Bee Lab Manual

BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
EXPERIMENT -1
VERIFICATION OF THEVENIN’S AND NORTON’S THEOREMS
AIM: To Verify Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) and Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) using
mesh and nodal analysis of the given circuit..
APPARATUS:
 NI – ELVIS Board
 Assorted Resistors.( 1 KW (2) ,1.2 KW (2), 2.4 KW)
THEORY:
1. Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law states that the algebraic sum of all the voltages around any
closed
path (loop or mesh) is zero.
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the first and the second loops in the circuit shown
in Figure 1 yields:
Loop 1: -Vs +V1 +V2 +V5 = 0 (1a)

Loop 2: -V2 +V3 +V4 = 0 (1b)
Figure 1
2. Kirchhoff’s Current Law states that the algebraic sum of all the currents at any node is
zero.
Applying Kirchhoff’s current law to the first four nodes in the circuit shown in
G. ANJANEYULU, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

Figure1 yields the following equations;
Node a: -Is + I1 = 0
Node b: -I1 + I2 + I3 = 0
Node c: -I3 + I4 = 0
Node d: -I2 - I4 + I5 = 0
PROCEDURE:
1. Construct the circuit shown in Figure 1 using the values below:
R1 = 1 KW
R2 = 2.4 KW
R3 = 1.2 KW
R4 = 1 KW
R5 = 1.2 KW
2. Set the Variable Power Supply (Vs) to 5 Volts.
3. Accurately measure all voltages and currents in the circuit using the Digital Multi-Meter
(DMM).
4. Record the measurements in a tabular form containing the measured voltage and current
values as shown below.
5. Verify KVL for the loops in the circuit using equations 1a and 1b.
6. Verify KCL for the nodes in the circuit using equations
Result:

EXPERIMET-2
SERIAL AND PARALLEL RESONANCE – TIMING,
RESONANT FREQUENCY, BANDWIDTH AND Q-
FACTOR DETERMINATION FOR RLC NETWORK.

Circuit Diagram of Series Resonance:


Tabular forms:

Series Resonance
S.no Frequency Current

(f) (Is)
Parallel Resonance
S.no Frequency Current

(f) (Ip)
Result Table
Series resonance Parallel Resonance
Theoretical Practical Theoretical Practical
Resonant
Frequency(Fo)
Band width(BW)
Quality Factor(Q)

Precautions:
1. Making loose connections are to be avoided

2. Readings should be taken without parallax error
Result:

EXPERIMET-3
TIME RESPONSE OF FIRST ORDER RC / RL NETWORK
FORPERIODIC NON – SINUSOIDAL INPUTS – TIME CONSTANT
AND STEADY STATE ERROR DETERMINATION .
AIM:
To draw the time response of first order series RL and RC network for
periodic non-sinusoidal function and verify the time constant
APPARATUS:
S.no Name of the equipment Range Type Quantity
1 Function generator 1
2 DRB 1
3 DIB 1
4 DCB 1
5 CRO 1
6 CRO Probes As required
7 Connecting wires
Theory:
Theoretical Calculations:
Formula required
For RL Series circuit, time constant T= L/R
For RC Series circuit, Time constant r = RC
Series RL Circuit

Series RC Circuit
Model Graph:
Procedure:
Series RL Circuit:
1. Connections are made as shown in the fig-1.
2. Input voltage (Square wave) is set to a particular value.
3. The waveform of voltage across inductor is observed on CRO and the waveform is drawn
on a
Graph sheet.
4. The time constant is found from the graph and verified with the theoretical value.
Series RC Circuit:

1. Connections are made as shown in the fig-2.
2. Input voltage (Square wave) is set to a particular value.
3. The waveform of voltage across the capacitor is observed on CRO and the waveform is
drawn
On a graph sheet.
4. The time constant is found from the graph and verified with the theoretical value
Result Table
Series resonance Parallel Resonance
Theoretical Practical Theoretical Practical
Time constant (T)
Precautions:
1. Making loose connections are to be avoided

