteristic of an overcurrent relay can be presented as a
plot of the operating time of the relay versus the current in the relay.
It is best to normalize the current as a ratio of the actual current to the
pickup setting(Ip).
In= ,the operating time for In less than 1 is infinite, which for values>1 ,
the relay operates. The actual time for operation will depend upon the
design of the relay.

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 The characteristics show the ideal and practice relay level
detector relay also known as over current relay ( OV relay )

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 b) Magnitude comparison
This operation principle is based upon the comparison of one or
more operating quantities with each other. For example , a current
balance relay may compare the current in one circuit with the
current in another circuit ,which should have equal or
proportional magnitudes under normal operating conditions . The
relay will operate when the current division in the two circuit
varies by a given tolerance .
The figure below shows two identical parallel lines which are
connected to the same bus at either end . One could use a
magnitude comparison relay which compares the magnitude of the
two line current
Then with the line B is not open , would declare a fault on line A
and trip it ,where is a suitable tolerance .
Similar logic would be used to trip line B .

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 c) Differential comparison
It is one of the most sensitive and effective methods of providing
protection against the faults . Consider the generator winding
shown in the figure , then as the winding is electrically
continuous , current entering one end I1`must equal the current
leaving the other end I2` .
One could use a magnitude comparison relay described below to
test for a fault on the protected winding .
When a fault occurs between tow ends the two current are no
longer equal alternatively , one could from an algebraic sum of
the two current entering the protected winding ,(I1-I2) and use a
level detector relay to detect the presence of a fault. In either
case , the protection is termed a differential protection . In
general , the differential protection principle is capable of
detecting very small magnitudes of a fault current .
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 Thy only drawback of this technique it requires current
from both ends of zone of protection which restricts its
application to power apparatus ( Transformer , Generators
, Motors , buses , capacitors , reactors …) .

d) Phase angle comparison

This type of relay compares the relative phase angle
between to Ac quantities . Phase angle comparison is
commonly used to determine direction of a current ( w.r.)
to a reference quantity . For instance , the normal power
flow in given direction will result in the phase angle
between the voltage and the current varying around its
power factor angle say approximately ±30˚ . When power
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 flow in opposite direction ,this angle will become (180˚±30˚)
similarly , for a fault in forward or revers direction the phase
angle of the current ( w.r.t ) the voltage will be –Φ and ( 180˚-
Φ ) respectively ( Φ is impedance angle of the fault circuit )
as shown in figure .

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 This difference in phase relationships created by a fault is
given by making relay which response to phase angle
differences between two inputs ( fault voltage and fault
current ) .
E ) Distance Measurement :-
As discussed above , most positive and reliable type of
protection compares the current entering the circuit with the
current leaving the it on transmission lines and feeders , the
length ,voltage, and configuration of the line may make this
principle uneconomical. Instead of comparing the local line
current with the far end line current ,the relay compares the
local current with the local voltage .
This in effect , is a measurement of the impedance of the line
as seen from the relay terminal .
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 An impedance relay relies on the fact that the length of the line
(its distance ) for a given conductor diameter spacing
determines its impedance .
F ) pilot relaying :-
Certain relaying principles are based upon information
obtained by the relay from a remote location , the information
could be in the form of the contact status ( open or closed ).
The information is sent over a communication channel using
power line carrier , microwave , or telephone circuits .
G ) Harmonic content :-
Current and voltage in a power system usually have a sinusoidal
waveform of the fundamental power system frequency . There
are however , deviations from a pure sinusoid , such as the
third harmonic voltage and currents
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 produced by generators , that are present during normal
system operation , other harmonic occur during
abnormal system conditions , such as the odd harmonics
associated with transformer saturation or transient
components . These abnormal conditions can be detected
by sensing the harmonic content through filters in
electromechanical or solid – state relays , or by
calculation in digital relays. After the detection of these
harmonics , a decision can be made and control action is
required .
H ) Frequency sensing :-
Normal power system operation is at 50 or 60 Hz . Any deviation
from these values indicates that a problem exists . Frequency can be
measured by filter circuit , by counting of
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 zero crossing wave forms in a unit of time , or by
special sampling and digital computer technique
frequency – sensing relays may be used to bring
system frequency back to normal by some corrective
actions .

