RAILWAY DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION

Comparison between roads and railways shows differences in flexibility, construction cost is high but
maintenance and operational costs could be less in terms of route length. Traffic is only scheduled on rails.
Gauges: The minimum distance between the running faces of two rails is the gauge of rail. The wider the
gauge, the larger wagons and rolling stock and more economical in operations. Gauges used worldwide:
Standard: 1.435m; Broad: 1.676m; Broad: 1.524m; Cape gauge: 1.067m; Metre: 1.000m; Other gauges.
Gauges can vary in different countries, which create difficulties for loading/unloading, wagons and stock.
Location: Survey to choose the alignment considering: shortest route; low construction cost, easy curves
and gradients, good scenery, service to towns in the vicinity. Special features of tracks that will influence
alignment are: obligatory points and elevations such as bridge sites; climate conditions in regions; location
of tunnels; highest flood level in stream crossing; topography; gauge; crossings; station sites suitability etc.
Degree of curvature: The maximum degree of curvature on railway alignment ranges from 1 to 2 degree
curves in flat or gently rolling areas to 10 degree in mountain areas. In branch, feeder lines and yards
sometimes even 40 degree curves are used.
Grades: In tracks vary from 0 to 1% on main lines, 2.5% is generally accepted upper limit in mountainous
areas. The American Railway Engineering Association (AREA) adopted that on main lines rates of grade
changes of 0.1% per 30 metres on summit and 0.05% per 30 metres in valleys should not be exceeded. On
minor roads 0.2% per 30 metres on summits and 0.1% per 30 metres in sags may be used. In cases of sags
the rate of grade change from a descending to a lesser descending or from descending to ascending grade is
more important than the grade itself, due to tendency for slack developed in couplings as the forward train
end is slowed and jerking if the change is abrupt.
The site plan shows the alignment on contoured map in scale usually 1:20 000. The detail section of the
track from formation above are horizontally to scale 1: 5 000 and vertically 1:500 or according to local
standards. The elements of alignment are gauge, gradients, curves and obligatory points.
Geometric design: It includes the alignment, railway track cross section, gradients and curves.
Railway gradient: Gradients depend on natural slopes, bridge approaches and site characteristics, and are:
Ruling gradient is the most efficient gradient for running speed and carrying capacity. Typical gradient for
level terrain is 1 in 150 (0,7%-“steep gradient”) to 1 in 200 (0,5%-“shallow gradient”) that meets the
requirement of longitudinal drainage without appreciable reduction in carrying capacity or speed of train.
Ruling gradient is fixed in plains and flat areas. For short hilly stretches 1 in 100 “steep” are accepted.
Ruling gradients determine maximum load on section. The hauling capacity of the locomotive is
considerably improved if the falling gradient is immediately followed by the rising gradient. In the case the
kinetic energy gained while descending will assist the train to negotiate the rising gradient. If there is a
need for extra pull, it is given by: P = W. sin β = W. tan β. The angle β is very small. P = W x 1/200 where
W=600tonnes; P=600/200 = 3tonnes; assume 1/100, P=6tonnes, the pull is now doubled.
Momentum gradient: If a falling gradient is followed immediately by rising gradient, this rising gradient is
referred to as the momentum gradient, providing that the descending train is not forced to stop before
negotiating the steeper gradient. While the train goes down the falling gradient it gains momentum. This
gain in momentum is utilized in negotiating a stretch of track with steeper gradient than the ruling gradient.
Pusher gradient: On hilly/undulating areas it is not possible to restrict to the ruling gradient due to heavy
excavations, negotiating is with pushing by additional engine. The steeper gradient is “pusher gradient”.
Station yard gradient: At stations and railway yards the gradients are much lower, almost flat as 1 in 1000
to 1 in 400. On platforms gradients are almost avoided.
Compensation grade: At curves extra pull may be required in order to sustain the speed. For this purpose
and to avoid extra pull the gradients can be eased from 0.02% for narrow gauge to 0.04% for broad gauge.
Permanent way carries the axle load and provides a smooth and uniform surface. The friction between
steel way and rails is about 20% of the friction between tyres and bitumen road surface. The lateral stresses
due to braking are also transmitted. Wear and replacement costs are relatively low. Failure due to wear is
rare because of manufacturing standards. The rails transmit the load through sleepers and ballast to the
formation. High carbon steels are used. The bottom of the head and top of the foot of the rail are shaped to
transmit the vertical load from head to foot at satisfactory joints. The center of gravity is approximately in
the middle for equal maximum tensile and compressive stresses. The fillets are with large radii.
Rail sections: The rail sections are designed by standard classifications by numbers and weight by metre
length. The smaller the section, the quantity of steel is less per metre length and the cost. Heavier sections