2. Readings should be taken without parallax error
Result:

EXPERIMENT – 4
TWO PORT NETWORK PARAMETERS – Z – Y PARAMETERS,

ANALYTICAL VERIFICATION.
AIM: To obtain experimentally Z parameters and Y parameters of a given two port network.
APPARATUS:
S.no Name of the Range Type Quantity

equipment
1 Trainer kit 1
2 Multi meters MC 2
3 Connecting wires As Required
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Calculation of Z11 and Z21
Calculation of Z12 and Z22
Calculation of Y11 and Y21

Calculation of Y12 and Y22
THEORY:
Open Circuit Impedance Parameters (Z-Parameters):

Z-parameters can be defined by the following equations
V1 = Z11I1 + Z12I2 …………………… (1)
V2 = Z21I1 + Z22I2 …………………… (2)
In Matrix form:
If port 2-21 is open circuited, i.e., I2 = 0, then Z11 = V1/I1 & Z21 = V2/I1
If port 1-11 is open circuited, i.e., I1 = 0, then Z12 = V1/I2 & Z22 = V2/I2
Here,
Z11 is the driving point impedance at port 1-11 with 2-21open circuited. It can also be called
as open circuit input impedance.
Z21 is the transfer impedance at port 1-11 with 2-21 open circuited. It can also be called as
open circuit forward transfer impedance.
Z12 is the transfer impedance at port 2-21 with 1-11 open circuited. It can also be called as
open circuit reverse transfer impedance and
Z22 is the driving point impedance at port 2-21 with 1-11 open circuited. It can also be called
as open circuit output impedance.
Network is
a) Reciprocal then V1/I2 (where I1 = 0) = V2/I1 (where I2 = 0) i.e., Z12 = Z21
b) Symmetrical then V1/I1 (where I2 = 0) = V2/I2 (where I1 = 0) i.e., Z11 = Z22
Short Circuit Admittance Parameters (Y-parameters):
Y-parameters can be defined by the following equations
I1 = Y11V1 + Y12V2 ………………. (1)

I2 = Y21V1 + Y22V2 ………………. (2)
In matrix form
If port 2-21 is short circuited, i.e. V2 = 0 then Y11 = I1/V1 & Y21 = I2/V1
If port 1-11 is short circuited, i.e. V1 = 0 then Y12 = I1/V2 & Y22 = I2/V2
If the network is
a) Reciprocal then I2/V1 (where V2 = 0) = I1/V2 (where V1 = 0) i.e. Y21 = Y12
b) Symmetrical then I1/ V1 (where V2 = 0) = I2/ V2 (where V1 = 0) i.e. Y11 = Y22
PROCEDURE:
1. Open Circuiting Output Terminals (I2 = 0):

Connections are made as per the circuit diagram shown in fig (2). Output terminals
are kept Open via a voltmeter. Supply is given to input port. Note the readings of
ammeter as I1 and Voltmeter as V2.
2. Short circuiting output terminals (V2 = 0):
are short circuited via an ammeter. Supply is given to input port. Note the readings of
ammeters as I1 and I2.
3. Open circuiting input terminals (I1 = 0):
Connections are made as per the circuit diagram shown in fig (3). Input terminals are
kept open via an voltmeter. Supply is given to output terminals. Note the readings of
ammeter as I2 and voltmeter as V1.
4. Short circuiting input terminals (V1=0):
Connections are made as per the circuit diagram shown in fig (5). Input terminals are
short circuited via an ammeter. Supply is given to output port. Note the readings of
ammeters as I1 and I2.
4. Calculate Z, Y Parameters values.
OBSERVATION TABLES:
When I1=0
When I2=0

When V1=0
When V2=0
RESULT TABLE:
Z-Parameters Y-Parameters
Z11 Z12 Z21 Z22 Y11 Y12 Y21 Y22
Theoretical
Values
Practical
Values
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Avoid making loose connections.

