Sri Ramakrishna Institute of Technology,

Coimbatore – 641010

Electronic measurements and

Instrumentation

Ms.A.Poornima,
Assistant Professor,
 UNIT 2

Electrical and Electronic Instruments

Principle and types of analog and digital voltmeters,
ammeters, multimeter – Single and three phase wattmeter and
energy meters – Magnetic measurements – Determination of
B-H curve and measurements of iron loss.
 ANALOG AMMETER AND VOLTMETER

All type of ammeters and voltmeters work on the same operating

principle.,i.e. the deflecting torque is produced by electric current. In
ammeter, the deflecting torque is produced by the current which is to be
measured whereas in the voltmeter, torque is produced by the current
which is proportional to the voltage to be measured.
 AMMETER-PRINCIPLE
 Ammeters are connected in series with the circuit whose current is to be measured.
This is because, same current flows only in the series connection. The ammeters
should have low electrical resistance so that they cause a small voltage drop and
consequently absorb small power.

according to ohms law,

V=IR
𝑉
I=
𝑅
Where,
I= Current
V=Voltage
R=Resistance
 VOLTMETER-PRINCIPLE
 Voltmeter are generally connected in parallel with the circuit whose voltage is to be
measured. This is because, voltage will be same only in parallel connection. The
voltmeters should have high electrical resistance, in order that the current drawn by
them is small and consequently absorb small power.

according to ohms law,

V=IR
 TYPES OF ANALOG AMMETER AND VOLTMETER

The main type of instruments used as ammeters and voltmeter are,

(i) Permanent magnet moving coil(PMMC) type instrument-D.C measurement
(ii) Moving iron type instrument –A.C and D.C measurement
(iii) Electro dynamometer type instrument- A.C and D.C measurement
(iv) Hot wire type instrument- A.C and D.C measurement
(v) Thermocouple type instrument- A.C and D.C measurement
(vi) Induction type instrument-A.C Measurement
(vii) Electrostatic type instrument
(viii) Rectifier type instrument
 1. Permanent magnet moving coil(PMMC) type
instrument-D.C measurement
 The permanent magnet coil instruments are used to give accurate reading in d.c
measurement like voltage and current.
Basic principle:
PMMC instruments mainly works on motoring principle. When a current carrying
conductor is placed in a magnetic field produced by a permanent magnet, the coil
experiences a force and hence moves. As the coil is moving and the magnet is
permanent, hence this instrument is called permanent magnet moving coil instrument.
This basic principle is called as D’ Arsonval principle which is the main principle of the
galvanometer.
The amount of the force experienced by the coil is proportional to the current passing
through the coil.
Construction and working
 It consists of moving coil which is either rectangular or circular in shape, which has
number of turns of fine wire.
 Then this coil is placed in uniform, horizontal magnetic field of permanent magnet.
 A iron core is presented inside of the coil, due to this iron core, the deflecting torque
increase, which in turn increases the sensitivity of the instrument.
 The deflecting torque’s value is dependent upon the electrical signal to be measured;
this torque/force helps in rotating the instrument movement from its zero position.
 Controlling torque is provided by the spring control with help of phosphor bronze
hair spring.The act of this torque/force is opposite to the deflecting torque/force.
When the deflecting and controlling torques are equal in magnitude then the
movement will be in definite position or in equilibrium. Spiral springs or gravity is
usually given to produce the controlling torque.
Cont.,
 Damping torque is provided by the method of eddy current damping which is
obtained by the movement of the aluminium former around the coil.
 A damping torque generally works in an opposite direction to the movement of the
moving system. This opposite movement of the damping force, without any
oscillation or very small oscillation brings the moving system to rest at the final
deflected position quickly.
 The pointer is connected to the spindle and it moves over a uniformly graduated
scale. This pointer is light weight and hence it deflects rapidly.
 A mirror is placed below the pointer to get the accurate reading without parallax
error.
 In PMMC instrument, the deflection of the pointer is directly proportional to the
current passing through the coil, which is quantity to be measured in case of
ammeter and it is proportional to the voltage to be measured in case of voltmeter.
 Hence linear scale is used to indicate both voltage and current.
TORQUE EQUATION

Let, B = flux density in the air gap (wb/m2)

I = current in the coil (A)
L= effective axial length of the coil (m)
N = number of turns of the coil
A = Effective area of the coil [length(l)* width(d)]
The deflecting torque of moving coil Tq is given by,

Tq = NBAI
---------------- eqn 1
Cont.,

The controlling torque provided by the spring is given as,

Tc ∝ θ

Tc = Ks θ
---------------- eqn 2
Ks = Spring constant in Nm/rad or Nm/deg
θ = Angular deflection in rad or degree
Tc = Controlling torque in Nm
For the final steady deflection i.e at equilibrium condition,

Tc = Td
---------------- eqn 3
Cont.,

Putting equation 1 and 2 in equation 3,we get,

Ks θ = NBAI
NBAI NBldI
θ = =
Ks Ks
where,
Area A=l*d = length * width
 Number of turns (N); while rearranging above equation

Ksθ
N=
BldI Number of turns
Cont.,

 current in the coil (I):

Ksθ
N=
BldI
While rearranging the above equation,

Ksθ
I=
NBld Current in the coil

As the current through the coil changes, the direction of the pointer also
changes. Hence PMMC instruments are well suited for the d.c measurement.
Errors in PMMC Instruments

Weakening of permanent magnets due to ageing and

temperature effects.

 Weakening of spring due to ageing and temperature effects.

Change of resistance of moving coil due to temperature.

Advantages of PMMC Instruments

1. Sensitive to small current

2. Very accurate and reliable
3. Uniform scale up to 270° or more
4. Very effective built in damping
5. Low power consumption, varies from 25 μW to 200 μW
6. Free from hysteresis and not effected by external fields because its
permanent magnet shields the coil from external magnetic fields
7. Easily adopted as a multirange instrument
Disadvantages of PMMC Instruments

1. This type of instrument can be operated in direct current only. In

alternating current, the instrument does not operate because in the
positive half, the pointer experiences a force in one direction and in the
negative half the pointer experiences the force in the opposite
direction. Due to the inertia of the pointer, it retains it’s zero position.
2. The moving system is very delicate and can easily be damaged by
rough handling.
3. The coil being very fine, cannot withstand prolonged overloading.
4. It is costlier.
5. The ageing of the instrument (permanent magnet and control spring)
may introduce some errors.
PROPLEM