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 Relay design
The various input quantities described above , upon which fault
detection is based ,may be used either single or in any
combination to calculated power ,power factor , directionality ,
impedance ….. Some relays are also designed to respond to
mechanical devices such as fluid detectors , pressure or
temperature sensors . Relay may be constructed from electro
mechanical element such as solenoids , induction discs , solid –
state elements , digital computers using analog – to – digital
converter and microprocessors . However , the construction of a
relay does not inherently change the protection of a relay dose
not inherently change the protection concept , although there
are advantages and disadvantages associated with each type .
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 Some relay design aspects are :
 Relays are devices requiring low level inputs ( voltages ,
currents , or contacts ).
 Derive their inputs from transducers such as current or
voltage transformers and switch contacts .
 They are fault detecting devices only and require an
associated interrupting device ( a circuit breaker ) to clear
the fault .
 Separating the fault detection function from the
interruption function gave the relay designer an ability to
design a protection system that match the needs of the
power system .

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 Fuses
 The fuse is the oldest and simplest of all the
protective device . The main characteristics are :-
1. It is a level detector .
2. It is both the sensor and the interrupting device .
3. It is installed in series with the equipment being
protected .
4. Operating by melting a fusible element in response to the
current flow . The melting time is inversely proportional
to the magnitude of the current flowing in the fuse .
5. It is one – shot device since the fusible link is destroyed in
the process of interrupting the currents.
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 6. Fuse may only be able to interrupt current up to
their maximum short–circuit rating before it reaches
its maximum value .
7. Its application is restricted for radial feeders such as
distribution lines or auxiliary systems of power plants .

 The two major dis advantages are :-

a) The single –shot feature requires that a blown fuse be
replaced before service can be restored ,this means a
delay ,and the need to have the correct spare fuses . To
avoid this, it is possible a multi-shot feature by installing a
number of fuses in parallel with a control unit to transfer to
another one.

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 b) In a three-phase circuit ,a single phase-to- ground fault will
cause one fuse to blow, de energizing only one phase,
permitting the connected equipment-such as motors to stay
connected to the remaining phases , with excessive heating and
vibration because of the unbalanced voltage supply .
2.3 Electromechanical Relays :-
The early replay designs utilized actuating forces that were
produced be electromagnetic interaction between currents and
fluxes. Some relays were also based upon the forces created by
expansion of metals caused by temperature rise due to a flow
of current. Two main types of electromechanical replays and in
use , the plunger-type relays are usually driven by a single
actuating quantity , while the induction –type relays may be
activated by single or multiple inputs .

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 a) plunger –Type Relay
Consider a round moving a stationary electromagnet as
shown in the figure. With no current in the coil, the plunger
is held partially out side the coil by the force Fs produced by a
spring. Let X be the position of the plunger tip inside the
upper opening of the coil. When the coil is energized by a
current i , and saturation phenomena are neglected ,the
energy W(λ, i) and the co-energy w1(i,x),stored in the
magnetic field are given by :
______(2.1)
Where λ is the flax linkage of the coil and L is the inductance
of the coil which can be given for this magnetic circuit as
, N :number of turns in the coil
a: height of the pole –face

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 The force which tries to pull the plunger inside the coil
given by
……………(2.2)
Where k is a constant depending upon constants of the
magnetic circuit shown on the figure .
The plunger moves when exceeds .if the current is
sinusoidal with an rms value of I ,the average force is
proportional to I² . The valve of the current () at which
the plunger just begins to move is known as the pickup
setting of the replay is given by :
then
=[……(2.3)

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 Where is the displacement of the plunger when no
current is flowing in the coil (stating position ). The
plunger travels some distance from to x1 before it
closes its contacts and hits a stop . The energizing
current must drop below a value , known as the dropout
current before the plunger can return to tis original
position . The dropout current is given by :
=[……(2.4)
<<

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 The operating time of the relay depends upon the mass of the
plunger .
For a normalized current of magnitude (actual current divided
by the pickup current ), the accelerating force on the plunger is :
F=, substituting for from equation (2.3) then ,
F=
The equation of motion for the plunger is ,
M= -F …………….(2.6)
Where m is the mass of the plunger.
Equation (2.6)can be integrated twice to provide the operating
time of the relay (the time it takes the plunger to travel from The
integrals in eqn (2.6) are elliptic integrals and must be evaluated
numerically for given displacements .

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 The general shape of the replay characteristic list operating time
plotted as a function of the current through the coil is as shown in
this figure. Operating time calculation is given in the next
example.
Ex: consider a plunger-type relay with a pickup current of 5
amperes (rms).the pole face has a height of 1.5 cm ,while the spring
holds the plunger 1cm out of the coil when the current is below
the pickup value. The air gap g=0.2cm , and gd/4a=0.05 , let the
spring force be a constant ,with a value of 0.001 Newton , and let
the mass of the plunger be 0.005kg . Let the travel of the plunger
be 3mm before it hits a stop and closes its contacts . Calculate :
a)The dropout current to its pickup current
b)The accelerating force on the plunger for =2, and x=0.8 cm
c)The operating time of the relay for closes its contacts.