2. Readings should be taken carefully without parallax error.
3. Avoid series connection of voltmeters and parallel connection ammeters.
RESULT:

EXPERIMENT – 5
TWO PORT NETWORK PARAMETERS – A, B, C, D & HYBRID

PARAMETERS, ANALYTICAL VERIFICATION
AIM: To obtain experimentally ABCD parameters and Hybrid parameters of a given two
port
network
APPARATUS:
S.no Name of the Range Type Quantity

equipment
1 Trainer kit 1
2 Multi meters MC 2
3 Connecting wires As Required
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Calculation of A And C:

Calculation of B and D
CALCULATION OF H11 And H21
Calculation of h12 and h22

THEORY:
ABCD Parameters:
ABCD parameters can be defined by the following equations
In matrix form
If port 2-21 is open circuited i.e., I2=0 then
A is called reverse voltage ratio and C is known as transfer admittance.

If port 2-21 is short circuited i.e., V2=0 then
B is called transfer impedance and D is called reverse current ratio.
Hybrid Parameters (h-Parameters):

h-parameters can be defined by the following equations

In matrix form:
If port 2-21 is short circuited, i.e. V2 = 0 then
h11 is called input impedance and h21 is called forward current gain.
If port 1-11 is open circuited, i.e., I1=0 then
h22 is called output admittance and h12 is called reverse voltage gain.
PROCEDURE:
1. To find A and C Parameters (I2 = 0):

are kept Open via voltmeter. Supply is given to input port. Note the readings of
ammeter as I1 and Voltmeters as V1, V2.
2. To find B and D Parameters (V2 = 0):
ammeters as I1, I2 and voltmeters as V1.
3. To find h11 and h21 (V2 = 0):
ammeter as I1 and voltmeter as V1.
4. To find h12 and h22 (I1 = 0):
Connections are made as per the circuit diagram shown in fig (5).Input terminals
current is zero. Supply is given to input port. Note the readings of voltmeter as V1 and
ammeter as I2.
5. ABCD, Hybrid parameters using formulae and verify them with theoretical values.
OBSERVATION TABLES:
When I2=0

S.No. V1 I1 V2
When V2=0
S.No. V1 I1 I2
When I1=0
S.No. V1 I2 V2
When V1=0
S.No. I2 I1 V2
RESULT TABLE:
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Avoid making loose connections.

2. Readings should be taken carefully without parallax error.
3. Avoid series connection of voltmeters and parallel connection ammeters.
RESULT:

EXPERIMENT -6
MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREMS
AIM: To verify the Max power transfer theorem for a given circuit.
APPARATUS:
S.No Equipment Range Quantity
1 DC.RPS-Voltage Source 0-30 Volts/2A 1
2 Trainerkit ------------------ 1
3 Ammeter-DC 0-200 m.Amps 1
4 Voltmeter-DC 0-20V or 0-30V 2
5 Connecting wires Single lead As required
THEORY:
SUPERPOSITION THEOREM:
This theorem states that “The response (voltage or current) in any branch of a
bilateral linear circuit having more than one independent source equals the algebraic sum of
the responses caused by each independent source acting alone, where all the other
independent sources are replaced by their internal resistance”.
A given response in a network regulating from a number of independent
sources(including initial condition source) may be computed by summing the response to
each individual source with all other sources made in operative( reduced to zero voltage or
zero current)
This statement describes the property homogeneity in linear networks. So it is the
combined properties off additivity and homogeneity off linear network. It is a result of the
linear relation between current and volt in circuits having linear impedances.
MAX POWER TRANSFER THEOREM:

Max power will be delivered by network to the load, if the impedance of network is
Complex conjugate of load impedance and vice versa.
(or)