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have higher load carrying capacity. A compromise between two conflicting requirements is arrived by
linking the weight of the rails in tones to the locomotive axle load to an empirical value of 1/510. I f the
axle load of locomotive is 23 tones, the corresponding rail section would be 23 000kg/510m = 45kg/m.
The rail weight per metre length is 52 kg/m. The preference for heavier sections is with the diesel and
electric traction to achieve higher speeds with larger sleeper spacing. The depths of rails vary according to
gauge, axle load and nature of traffic, spacing of sleepers and permissible weights. For broader gauge the
weight is higher. The length of rails depends on manufacturing point of view, facilities for lifting and
handling and provisions for expansion joints. Several standards are adopted: 11.89, 18.30, 24 and 30m.
Major defects in rails are corrosion, wheels coning, buckling, cracking, damaging, wear of rails on tops, at
ends, creep of rails etc. Welding restores worn out or damaged rail section, repair worn out points/rails
along curves and restore burnt sections. Advantages of welding: increased travel comfort, reduced number
of joints and saved costs. Stability and stiffness are good. Fuel is saved from reduced traction efforts.
Rail fastenings and fixtures: The joining of two rail ends is by fish plates or combination plates, by
welding. Fitting for wooden sleepers is with spikes, for cast iron sleepers with cotters and types of clips.
Sleepers: Sleepers support rails, connected to them by fastening, and spread the vertical and horizontal
forces. They maintain proper gauge, provide adequate bearing area for the rails, have weight for stability,
create the contact with the ballast and should be designed to tamping or packing below with ballast. They
bear heavy stresses and are designed considering bending moments under the rail seat and in the centre of
the sleeper. Their length is related to gauge (Standard 2.60m, section 0.25x0.16m). Standard spacing is
about 24-26 sleepers for 18m at 675-700mm between centres and 318mm width. Materials: wood, steel,
cast iron, concrete, reinforced concrete and pre-stressed as standardized. Advantages/disadvantages are
related to manufacturing, dimensions, capacity, fire protection, handling, breakages, corrosion etc.
Untreated life is 3,5 years, treated 11-15 years, with some chemicals 35 years, renewed in maintenance.
Ballast: Broken stones, gravel and pebbles, chippings from queries or other gritty material packed below
and around sleepers transmit the weight to the formation. It should be strong enough to prevent crushing
under load, abrasion and weathering. It should be strong, clean, durable, stable and easy available within
economic distances. It provides driving comfort, lateral and longitudinal stability to the track, improves
drainage and maintains alignment. Ballast under sleepers thoroughly compacted is known as “packing”.
The portion beyond the sleepers is relatively loose ballast known as “boxing”. Type of ballast: broken
stone of 50-25mm stones; gravel, sand for some type between 2,36 and 1,18mm sieve, particles from
decomposition of laterite and crumbles under heavy weight, coal ash or brick. The design of ballast is
related to sleepers given by the relationship: Sleeper spacing = width of sleeper + 2 x depth of ballast.
Usually the minimum depth of ballast is 20-25cm, the width is about 30cm both sides of the sleeper on
typical section. Sleeper density (number of sleepers per rail length) and the gauge with rail depth determine
the quantity of ballast per kilometer - 510-1300m3 for single line to 1800-2 600m3 for double line.
Cross-section: Permanent land; temporary land; formation; slopes of cutting/embankment and side drains.
Strip land acquired for development depends on the gauge, lines and side drainage. Temporary land is for
project duration. The formation width varies from 6 to 10m and more. For embankment is wider than for
excavation with about 0.6m. Slopes for embankment and cutting are 2:1 and 1.5:1 respectively and may
depend on soil types. Side drains depend on natural drainage, sites, soils and vary to cutting/embankment.
Super-elevation for railway alignment: P = (W. V2)/ (R. g) is centrifugal force, where W=weight of
moving wagon; V=speed of vehicle in m/sec or km/hr; R=radius of layout, m; G=railway gauge; f=angle
of inclination; S=horizontal projection of the gauge; g=gravity. Resolve forces to the inclined gauge.
e = (G. V2) / (R. g), if V=m/s or e = (G. V2)) / (127. R), if V=km/hr
Negative super-elevation: Assume a right turn. On the main line (AB section) the super-elevation should
be such that the outer side B is higher than the inner side A of the track section. If a branch line to the left
is considered A should be higher than B. Such contradiction cannot be sustained in alignment. The solution
to the problem is to give preference to the main line and the branch line is kept at a lower elevation. The
branch line has therefore suffered negative super-elevation and the speed on the branch is to be controlled.
Railway points, crossings and junctions:
Types of track junctions:
1. Turnouts2. Double-turnout or tandem 3. Diamond crossing 4. Symmetrical split 5. Three-throw
switch