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 Sol: use the sam construction of plunger-type relay was given
in section (2.3)then :
a)From eqns (2.3)and(2.4),we have for dimension in cm:-

b)From eqn (2.5),the accelerating force F is :

F=
F=
c)Using eqns (2.5)and (2.6) them
0.005 =-0.001[² -1 ]= -F

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 The operating time can be calculated using a constant force
equal to the average taken over its travel from then from the
above eqn use x= =1cm and x= =0.7 cm and calculate F in
both cases.
For x= 1cm
² - 1 ) newton
For x= 0.7cm
² - 1 ) newton
Fav = ² - 1 )newton
Using this expression for the force ,then the approximate
equation of motion for the plunger is :
²-1]

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 =²-1]
t²=
Or t = = = 0.79 sec. approximately
This relation shows the inverse –time behavior of the relay for
larger values of and can be drown for ≥ 1 .
Most plunger relays also have several taps available on the
winding of the coil to adjust the pickup current over a wide
range (tap setting 1,2,….10 amperes ). Also the pickup can be
controlled by adjusting the plunger within the coil. Plunger –
type relays will operate on dc as well as on ac current .

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 b) Induction – type relays
These relays are based upon the principle of operation of the single
phase ac motor. As such ,they cannot be used for dc currents. There are
two types of these fairly standard : one with an induction disc, and the
other with an induction cup. In both cases, the moving element (disc or
cup) is equivalent to the rotor of the induction motor. The figure below
shows the principle of construction of an induction disc relay. The
moving element acts as a carrier of rotor currents, while the magnetic
circuit is completed through stationary magnetic elements. Induction
type relays require two sources of alternating magnetic flux in which
the moving element may turn. The two fluxes must have a phase
difference between them, otherwise no operating torque is produced.
Let us assume that the two currents in the coils of the relay, are
sinusoidal :
(t)=cos wt , and (t)=cos (wt+θ)
cos wt , and cos (wt+θ) where Lm is mutual inductance

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 Each of these flux linkages in turn induces a voltage in the
rotor, and since the rotor is a metallic structure with low self-
inductance, a rotor current in phase with the inducted
voltages flows in the rotor. Assuming the equivalent rotor
resistance to be rotor current are given by :
= - sin ωt ………….(2.7)
= - sin (ωt+θ) ………….(2.8)
Each of the rotor current interacts with the flux produced by
the other coil, producing a force. The two forces are in
opposite direction w.r.t each other, and the net farce, or the
corresponding net torque T is given by :
T [ -], substituting for λ,i and simplify to get
T= k [cos ωt+θ)-cos(ωt+θ)sin ωt] ……….(2.9)

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 Or using trigonometric identity, the net torque is
T = k sinθ ………………(2.10)
Not that the net torque is constant in this case and dose not change
with time. If the phase angle between the two coil currents is zero,
there is no torque produced. By an appropriate choice of the source
of the two coil currents, this relay could be made to take on the
characteristic of :
A level detector (relay)
A directional relay
A ratio relay
For example, by using the same current to flow through the two coil,
one could make a level detector. The phase shift between currents
can be produce by placing in parallel with one of the coil a shunt
with an impedance angel that is different from that of the coil, then
the relay will produce a torque .
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 For reduced to
T = I² …………(2.11)
Where =k sin θ
When the torque produced by the current (the pickup current
of the relay) just exceeds the spring torque Ts, the disc begins
to turn. After turning and angel φ ,the relay closes its contacts .
E :- consider an induction disc relay, designed to perform as an
overcurrent relay. The spring torque Ts is 0.001 Nm, and the
pickup current of the relay is 10 amperes. The constant is , the
moment of inertia of the disc is kg-m²
a) Give an expression for the accelerating torque.
b) Develop the inverse relation of the operating time w.r.t the
normalized current for angel of rotation (0__2˚)

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 c) Calculated the operating time of the relay to close its
contacts over rotation period of (0≤φ≤2˚).
Sal:-
a) From eqn (2.11), the magnetic torque is
The accelerating torque on the disc is the difference between
the magnetic torque and the spring torque :
T= -1)
b) The equation of motion of the disc is
J=T where J :moment of inertia
-1)
(θ is angel of rotation of the disc o≤θ≤φ)

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 For φ=2˚=0.035 radian, in tegreting the equation of motion
twice to get θ=5( and the operating time of the relay is
t= sec

c) The operation time after relay closes its contact ( take = 1.01
then
t = = 0.59 sec

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 2.4 solid –state relays:-
The expansion and growing complexity of modern power systems have
brought a need for protective relays with higher level of performance
and more sophisticated character is tics .this has been made possible by
the development of solid-state or static relays where all of the functions
and characteristics available with electromechanical relays has can be
performed by solid-state disadvantages as follow:
Advantages:-
1-Use low power compare and devices.
2-Springs and driving torques from the input quantities are not
presented.
3-High reliability than other electromechanical relays.
4-Performance and economic advantages.
5-More flexible and reduced size devices.
6-More accurate in setting process.