The coil of a PMMC instrument has 60 turns, on a former that is 18 mm wide, the
effective length of the conductor being 25 mm. It moves in a uniform field of flux
density 0.5 Tesla. The control spring constant is 1.5 × 10-6 Nm/degree. Calculate the
current required to produce a deflection of100 degree.
Solution:
given data N = number of turns of the coil = 60
A = Effective area of the coil = length(l) * wide(d) = 18mm * 25mm
B = flux density in the air gap = 0.5 Tesla
Ks = Spring constant = 1.5 × 10-6 Nm/degree
θ = Angular deflection = 100 degree
calculate I = current in the coil (A) = ?
Total deflecting torque experienced by the coil,
Tq = NBIld
Substituting the given data in the above equation
Tq = 60 × 0.5 × I x 18 × 10-3 × 25 × 10-3 ---- 1
The control torque of the springs is,
TC = ks × θ
TC =1.5 × 10-6 × 100 ------- 2
 At equilibrium,
Tq = TC
Cont.,

equation 1 = 2

 0.5 × I x 18 × 10-3 × 25 × 10-3 × 60 = 1.5 × 10-6 × 100 1.5 × 10-6 × 100

Answer I =11.11 mA
 2. MOVING IRON INSTRUMENTS
Principle
 A soft iron piece gets magnetized when it is brought into a magnetic
field produced by a permanent magnet.
The same phenomenon happens when the soft iron piece is brought
near either of the ends of a coil carrying current.
The iron piece is started to move when the magnetic flux density is
more.
This movement of soft iron piece is used to measure the current or
voltage which produces the magnetic field.
MI Instrument looks like
Cont.,

Moving iron instrument is commonly used laboratory instrument

because of its advantages like low cost, high accuracy and ruggedness.

The classifications of MI instruments are:

1. MOVING IRON INSTRUMENTS – ATTRACTION TYPE

2. MOVING IRON INSTRUMENT - REPULSION TYPE

 MOVING IRON INSTRUMENTS – ATTRACTION
TYPE
Principle

When the current to be measured is passed through the coil, field is

produced which attracts the mounted disc inwards, thereby deflection

the pointer which moves over a calibrated scale.

Construction-attraction type
Construction

A soft iron disc is attached to the spindle.

To the spindle, a pointer is also attached, which is made to move

over calibrated scale.

The moving iron is pivoted such that it is attracted towards the

center of the coil where the magnetic field is maximum.

 MOVING IRON INSTRUMENT - REPULSION TYPE

Principle
In the repulsion type, there are two vanes inside the coil. One is fixed
and the other is movable. These are similarly magnetized when the
current flows through the coil and there is a force of repulsion between
the two vanes resulting in the movement of the moving vane.
Two different designs for moving iron instruments commonly used are
as follows:
a. Radial Vane Type
b. Co-axial Vane Type
a. Radial Vane Type-Construction
 In this type, the vanes are radial strips of iron.
 The strips are placed within the coil as shown in Figure. The fixed vane is attached
to the coil and the movable one to the spindle of the instrument.
 The instrument pointer is attached to the moving vane spindle.
Working

As current flows through the coil, the generated magnetic field induces
identical polarities on both the fixed and moving vane.
Thus, even when the current through the coil is alternating (for AC
measurement), there is always a repulsion force acting between the like
poles of fixed and moving vane.
Hence deflection of the pointer is always in the same direction
irrespective of the polarity of current in the coil.
The amount of deflection depends on the repulsion force between the
vanes which in turn depends on the amount of current passing
through the coil.
The scale can thus be calibrated to read the current or voltage directly.
b. Co-axial Vane Type-Construction

 In these type of instruments, the fixed and moving vanes are sections of coaxial
cylinders as shown in Figure.
 Current in the coil magnetizes both the vanes with similar polarity.
 Thus the movable vane rotates along the spindle axis due to this repulsive force.
 Coaxial vane type instruments are moderately sensitive as compared to radial vane
type instruments that are more sensitive.
Cont.,

Moving iron instruments have their deflection is proportional to the

square of the current flowing through the coil.
These instruments are thus said to follow a square law response and
have non-uniform scale marking.
 Deflection being proportional to square of the current, whatever be
the polarity of current in the coil, deflection of a moving iron
instrument is in the same direction.
Hence, moving iron instruments can be used for both DC and AC
measurements.
 Torque Equation of Moving-Iron Instruments
 the expression for torque of a moving iron instrument can be derived by considering for a
small increment in current (dl) supplied to coil ,Because of this, there will be a small
deflection (dθ) and some mechanical work will be done.
 If Tq is deflecting torque, then
mechanical work done = Tq . dθ --------------> eqn 1
 As the vanes tries to occupy the position of minimum reluctance, there will be a change in
energy stored in the magnetic field due to change in the inductance.
Let
I be the initial current,
L be the instrument inductance
θ is the deflection
dI is the change in current
dL is the change in inductance
dθ is the change in deflection
Cont.,
 If the current increases by dI, th deflection changes by dθ which changes the
inductance by dL. In order to increase the current by dI, there must be an increase in
the applied voltage is given by,
𝑑
e= (LI)
𝑑𝑡
Since, both L & I are variables,
𝑑𝐿 𝑑𝐼
e= I 𝑑𝑡 + 𝐿 𝑑𝑡
where, e is the applied voltage.
 The electrical energy supplied is given by,
𝑑𝐿 𝑑𝐼
eI dt = (I 𝑑𝑡 + 𝐿 𝑑𝑡) I dt
eI dt = I2 dL + LI dI --------------> eqn 2
Cont.,
 From the principle of conservation of energy,
Electrical energy supplied = Change in stored energy + Mechanical work done
1
I2 dL + LI dI = LI dI + 2 I2 dL + Tq . dθ
Rearranging and cancelling the above equation terms, then
1 2
Tq . dθ =2 I dL
1 dL
 Deflecting Torque Tq = 2 I2 --------------> eqn 4
dθ

 Controlling Torque Tc = Ks θ --------------> eqn 5

At equilibrium, Tc = Tq
Cont.,
 The current is changes from I to (I + dI), and the inductor L to (L + dL),
Therefore the stored energy changes from as

Hence the change in stored energy will be,

The above equation becomes,

1 1 1 1 1
= 2 I2 L+LI dI + 2 I2 dL + 2 L(dI)2 + IdIdL + 2 dL(dI)2 − 2 I2 L
 As dI and dL are very small, neglecting the second and higher order terms in small
quantities, this becomes,
1 2
Change in stored energy = LI dI + I dL --------------> eqn 3
2
Cont.,