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6. Single slip and double slip 7. Crossover between parallel and diverging tracks 8.Scissors crossover 9.
Gathering lines, ladder lines. 10.Triangle 11.Double junction 12.Gauntlet track 13.Temporary diversion.

Turnouts: A combination of points and crossings by manipulation of which train from one track may be
diverted to another track of branch line or to siding is known as turnout. A turnout may be right or left
hand turn out. It consists of several components: a pair of switches, a pair of stock -rails, a V crossing, two
check rails, switch tie-plate and crossing-tie plate, four lead rails; rod, cranks, levers for operating the
points, studs or stops, bearing plates, stretcher bar, side chains; plunger bar, lock etc for locking system.

Number of crossing (N) is the ratio of the spread of the leg of crossing to the length of crossing measured
from theoretical nose or the cotangent of the angle formed by the crossing. For passenger turnout N=12.
N Cot ά = N = Number of crossing; Cot ά=12 and ά = 4045’49”
1 ά

Most critical in design is the section between the throat and a distance behind the nose of crossing: wheels
jump from wing rail to crossing. Permissible speeds on turnouts: 6-40km/hr if angle 1:8,5 to 1: 20.
Crossing angle: The angle formed between the gauge faces of Vee is known as the crossing angle. It is
calculated as: tan ά = 1/N and cot ά = N (Cole method) or Central line method, used in UK and USA:

N 1 tan ά/2 = (1/2) / N = 1/2N

ά 1 N cot ά/2 = 2N
N
The third method by isosceles triangle: the crossing angle is: sin ά/2 = (1/2) / N and cosec ά/2 = 2N\

Design of turnout: There are 3 methods for calculation of various turnouts

In all methods for turnout design the symbols and abbreviations are as follows:
L = Lead. This is the string lead distance between the theoretical nose crossing (TNC) and the heel of the
switch (HS) and it is measured parallel to the main track.
SL=Switch lead distance between the tangent point T and the heel of switch measured parallel to track.
CL = Curve lead distance. It is the distance between TNC and the tangent point T- measured parallel to
the main track. It is clear that CL = SL + L or L = CL – SL.
ά is the angle of crossing, θ is the angle of switch, d is the heel divergence or heel clearance
R is the radius of the center line of turnout, Ro is the radius of the outer curve of the turnout
G is the gauge of the track and N is the number of crossing.
1) Curve lead (CL) – consider triangle TBC
tan ά/2 = BC/TB = G/CL, therefore CL = G/(tanά/2) = G.cotά/2 or CL = G . cot ά/2
2) Outer radius Ro – consider triangle OCD
sin ά = CD/OC = TB/OC = CL/Ro therefore sin ά = CL / Ro and Ro = CL / sin ά
3) Centre line (Radius) R: R = Ro – (G/2)
Using the properties of the circle:

G G
1/N = tan ά
2Ro 1
2Ro-G Ro N/1 = N = cot ά
N
CL x CL = G x (2Ro – G)
CL2 = 2.Ro.G – G2 (G is very small compared to Ro – neglecting higher powers of G)
CL2 = 2.Ro.G, therefore CL = 2.Ro .G
If Ro is given, use this formula when not given the angle of crossing.
CL = BE + ET
BE = G/ tan ά = G. cot ά (because BC = G and G / BE = tan ά)
ET = CE but G/CE = sin ά therefore CE = G / sin ά and from this CE = G. cos ά
CL = G. cot ά + G. cos ά =

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 = G. cot ά + G . 1 + cot2 ά = G. cot ά + G. 1 + N2 (where N = cot ά -Right angle method)
CL = G . N + G. 1 + N2 (but 1 + N 2 = N because N is much greater than 1)
CL = 2.G.N - use if N is given!