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 7-Their characteristics can be shaped by adjusting logic
elements as the fixed characteristics of induction relays.
8-Solid-state relays are not affected by vibration or dust
and require less mounting space.
Disadvantages:-
1- Limited capability to high temperature and humidity,
over voltages and over currents .
2-It requires independent power supplies .
3-Solid-state relays are designed, assembled and tested
as a system which puts the overall responsibility for
proper operation on the manufacturer.

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 Types:-
Solid-state relay circuits may be divided into tow categories:
a) Analog circuits that are either fault- sensing or measuring circuits.
b) Digital logic circuits for operation on logical variables.
These circuits may arrange to provide desired relay characteristics
such as :
c) Solid – state instantaneous over current relays .
d) Solid – state distance relays .
We shall consider these as a circuit configuration and its principle of
operation and characteristics as this are in use .
e) Solid – state instantaneous overcurrent relays :
Consider the circuit shown below . The input current I is passed
through the resistive shunt R , full – wave rectified by the bridge
rectifier , filtered to remove the ripple by the R-C filter , and applied to
a high – gain summing amplifier A .

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 The other input of the summing amplifier is supplied with an adjustable reference
voltage er . when the input an the positive input of the summing amplifier exceeds
the reference setting, the amplifier output goes high and this step change is delayed
by a time-delay circuit in order to provide immunity against spurious transient
signals in the input circuit. wave forms at various points in this circuit are shown in
figure far an assumed input fault current of a magnitude above the pickup setting er
of the relay. By making the time-delay circuit adjustable, and by making the mount
of delay depend upon the magnitude of the input current, a time-delay overcurrent
relay character is tic can be obtained
b)Solid –state distance relays :-
The type of relays are designed to be used as impedance, mho relays for the
application of transmission lines protection. It measures the voltage and current at
the location of the relay at on end of T.L. then the impedance, reactance or the
distance to fault location is measured. The impendence characteristics is
represented as R-X circle and the measured impedance is projected on this
diagram to detect the fault and producing the trip or block signals. An analog
circuit may be designed to measure the angle between the input current and voltage
and then these is supplied to a logic circuit to get the tripping signal for the internal
fault .

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 2.5 computer relays :-
With the advent of rugged, high performance micro process it is obvious that
a digital computer can perform the same function as other techniques for
detecting and decision. Since the usual relay input consist of power system
voltages and currents, it is necessary to obtain a digital representation of
these parameters. This is done by sampling the analog signals, and using an
appropriate
Computer algorithm to create suitable digital representation of the signals.
This is done by a digital filter algorithm. The functional blocks shown
represent a possible configuration far a digital relay(computer relay) the
current and voltage signals from the power system are processed by signal
conditioners consisting of analog circuits such as transducers, surge
suppression circuits, anti-aliasing fitters before being sampled and converted
to digital form by the analog to digital converter. The sampling clock provides
pulses at sampling frequencies (8-32)time the power system frequency. The
relaying algorithm processes the sample data to produce a digital output.
Computer relays will play a very important role in the protection ,control, and
monitoring of power system it has many advantages such as :
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 1. Its ability to diagnose a complex cases without great effort, cost, and
complexity as for analog relay.
2. It provides a communication capability that allows it to warn system
operation when it is not functioning properly.
3. Permits remote diagnostics, and possible correction, and provides local
and remote readout of its settings and operation .
4. Another dimension was added to the reliability of the protection
system.
5. The ability to adapt itself in real time to changing system conditions,
and setting, and other characteristics.
6. Data sharing abilities of microprocessors with the central control
computer or other protection terminals.
One of important disadvantages is the need to the interface unit for mixing
of digital and analog relays within a common overall protection system.
Indicating light are used for targeting and trace the tripping sequence and
other information in the system.

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 Numerical relays :-
The can viewed as natural development of digital relays as a result of
advances in technology, they use a specialized digital signal processor
(DSP) as the computational hardware together with the associated
software tools.
The input analogue signals are converted into digital representation and
processed using mathematical algorithm. Processing is carried out using
a specialized microprocessor that is optimized for signal processing
application (DSP). Single item of hardware is used to provide a rang of
functions.
Advantages :-
1-several setting groups 2-wider range of parameter
3- remote communication built in 4-internal fault diagnosis
5-power system measurements available , 6-distance to fault locator 7-
disturbance recorder 8- CB monitoring (state, condition) 9- backup
protection function in – built

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