The maximum transformer states that “A load will received maximum power
from a linear bilateral network when its load resistance is exactly equal to the Thevenin’s
resistance of network, measured looking back into the terminals of network.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
FIG. MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the 5v to the terminals provided.
2. Connect the ammeter and voltmeter.
3. Calculate the power drawn by the circuit for different values of load resistors
provided on board and tabulate them.
PL = ILVL
4. Observe that the maximum power is drawn when the load resistor is equal to the input
resistance.
5. Thus the Max power transfer theorem is proved.
MODEL GRAPH:

TABULAR COLUMN:
S.No IL(mA) VL(Volts) R=VL/IL (Ω) Power(P max)=I2*RL(mW)
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
RESULT:

EXPERIMENT -7
AIM: To verify the Superposition theorem for a given circuit.
APPARATUS:
2 Trainerkit ------------------ 1
Super position theorem
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as per circuit diagram.
2. Set V1= 15v, for this connect fixed 15v supply.
3. Set V2= 10v, for this adjust the variable supply to 10v.
4. Note the current ( I ) through E & F , when both V1& V2 are applied.
5. For the same circuit apply voltage V1 and make sure that the V2 to be shorted (V2 = 0)
and note down the current (I1) through E & F.
6. For the same circuit apply voltage V2 and make sure that the V1 to be shorted (V1 = 0)

and note down the current (I2) through E & F.
7. The superposition theorem is verified. i.e., I = I1 + I2.
8. Repeat the same procedure for different variable supplies
TABULAR COLUMN:
I1(mA) I2(mA)
Super Position I (mA)
Theorem V1=10V , V2=0V V1=0V , V2=15V
Theoretical
Values
Practical Values
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Reading must be taken without parallax error.
2. Measuring instruments must be connected properly & should be free from errors.
3. All connections should be free from loose contacts.
4. The direction of currents should be identified correctly

VERIFICATION OF RECIPROCITY
AIM: To verify the Reciprocity Theorem
APPARATUS REQUIRED:

2 Trainer kit ---------------- 1
3 Ammeter-DC 0-200 mAmps 1
THEORY:
RECIPROCITY THEOREM:
The theorem states that “In any linear bilateral network the ratio of voltage source E
volts in one branch to the current I in another branch is the same as the ratio obtained if the
positions of E and I are interchanged, other emf’s being removed.”
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
RECIPROCITY THEOREM:
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as per circuit

diagram.
2. Set the voltage V1 and connect it across A and B.
3. Connect C and D through meter and note the current (I1).
4. Interchange the position of ammeter and voltmeter note the current (I2 ).
5. Observe that the both currents are same.
6. Calculate the ratio of voltage introduced between A & B to the current through C &
D.
7. Calculate the ratio of voltage introduced between C & D to the current through A &
B.
8. Note that the both ratios are equal. Thus the theorem is proved.
9. Repeat the same procedure for different voltages.
TABULAR COLUMN:
Reciprocity Theorem Case-1 ( I AB ) mA Case-2 ( ICD) mA
Theoretical Values
Practical Values
RESULT:

EXPERIMENT -8
VERIFICATION OF THEVENIN’S AND NORTON’S THEOREMS
AIM: To verify the Thevenin’s theorem & Norton’s theorem for a given circuit.
APPARATUS:

2 Trainer kit ----------------- 1
THEORY:
THEVENIN’S THEOREM:
The Thevenin’s Theorem states that “Any two terminals linear bilateral DC network
can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source Vth in series with all
equivalent resistance Rth”.
(OR)
Thevenin's theorem states that “in any two terminal, linear, bilateral network having a
number of voltage, current sources and resistances can be replaced by a simple equivalent
circuit consisting of a single voltage source in series with a resistance, where the value of the
voltage source is equal to the open circuit voltage across the two terminals of the network,
and the resistance is the equivalent resistance measured between the terminals with all energy
sources replaced by their internal resistances.”