1 2 dL
 while equating Ks θ = I
2 dθ

Rearranging the above equation,

Deflection θ =
dL I2
1
2 dθ Ks
===> θ ∝ I2

Hence, the deflection is proportional to square of the rms value of the operating
current. The deflection torque is, therefore, unidirectional whatever may be the polarity
of the current.
Errors in Moving Iron Instruments
There are two types of error which occur in moving iron instruments. They are
1. Errors with both A.C and D.C work:
(a) Hysteresis error
(b) Stray magnetic field error
(c) Temperature error
(d) Friction error
2. Errors with A.C work only:
(a) Frequency error
(b) Error due to reactance of the instrument coil
(c) Error due to eddy current
(d) Error due to waveform
1.Errors with both A.C and D.C work
(A)Hysteresis error: is serious type of error in MI instruments when used on D.C
circuits. The effect of this error is that the readings are higher when current
increases than when it decreases. This error can be reduced by employing
vanes of mumtal (i.e. mumtal is magnetic material having low hysteresis loss
and high permeability) and by working it over a low range of flux densities.
(B) Stray magnetic field error: May be serious because of the weakness of the
operating magnetic field. This error can be reduced by enclosing the
movement in an iron case (or) shielding the instrument with the help of steel
case.
(C)Temperature error : is due to change of temperature that affects the
instrument resistance and stiffness of the control spring.
(D)Friction error: is due to the friction of moving parts this can be avoided by
making torque-weight ratio high.
2. Errors with A.C work only:

A. Frequency Error : change in frequency may be cause errors due to change of

reactance of the operating coil and also to the changes in magnitude of eddy
current set up in the metal parts of the instrument near the operating coil.
The frequency error may be compensated for by connecting a suitable
capacitor C in the parallel .
B. Error due to reactance of the instrument coil - the change in instrument coil
reactance owing to change in frequency causes serious error in case of
voltmeters.
C. Eddy current error affects both ammeters and voltmeters equally.
Advantages of MI Instruments

 This instrument can be universally used for both A.C and D.C measurement.

 Robust construction and relatively cheap

 These instruments are highly accurate.

 Can withstand overload momentarily

 Moving iron instruments are available with 240 degree circular scales.
Disadvantages of MI Instruments

 As the deflection is proportional to I 2, hence the scale of the instrument is

not uniform. It is cramped in the lower end and expanded in the upper
portion.
 It is affected by stray magnetic fields.
 There is hysteresis error in the instrument. The hysteresis error may be
minimized by using the vanes of nickel-iron alloy.
 When used for measuring ac the reading may be affected by variation of
frequency due to the change in reactance of the coil, which has some
inductance. With the increase in frequency, iron loses and coil impedance
increases.
 Since large amount of power is consumed to supply I2R loss in the coil and
magnetic losses in the vanes, it is not a very sensitive instrument.
 3.ELECTRODYNAMOMETER-TYPE INSTRUMENTS
The electrodynamometer is a transfer-type instrument. A transfer-type
instrument is one that may be calibrated with a dc source and then used without
modification to measure ac. This requires the transfer type instruments to have
same accuracy for both dc and ac.
 The electrodynamic or dynamometer-type instrument is a moving-coil instrument
but the magnetic field is provided by two fixed coils rather than by permanent
magnets.
 It consists of two fixed coils, which are symmetrically situated. It would have a
torque in one direction during one half of the cycle and an equal effect in
opposite direction during the other half of the cycle.
 If, however, we were to reverse the direction of the flux each time the current
through the movable coil reverses, a unidirectional torque would be produced for
both positive half and negative half of the cycle.
Cont.,
 In electrodynamic instruments, the field can be made to reverse simultaneously
with the current in the movable coil if the fixed coil is connected in series with the
movable coil.
Torque Equation

Let I1 is the instantaneous current in the fixed coil

I2 is the instantaneous current in the moving coil
L1 is the inductance of the fixed coil
L2 is the inductance of the moving coil
M is the mutual inductance between fixed and moving coil
θ is the degree of deflection
 Deflection Torque:
𝑑𝑀
Tq = I1 I2 cos
𝑑θ
 Controlling Torque:
Tc = Ks θ
Cont.,

 At equilibrium, Tc = Tq
𝑑𝑀
I1 I2 cos = Ks θ
𝑑θ
 While rearranging the above equation will get,

I1 I2 𝑑𝑀
Deflection θ = cos
Ks 𝑑θ

Deflection is measured in radians

Advantages:

1. They can be used on ac as well as dc measurements.

2. These instruments are free from eddy current and
hysteresis error.
3. Electrodynamometer-type instruments are very useful for
accurate measurement of rms values of voltages irrespective
of waveforms.
4. Because of precision grade accuracy and same calibration
for ac and dc measurements these instruments are useful as
transfer type and calibration instruments.
Disadvantages

1. As the instrument has square law response, the scale is

non-uniform.
2. These instruments have small torque/weight ratio, so the
frictional error is considerable.
3. More costly than PMMC and MI type of instruments.
4. Adequate screening of the movements against stray
magnetic fields is essential.
5. Power consumption is comparably high because of their
construction.
 4.BASIC D.C AMMETER
 The PMMC galvanometer constitutes the basic movement of a dc ammeter.
 The coil winding of a basic movement is small and light, so it can carry only
very small currents.
 For current greater than 100mA, weight of the coil will be more and it makes
the basic movement bulky which makes this type of measurement
impracticable.
 Hence a basic meter of small current measurement is kept as constant and
when heavy currents are to be measured, the major part of this current is
bypassed through a low resistance called a ” shunt resistor or simply
shunt”
 Therefore, A low value resistor (shunt resistor) is used in DC ammeter to
measure large current.
Circuit of basic dc ammeter
 Rm= internal resistance of basic ammeter in Ω
 Rsh= shunt resistance in Ω .
 Ish=shunt current in A
 Im= full scale deflection current of basic ammeter in A.
 I= Current to be measured in A (i.e. total current)
 Vm= Voltage drop across the basic ammeter in Volts (V)
 Vsh=. Voltage drop across shunt resistance
Cont.,
 Since the shunt resistance and basic meter are in parallel, voltage same in parallel
Vsh=Vm
Ish Rsh=Im Rm
I Rm
Rsh= m --------------> eqn 1
Ish
 We know that I = Ish+Im ===> Shunt current Ish= I – Im --------------> eqn 2
 Substituting shunt current equation 2 in equation 1,
Im Rm
Rsh =
I – Im
Rsh I
= m
Rm I – Im

Rm I − Im
=
Rsh Im
Cont.,
 While rearranging the above equation,
I Rm
= +1 =m
Im Rsh
where m is multiplying power of shunt and it is the ratio between the total current
to be measured and the current in the coil of basic meter.
I
Multiplying power, m = --------------> eqn 3
Im
 Consider the equation 2,
Im Rm
Rsh=
Ish
 Substitute equation 3 in above equation and taking Im from denominator, shunt
resistance becomes,
Rm
Rsh=
𝑚−1
Requirements of a shunt

The general requirements of shunt are,

1. The temperature coefficient of shunt and instrument should be low and

it should be as nearly as the same.

2. The resistance of shunts should not vary with time.

3. They should carry the current without excessive temperature rise.

4. They should have a low thermal electromotive force with copper.

Multi-range ammeter
 Multi-range ammeters are used fro ranges of current from 1A to 50 A.
 It consists of four shunt resistors to give four different currents I1, I2, I3, and I4.

Rm
Rsh1=𝑚1−1
Rm
Rsh2=𝑚2−1
Rm
Rsh3=𝑚3−1
Rm
Rsh4=𝑚4−1
 4.BASIC D.C VOLTMETER
 A basic D‘Arsonval meter can be converted into a DC voltmeter by adding a series resistor
with it. This series resistor is known as multiplier.
 The multiplier limits the current through the meter so that it does not exceed the value of
full scale deflection and thus prevents the coil of the meter being damaged.
Let,
supplied voltage V = ImRm
voltage across meter Vm = Im (Rm+ Rs)
Vm
Rs = - Rm
Im
 5. DIGITAL VOLTMETER (DVM)

Digital voltmeters are the instruments which convert the

analog signal into digital and displays the voltage to be measured
as discrete numerical on the digital display instead of pointer
deflection. It is also called as DVM. Digital voltmeters can be
measure both a.c and d.c voltage.
 Advantages of DVM
Highly accurate reading can be taken
Better resolution
Higher input impedance
It eliminates observational errors, Interpolation errors and parallax errors
committed by operators.
Reading speed is very high.
The development of IC chips has reduced the cost, size and power
requirement of DVM.
Due to small size, they are portable.
They can be used for measurement of quantities like current, impedance,
capacitance, temperature, pressure etc.,
 Types of DVM

1.Potentiometric type DVM

2.Successive approximation type DVM
3.Ramp type DVM
4.Dual slope integrating type DVM
Parameters which decide the classification of DVM
Voltage range: The basic range of any DVM is either 1V or 10 V. But the voltage range
can be extended to kV by using attenuator.
Accuracy: Accuracy of DVM depends on its resolution which in-turn depends on the
number of digits in readout. Generally the number of digits vary from 3 to 6. More the
number of digits, more is the accuracy.
Digitizing period: The circuit used to convert analog signal into digital signal is called
digitizing circuit. The time required for the digitizing operation is called digesting
period. The maximum speed of reading depends upon the digitizing.
Normal mode noise rejection: This is usually obtained through the input or by using
integration techniques.
Common mode noise rejection: This is usually obtained by guarding which is a sheet
of metal box surrounding the circuit.
Digital output: The digital readout of the instrument may be 4 line BCD or a single line
serial output.
 A) POTENTIOMETRIC TYPE DVM

 A potentiometric type DVM uses voltage comparison technique for its operation.
 In this type of DVM, the unknown voltage is compared with the reference voltage
whose value is fixed by the setting of calibrated potentiometer.
 The arm of the potentiometer is varied to obtain the null condition(balancing
condition).
 As a servometer is used to vary the arm of the potentiometer, it is also called
servo potentiometer type DVM.
Construction:
Working:

 The unknown voltage is filtered and attenuated to a suitable level. This input
voltage is applied to a comparator (also known as error detector).
 The reference voltage is obtained from a reference voltage source.
 Feedback voltage is obtained by the position of sliding contact of the
potentiometer is fed to the comparator as second input.
 The comparator compares the unknown voltage with the feedback voltage and
produces error voltage which is amplified by the error amplifier and fed to the
servometer.
 The applied error voltage to the servometer decides the mechanical output from
the servometer, which in turn decides the position of sliding contact of the
potentiometer.
 Thus the position of sliding contact is controlled by the error voltage.
Cont.,

 The direction of movement of slider depends upon whether the feedback voltage
is larger or the input voltage is larger. The sliding contact moves to such a place
where the feedback voltage equals to the unknown voltage. In that case, there will
not be any error voltage and hence there will be no input to the device adjusting
the position of the sliding contact and therefore it will come to rest.
 The position of the potentiometer adjustment device that is servometer at this
point is indicated in numerical form on the digital readout device associated with
it.
 Since the position at which no voltage appears at servometer is the point, where
the unknown voltage equals the feedback voltage, the reading of readout device
indicates the value of unknown voltage.
Cont.,

When the feedback voltage is same as that of the input unknown

voltage, error voltage becomes zero. As the input voltage to
servometer is zero, the mechanical output of the servometer is zero.
Thus the position of the sliding contact remains stable.
Calculation of unknown input voltage,
Vin = X Vref
Where,
Vin = unknown input voltage to the comparator
X = Fraction of movement of the sliding contact
Vref = Reference voltage to the comparator
 B. Successive approximation type DVM
 The principal parts of the successive approximation type DVM are similar to that
of potentiometric type DVM, only the differences are linear divider(sliding contact)
is replaced by digital divider nothing but Digital to analog converter(D/A
converter) and the servometer is replaced by an electronic logic control and
sequencer.
 Other parts of the successive approximation type DVM are comparator, capacitor,
Clock, Switch, reference voltage source and digital display.
Principle of Operation:
In successive approximation type DVM, as the name indicates the feedback
voltage is not obtained from the output , instead it is assumed successively by
approximation. This function is performed by the combination of logic and
sequencer block and D/A converter block which generates voltages in the set of
pattern 8-4-2-1.
Construction:
Working:
 Initially when the switch is in position 2, the logic control and sequencer block
along with the D/A converter generates the highest voltage i.e 8V for th first digit
and this 8V is fed to the capacitor C. Now the capacitor gets charged to 8 V.
 As soon as capacitor fully charged, the switch position is now moved to position
1. when the switch at position 1, the unknown voltage is fed to the comparator.
 Position of the switch is changed with the help of the clock which is driven by the
logic control and sequencer.
 Now, the comparator compares the unknown voltage with the assumed feedback
voltage in capacitor and produces a logic HIGH or LOW signal depending upon
the comparison results. If feedback voltage is higher than the unknown voltage,
then logic HIGH signal is generated by the comparator and it is sent to the logic
control and sequencer block which is connected to the D/A converter.
Cont.,

 Then now, the D/A converter along with the logic control and sequencer block
generates next lower voltage i.e 4V and sent it to he comparator and the
procedure is repeated until the comparator produces logic Low signal.
 If the feedback voltage is less than the unknown voltage, then logic LOW signal is
fed to he D/A converter through the logic control and sequencer block; then the
corresponding digit 8V is stored in D/A converter and now D/A converter
generates the next voltage 4V for the next comparison and the process is repeated
until the value stored in D/A converter becomes equal to the unknown voltage.
When this happens the unknown voltage is displayed as digit in the digital
readout display.
 Factors which decides the accuracy of the readings are, Level of noise at the input
side and the stability of the switch. If filters are used to reduce the noise, it will
affect the speed of measurement.
Advantages:
 General range of digits is 3 to 5 and it decides the resolution of the
instrument
Inexpensive method.
Disadvantages:
 If the noise is introduced in the input, the reading will be inaccurate
because of incorrect decision made by the comparator.
 If electromechanical switches are used, speed of measurement is less.
 C. RAMP TYPE DVM
In ramp type DVM, the reference voltage is used for comparison is a
ramp signal, hence it is named as Ramp type DVM.
Types:
Depending on the shape of ramp signal, it is classified into two type
namely,
i) Linear Ramp type DVM
II) Staircase Ramp type DVM
Staircase Ramp signal: Linear Ramp signal
i) Linear Ramp type DVM

In this linear ramp type DVM, the ramp signal used is a linear ramp signal which
decreases or increases between the range of voltages i.e the signal will decrease
linearly from he maximum point and after reaching the minimum point it will
increase linearly until it reaches the maximum point.
 Working:

 The linear ramp type DVM works on the basic principle of voltage to time
conversion technique.
 In the construction, the purpose of the sampled rate multivibrator is used to
generate reset signal that will be set to the counter and digital display to reset it.
 The input unknown voltage is fed to the comparator after the attenuation block.
The ramp generator generates the ramp signal is the second input to the
comparator.
 This input unknown voltage and ramp signal are compared and output is
given. If the ramp signal is more than input voltage there will be no output but if
the input unknown voltage is greater than the ramp signal then output is
generated which will open the gate. Now when the gate gets opened,
clock oscillator will send clock pulses which are counted by the counter and
displayed on the screen.
Cont.,
 Once the gate gets opened, the linear ramp signal goes on decreasing and
reaches 0V or the ground potential.
 The ground comparator will compare the ramp signal and ground and output is
given. Hence when the ramp signal becomes zero then the ground comparator
generates output as stop signal and it sent to the gate.
 As the gate receives stop signal it is get closed. Hence the counter stops counting
the clock pulses.
 Thus the counter counts the clock pulses from the instead at which gate is open
to the instead at which the gate is closed.
 Number of clock pulses counted will gives the time interval between gate
opening and closing which in turn gives the magnitude of the unknown input
voltage
 Counter is connected to the digital display unit ,Hence the value of unknown
voltage can be shown in the digital display.
 Advantages
 Low cost
 Easy circuit design
 Voltage is converted to time, which can be easily digitized.
 As the resolution is directly proportional to the frequency, better resolution
can be obtained by adjusting the frequency of the oscillator.

Disadvantages:
 Highly linear ramp signal is required
 Measurement speed is low
 Large errors are possible because of interruption of noise with input signal.
II) Staircase Ramp type DVM

In this staircase ramp type DVM, the ramp signal used is a staircase ramp
signal which increases in steps according to the clock pulses.
 Working:

 Initially the logic control unit send a reset signal to the counter and D/A converter,
thus resetting the above two devices.
 Now the logic control bock sends the start pulse to the gate, thus opening the
gate. Then the clock pulses from the oscillator passes the through the gate to the
counter and the counter starts counting the clock pulses.
 The output of the counter is given to the D/A converter and to the display unit.
Now the D/A converter generates the ramp signal using reference voltage.
 At the every count of clock pulse there is a increment in the magnitude of the
generated ramp signal. Thus the staircase ramp signal reference voltage is
generated at D/A converter output side, which is the second input to the NULL
detector and the unknown input voltage will be the first input to the null detector.
Cont.,

 A NULL detector is the device which generates the output pulse only
when both the inputs are equal in magnitude.
 Therefore when the reference voltage becomes equal to the unknown
input voltage, the null detector will generate a pulse output , and this pulse
output will close the gate and hence the counter will stop counting.
 As the counter is connected to the D/A converter, it stops the increment in
ramp signal. The counter reading will be displayed in the digital display.
 Advantages:
 Highly accurate than the linear ramp type DVM
 Simple in design
 Cost is cheap
 High input impedance

Disadvantages:
 Accuracy of this meter is depends the accuracy of the D/A converter. Hence
highly accurate D/A converter should be used.
 Speed of the measurement is less.
 Introduction of noise in the input will cause error.
 D. Dual slope integrating type DVM

This is the most popular method of analog to digital conversion. In the ramp
techniques, the noise can cause large errors but in dual slope method the noise is
averaged out by the positive and negative ramps using the process of integration.
The basic principle of this method is that the input signal is integrated for a fixed
interval of time. And then the same integrator is used to integrate the reference
voltage with reverse slope. Hence the name given to the technique is dual slope
integration technique.
Construction:

The block diagram of dual slope integrating type DVM is shown in the Fig. It consists
of five blocks, an op-amp used as an integrator, a zero comparator, clock pulse
generator, a set of decimal counters and a block of control logic.
Working:

 Initially the control logic circuit resets the counter by sending a reset signal. At
the same time, the zero output from the flipflop is sent to the control logic. Then
the control logic sends a signal to switches S1 and S2 thus closing the switch S1
and opening the switch S2 thereby staring the integration.
 When the switch S1 is in position1, the integrator is connected to the unknown
voltage and hence the capacitor starts charging from zero upto the unknown
voltage.
 When the switch S1 is in position 1, the integrator output increase from its zero
value thus changing the state of zero comparator. The zero comparator sends a
signal to the control logic which in-turn opens the gate and the counter starts
counting the clock pulses from the oscillator. As it is a 5 decade counter, when
the counter reaches the value 9999 it sends it to control logic which generates a
carry pulse resets the counter.
Cont.,

 Then the position of switch S1 changes from 1 to 2 thus connecting negative

reference voltage and the capacitor starts discharging.
 When the output of the integrator becomes zero, the zero comparator again
changes its state. This in-turn sends a signal to the control logic thus closing the
gate.
 Hence the counter stops counting. Then the counter reading is transferred to
digital display.
 The output of the op-amp at this instant is given by,
 During charging

--------------> eqn 1
Where,
Cont.,
Where, t1 = time for which capacitor is charged
ei = Vin = input unknown voltage
R = series resistance in input terminal of the integrator
C = Capacitor in feedback path
 During discharging

--------------> eqn 2

Where, t2 = time for which capacitor is discharged

er = Vref = input reference voltage
Cont.,
 Subtracting Eqn 2 from 1 we have,
while subtracting ,charging voltage= discharging voltage,
Cont.,
 We know that
t2 = n2 T and t1 = n1 T
t2 n2 T
ei = er ei = er
t1 n1 T
Where,
n1 = no of counts of counter for the time period t1
n2 = no of counts of counter for the time period t2
T = time period of clock oscillator
Therefore unknown input voltage(ei) will be,
.
n2
ei = er
n1
 Advantages:
 The dual slope technique has excellent noise rejection because noise and
superimposed ac are averaged out in the process of integration
 Time constant of integrator does not affect the measurement.
 Highly accurate
 Need of sample and hold circuit is eliminated because of the use of integrator

Disadvantages:
 Slow speed
 Circuit is little bit complex compared to type of DVM.
 6. DIGITAL MULTIMETER
The digital multimeter is a versatile instrument that contains three different meters
in one.
1. A voltmeter measures the voltage across a
component (in volts).
2. An ohmmeter measures the resistance of a
component (in ohms).
3. An ammeter measures the amount of current through a component (in
amperes)
Construction:
.
Working

 The basic block diagram of the digital multimeter is a d.c voltmeter which can be
directly display d.c voltages. For the measurement of direct current, a low shunt
resistance is used in the input side to convert the voltage to current.
 For the measurement of alternating voltage ( a.c voltage) and alternating
currents, the a.c values are converted to d.c values by using rectifier and filter
circuits and the corresponding d.c voltages are measured using the basic circuit.
 For the measurement of various ranges of resistance Ohm converter is used it is
nothing but a low current source. A known current from the low current source is
passed to through the unknown resistor and the voltage drop across the resistor
is measured. This voltage drop gives the direct indication of the unknown resistor.
Cont.,

 The analog to digital converter is used to convert analog voltages, current and
resistance into digital values. Commonly used ADC is dual slope integrating type
because of its high resolution and high accuracy.
 This digital value is fed to the counter which counts the pulses and display in the
digital display. Some times the output can also be interfaced with other devices.
 Advantages:
 Highly accurate and the accuracy is around ± 0.03 %.
 Loading effect is nil because of high input impedance.
 Measurement speed is more.
 A single instrument can be used to measure various ranges a.c and d.c
voltages, alternating and direct current and resistances.
 Easily portable.
 Very cheap.
 Easy to interface with other devices.
 Resolution is high in the order of 10 / µV.
 Disadvantages:

Interruption of electric noise.

Requirement of external power supply.

Isolation problem occurs in DMM.

 7.WATTMETER (power measurement)
 POWER MEASUREMENT IN D.C CIRCUITS:
In a d.c, power consumed by the load is given by,
P= VI Watts
where,
V= Voltage across the load in volts (V)
I = Current through the load in Ampere (A)
Hence, the power consumed by the load fed from a d.c power supply can be
calculated by measuring the voltage using voltmeter and current using an
ammeter.
 POWER MEASUREMENT IN A.C CIRCUITS:
However in an a.c circuit, power consumed by the load is given by,
P= VI cos Watts
where, = power factor of the load.
Cont.,

Power factor definition:

Power factor (PF) is the ratio of working power, measured in kilowatts (kW),
to apparent power, measured in kilovolt amperes (kVA). Apparent power, also
known as demand, is the measure of the amount of power used to run
machinery and equipment during a certain period.
 From the equation, it is clear that for an a.c circuit power cannot be
measured by simply using voltmeter and ammeter like d.c circuit because of
the term cos should be included in an a.c circuit. Hence, for the
measurement of power consumed by the load in a.c circuit wattmeter is
used.
Cont.,

Types of wattmeter:
(i) Single phase wattmeter
(ii) Three phase wattmeter
Single phase wattmeter:
Single phase power can be easily measured using a single phase wattmeter.
Various types of single phase wattmeter are,
(i) Electro dynamo meter wattmeter.
(ii) Ferro dynamic wattmeter
(iii) Thermocouple wattmeter
(iv) Low power factor wattmeter.
(v) Induction type wattmeter.
 (i) Electro dynamo meter wattmeter.

 The construction of electro dynamo meter wattmeter is similar to that electro

dynamo meter ammeter and voltmeter.
 This type of wattmeter consists of a fixed coil which is connected in series
with the load and it carries the current through the load. Whereas moving
coil in the watt meter is connected across the load and it carries the current
proportional to the voltage across the load.
Construction:
Cont.,

Fixed Coil System:

 The fixed coils or the field coils are connected in series with the load so as to carry
the same current as the load. The fixed coils are hence, termed as the Current Coils
(CC) of the wattmeter.
 The main magnetic field is produced by these fixed coils. This coil is divided in two
sections so as to provide more uniform magnetic field near the center and to allow
placement of the instrument moving shaft.
 The fixed coils are wounded with heavy wires with less number of turns in order to
have low resistance and hence low voltage drop across the meter.
Cont.,

Moving Coil System:

 The moving coil is generally attached to the spindle which is in turn connected to
the pointer.
 The moving coil is wounded with thin wire with more number of turns in order to
have high resistance that will result more voltage to read.
 The moving coil that is connected across the load carries a current proportional
to the voltage. Since the moving coil carries a current proportional to the voltage,
it is called the voltage coil or the pressure coil or simply PC of the wattmeter.
 The moving coil is entirely embraced by the pair of fixed coils. A high value non-
inductive resistance is connected in series with the voltage coil to restrict the
current through it to a small value.
Cont.,

Damping System:
 Damping in such instruments may be provided by small aluminum vanes attached
at the bottom of the spindle. These vanes are made to move inside enclosed air
chambers, thereby creating the damping torque. In other cases, the moving coil
itself can be stitched on a thin sheet of mica, which acts as the damping vane
while movements.
 Eddy-current damping cannot be used with these instruments. This is due to the
fact that any metallic element to be used for Eddy-current damping will interfere
and distort operating magnetic field. Moreover, introduction of any external
permanent magnet for the purpose of Eddy-current damping will severely hamper
the operating magnetic field.
Cont.,

Shielding System:
 The operating field produced by the fixed coils, is comparatively lower in
electrodynamometer-type instruments as compared to other type of instruments.
 In some cases, even the earth’s magnetic field can pollute the measurement
readings. It is thus essential to shield the electrodynamometer-type instruments
from effects of external magnetic fields.
 Enclosures of such instruments are thus made of alloys with high permeability to
restrict penetration of external stray magnetic fields into the instrument.
Cont.,

Torque equation calculation:

the instantaneous torque of an electrodynamometer instrument is given by,
𝒅𝑴
Ti = i 1 i 2 --------------> eqn 1
𝒅θ
where,
Ti = instantaneous torque
i1 = instantaneous values of current in fixed coil
i2 = instantaneous values of current in moving coil
Cont.,

 Assumption made: As per the pressure coil(moving coil) has high resistance it is
assumed to be purely resistive by neglecting its inductance.
We know that.,
𝑽
ip = = √2 Ip sin ωt --------------> eqn 2
Rp
Where,
ip = instantaneous current in pressure coil
Ip = Average current in pressure coil.
Rp = Total resistance of pressure coil
V = instantaneous voltage across pressure coil
Cont.,

 As the current through the current coil (fixed coil) lags the voltage across the
pressure coil by the angle and it if given by.,
ic = √2 IC sin (ωt- ) --------------> eqn 3

Where,
iC = instantaneous current in current coil
IC = Average current in current coil.
 Now substitute the eqn 2 & 3 in eqn 1 we get.,
𝒅𝑴
Ti ={√2 Ip sin ωt * √2 IC sin (ωt- )} --------------> eqn 4
𝒅θ
Cont.,

 While integrating the instantaneous torque we will get the deflecting torque.
𝟏 𝑻
Td = ‫ ׬‬T d(ωt) --------------> eqn 5
𝑻 𝟎 i
 Substituting and integrating ,the deflecting torque becomes.,
𝒅𝑴
Td = IP IC COS
𝒅θ
𝑽
we know ip =
Rp
 Therefore the above deflecting torque eqn becomes

Td =
𝑽
IC COS
𝒅𝑴 --------------> eqn 6
Rp 𝒅θ
Cont.,

 The controlling torque will be,

TC = Ks × θ --------------> eqn 7
 At equilibrium condition deflecting torque = controlling torque
Td = TC
 Substituting eqn 6 & 7 in above condition, we get
𝑽 𝒅𝑴
Ks × θ = IC COS
Rp 𝒅θ

 Hence, the angle of deflection(θ) will be,

𝑽 𝒅𝑴
θ= IC COS
KsRp 𝒅θ
Cont.,

 The last equation can written as follows,

θ ∝ VI COS
From the above equation it is clear that the deflection of the pointer is the
direct indication of the single phase power.
Errors in the electro dynamo meter type wattmeter :
(i) Error due to pressure coil induction and it can be avoided by compensation
(ii) Error due to pressure coil capacitor
(iii) Error due to mutual coupling inductance
(iv) Eddy current error.
(v) Stray magnetic filed error.
(vi) Temperature error
 (ii) Low power factor wattmeter
The main drawback of electromagnetic type wattmeter is , it cannot be used for the
measurement of power in the circuit with low power factor. Measurement of power in
a circuit with low power factor is difficult and inaccurate by using electro dynamo
meter wattmeter because,
(i) The deflecting torque is very small, even when the current coil and pressure
coil is fully excited. This is due to low power factor.
(ii) Errors due to inductance of pressure coil is large due to low power factor.
The above drawbacks can be avoided by incorporating special features in
ordinary electro dynamo meter wattmeter. Hence the electrodynamo meter
wattmeter with special features used for measurement of power in circuit with low
power factor is called as Low Power Factor Wattmater.
Construction
Cont.,
Special Features that are incorporated in an electrodynamometer wattmeter to
make it a low power factor wattmeter are;
(i) Increasing the pressure coil current by decreasing the resistance of pressure
coil .This high pressure coil current increase the operating torque of the meter.
(ii) Using pressure coil compensator.
(iii) Using a capacitor across the part of series resistance in order to compensate
the inductance of pressure coil, this will avoid the error caused by inductance of
pressure coil.
(iv) Meter can be designed to have small controlling torque to give full scale
deflection even for power factor as low as 0.1.
 (iii) INDUCTION-TYPE WATTMETER

Induction-type wattmeters, however, following the very basic principles of

mutual induction, can only be used for measurement of ac power, in contrast to
electrodynamometer type wattmeters that can be used for power measurements in
both ac and dc circuits.
Induction type wattmeters, in contradiction to electrodynamometer-type
wattmeters, can be used only with circuits having relatively steady values of
frequency and voltage.
Construction

 https://youtu.be/9Zgl6Sf_YkA
Working

 Induction-type wattmeters have two laminated iron-core electromagnets. One of

the electromagnets is excited by the load current, and the other by a current
proportional to the voltage of the circuit in which the power is to be measured.
 The upper magnet, which is connected across the voltage to be measured, is
named as the shunt magnet, whereas the other electromagnet connected in series
with the load to carry load current is called the series magnet.
 A thin aluminum disc, mounted in the space between the two magnets is acted
upon by a combined effect of fluxes coming out of these two electromagnets. In
ac circuits, interaction of these changing fluxes will induce Eddy current within the
aluminum disc.
 A pointer is attached with the aluminum disc that will move on the scale to show
up the corresponding power value.
Cont.,

 The two voltage coils, connected in series, are wound in such a way that
both of them send flux through the central limb.
 Copper shading bands fitted on the central limb of the shunt magnet
makes the flux coming out of the magnet lag behind the applied voltage
by 90°.
 The series magnet houses two small current coils in series. These are
wound in a way that the fluxes they create within the core of the magnet
are in the same direction.
 (ii) Three phase wattmeter

.
Construction

.
Cont.,

Errors due to mutual interference can be eliminated by the following methods,

(i) By placing a laminated iron shield between two elements.

(ii) By using a resistance R which is known as Weston’s method shown in previous
circuit.
 8.Energy Meter
Energy meter is an instrument used to measure energy which is nothing but the
total power consumed over a specific interval of time. Unit of energy is Kwh or unit.
Energy = Power x time
 Energy meter is an integrating type of instrument which measures the energy
consumed when power is delivered at an average rate of 1000 watts for one
hour.
 Depending upon the power supply, there are two types of and they are
(i) Single phase energy meter
(ii) Three phase energy meter
 (i) Single phase Energy meter

Induction type of energy meters are universally used for measurement of energy in
domestic and industrial ac circuits because of the following advantages,

Induction type energy meters have lower friction and higher (torque / weight)
ratio

They are inexpensive

They are accurate over a wide range of loads and temperature conditions
Basic Principle

It is an integrating type instrument which works on the principle of induction. That

is , in this type of instrument, alternating fluxes are produced because of 1- φ A.C
supply. This alternating fluxes induce the generation of eddy current in the moving
system which interacts with each other to produce a driving torque which causes
the aluminium disc to rotate and thus records the energy.
Constructional details
 Four main parts of the induction type energy meter are,
(1) Driving system
(ii) Moving system
(iii) Braking system and
(iv) Registering system
Constructional details

.
Cont.,

(1) Driving System:

 The driving system of the energy meter consists of two electromagnets whose
core is made up of silicon steel laminations.
 The coil of one of the electromagnets which is excited by the load current is
called current coil and the corresponding electromagnet is called series magnet.
 The coil of the second electromagnet which is connected across the supply
carries a current proportional to the supply voltage and is called pressure coil
and the corresponding electromagnet is called shunt magnet.
 Adjustable copper shading bands are provided on the central limb of shunt
magnet whose function is to bring the flux produced by the shunt magnet
exactly in quadrature with the applied voltage.
(II) Moving System:
 The moving system consists an aluminium disc mounted on light alloy Shaft.
 The disc is positioned in the air between series and shunt magnets.
 The moving system is connected to a hardened steel pivot which screwed to
foot the shaft.
 The pivot is supported by a jewel bearing.
 In this type of energy meter, as there is no controlling torque, continuous
rotation of the disc is produced due to the driving torque only.
(iii) Braking system:
 The braking system consists of a permanent magnet positioned near the edge
the aluminium disc.
 The aluminium disc moves the field this magnet and provides braking torque.
 By adjusting the position of the permanent magnet, braking torque can be
adjusted.
(iv) Registering counting mechanism:
 The Function of a registering or counting mechanism is to record continuously
a number which is proportional to the revolutions made by the moving system.
 The pointer rotates on round dials which are marked with ten equal divisions,
Principle of operation
 When the pressure coil wound on the shunt magnet is connected across the
supply voltage, it carries a current proportional to the supply voltage, thus
producing an alternating flux φ1 .
 As this flux φ1, is alternating in nature, it induces an emf e1 in the disc which in-
turn produces eddy current I1.
 When the current coil wound on the series magnet carries the load current , it
produces an alternating flux φ2.
 This flux φ2 induces an emf e2 in the disc which in-turn produces eddy current I2.
 Now the eddy current I1 interacts with φ2, and produces a torque T₁.
 Similarly the eddy current I2 interacts with φ1 and produces another torque T₂.
 As these two torques are in opposite direction, the net torque is the difference
of the above two torques.
Cont.,
Let
 V=Supply voltage
 I1 = Current through the pressure coil which is
proportional to supply voltage
 I2 = Load current in current coil.
 φ = Phase angle of load
 φ1 = Flux produced by the current through pressure
coil
 φ2 = Flux produced by the current through current coil
 e1= Eddy emf induced by flux φ1
 e2 Eddy emf induced by flux φ2 Figure-phasor diagram of the induction type single
phase energy meter.
 Lep= Eddy current due to flux p lee Eddy current due to
flux
Cont.,

Let φ1 and φ2 are the instantaneous values of two fluxes having a phase
difference of α between them. Therefore, we can write

where, φ1m and φ2m are peak values of fluxes φ1 and φ2 respectively.
The flux φ1 will produce an alternating emf is the disc, given by

Similarly, the alternating emf produced in the disc due to the flux φ2 is
given by
Cont.

 If, is considered to the impedance of the aluminum disc with power factor β then
eddy current induced in the disc due to the emf e1 can be expressed as

 instantaneous torque Td1 produced due to interaction of the current i1 and flux φ2 is given by

 Similarly, instantaneous torque Td2 produced due to interaction of the current i2 and flux φ1 is given
by
Cont.,
.
Errors in single phase energy meter

Some of the errors in single phase energy meter which affects the accuracy of the
meters are.,
(i) Incorrect magnitude of fluxes due to change in coil resistance or due to
abnormal frequencies.
(ii) Incorrect phase angles because of improper lag adjustments, abnormal
frequencies, change in resistance with temperature.
(iii)Lack of symmetry in magnetic circuit which makes the meter to creep.
(iv)Errors caused by the braking system due to change in strength of brake magnet,
Change in disc resistance, abnormal friction of moving parts.
 Creeping Effect

A slow but continuous rotation of the energy meter disc even when there is
no current flowing through the current coil but only the pressure coil is
energized is called creeping in energy meter. Some other factors that cause
creeping are excessive voltage across the pressure coil, vibrations and stray
magnetic fields.
 9.MAGNETIC MEASUREMENTS
The operating characteristics of electrical machines, apparatus and instruments
are greatly influenced by the properties of ferromagnetic materials used for their
construction. Hence measurements of magnetic properties like B, H etc. plays a
major role in designing and manufacturing of electrical equipments.
 Types of magnetic measurements are.,
(i) Measurement of flux density B.
(ii) Measurement of magnetizing force H
(iii) Determination of Eddy current and hysteresis losses
(iv) Determination of B-H curve
(v) Testing of permanent magnets
 (i) Measurement of flux density B.

 Measurement of flux density inside a Ring specimen can be done by winding a

search coil over the ring specimen. This search is known as a “B-coil”. This search
coil is then connected to a ballistic galvanometer or to a flux meter. Scheme of
measuring the flux density in a ring specimen is shown in Figure.
 Let, the current I is flowing through magnetizing winding wound around the
specimen. A search coil with suitable number of turns is wound around the
specimen and connected through a resistance and calibrating coil, to a ballistic
galvanometer.
Construction:

.
Principle of Operation:

 When a current I flows through the magnetizing winding wound over the ring
specimen, magnetic field is produced in the ring specimen. This magnetic flux is
linked with the search coil which is also wound over the ring specimen.
 Now the current through the magnetizing winding is reversed with the help of
reversing switch. This current reversal changes the flux linkage of the search coil
and hence an emf gets induced in the search coil which causes a flow of current
through the ballistic galvanometer.
 Thus the ballistic galvanometer deflects and its deflection is proportional to the
flow of current through it which intern is proportional to the induced emf and
hence the change in flux linkage.
 Since D.C supply is used for this measurement of flux density it is a D.C test or
ballistic test.
Derivation - B calculation

 Let
φ = flux linking the search coil
R = resistance of the ballistic galvanometer circuit
N = number of turns in the search coil
and t = time taken to reverse the flux

 Average emf induced in the search coil

Cont.,

 Change in flux = φ – (- φ) = 2 φ

 So, average current through the ballistic galvanometer is,

 Charge passing through it,

Cont.,
 Let θ be the deflection of the galvanometer.
Charge indicated by the galvanometer Q = Kg *θ
Where Kg is the galvanometer constant.

 We know, magnetic flux will be,

Cont.,

Thus the magnetic flux density can be measured by the deflection of the
ballistic galvanometer.
 For the above analysis, it is assumed that the flux remains uniform throughout
the specimen and that the effective cross-section area of the search coil is equal
to the cross section area of the specimen. However, search coil is usually of
larger area than the specimen and thus the flux linking the search coil is the
sum of the flux confined in the specimen and the flux which is present in air
space between the specimen and the search coil.
 So, Flux observed = Actual flux in the specimen + Flux in the air space between
specimen and search coil.
Cont.,
B’AS = BAS + μ0H(Ac - As)
Hence true value of flux density,

where, B’ = apparent or observed value of the flux density

B = actual or true value of the flux density in the specimen
As = cross-section area of the specimen
Ac = cross-section area of the coil
 (ii) Measurement of magnetizing force H
 A ballistic galvanometer and a search coil may be used to measure the
magnetising force
of a constant magnetic field.
 The value of H cannot be measured directly.
 It can be only calculated from the flux density measured by the method of
current reversal.
 The search coil used in the magnetic force measurement is called H Coil.
 In order to measure the magnetic force in the airgap, The H coil should be
placed in the airgap itself.
 But in order to determine the magnetizing force of ferromagnetic material, the
H-coil is placed on its surface since the tangential components of the field are
equal in magnetic for both sides of the surface.
Cont.,
Cont.,

 If the current through the magnetic winding is reversed by using a reversal

switch, The ballistic galvanometer deflects, which is proportional to flux density
B0
 The magnetizing force H can be calculated using this measured flux density B0 ,
by using the formula,

Magnetising force, H = B0/μ0 unit A/m

 References

1. A.K. Sawhney, ‘A Course in Electrical & Electronic Measurements

& Instrumentation’, Dhanpat Rai and Co, 2004.
2. J. B. Gupta, ‘A Course in Electronic and Electrical Measurements’,
S. K. Kataria & Sons, Delhi, 2003.
3. H.S. Kalsi, ‘Electronic Instrumentation’, Tata McGraw Hill, II
Edition 2004.