NORTON’S THEOREM:
Norton's theorem States that “in any two terminal, linear, bilateral network with
current sources, voltage sources and resistances can be replaced by an equivalent circuit
consisting of a current source in parallel with a resistance. The value of the current source is
the short circuit current between the two terminals of the network and the resistance is the
equivalent resistance measured between the terminals of the network with all the energy
sources replaced by their internal resistances.”
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
THEVENIN’S THEOREM:
100ohm
R2
Rlo ad
Vt h
Thevenin’s Equivalent circuit diagram
NORTON’S THEOREM:
Rn
100ohm Rlo ad
In
Norton’s Equivalent circuit diagram

PROCEDURE:
THEVENIN’STHEOREM:
2. Measure the current through the load resistor in the linear circuit.
3. Calculate the Thevenin’s equivalent resistance of the circuit R th, when the source is
set to zero.
Rth = ( 82 // 150) + 47 = 100 ohm.
4. Calculate the open circuit voltage across the terminals A & B which is equal to the
voltage across 150 ohm resistance.
Vth= ( 15 x 150) / (82+150)
= 9.69 v
5. Measure the voltage drop across 150 ohm resistor after disconnecting terminals A &
C
6. Find it to be equal to calculated value of Vth.
7. Now set the voltage to the obtained Vth in the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit using
variable power supply.
8. Measure the current through the load resistor in the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit.
9. Note the measured through the load resistor in the linear circuit as well as in the
equivalent circuit is same.
10. Repeat the above procedure for different values of resistors provided on the board.
Thus the Thevenin’s theorem is proved.
NORTON’STHEOREM:
2. Measure the current through the load resistor in the linear circuit by connecting
ammeter between A & C.
3. Calculate the Norton’s equivalent resistance of the circuit Rth, when the source is set
to zero.
Rth = ( 82 // 150) + 47 = 100 ohm.
4. Measure the Norton’s equivalent current which is the short circuit across the terminals
A & B by connecting current meter across A &B .this will be equal to 96.9 mA.
5. Now connect the circuit as shown in Norton’s equivalent circuit where R N=100 ohm
and IN=96.9 mA.

6. To get current source, after connecting circuit components R load, RN and points A &
C shorted connect variable supply in series with the current meter in place of current
meter in place of current source shown. Adjust the voltage supply such that you read
96.9 mA in the current meter.
7. Now switch of the power, remove the meter short the positive terminal of battery to
terminal A. Remove the short between A & C and connect the current meter A & C.
8. Note the current through RL. Observe it to be equal to the current through RL
measured in the linear circuit.
9. Repeat the above procedure for different values of resistors provided on the board.
Thus the Norton’s theorem is proved.
TABULAR COLUMNS:
THEVENIN’STHEOREM:
S.No Vth Rth RL IL ( mA) IL ( mA)

Practical Theoretical
NORTON’STHEOREM:
S.No IN Rth RL IL ( mA) IL ( mA)
Practical Theoritical
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Reading must be taken without parallax error.
2. Measuring instruments must be connected properly & should be free from errors.

3. All connections should be free from loose contacts.
4. The direction of currents should be identified correctly
RESULT:

EXPERIMENT -9
MAGNETISATION CHARACTERISTICS OF DC SHUNT
GENERATOR
AIM: To draw the Open Circuit Characteristics Curve of DC Shunt generator and to determine
critical field resistance and critical speed.
Apparatus Required:
Sl No Name of the apparatus Rating Type

Quantity
1. Volt meter 0 – 300V MC 1 No
2. Ammeter 0 – 2A MC 1 No
3. Tachometer 0 – 10k RPM Digital 1 No
Name plate Details:

S.No Specifications Motor Generator
A Rated Armature Voltage
B Rated full load Current
C Rated Speed
D Rated Power
E Type of excitation
Fuse rating: For Open Circuit test 10% of rated full load current
Theory:
The open circuit characteristics for a DC generator are determined as follows. The field
winding of the DC generator (series or shunt) is disconnected from the machine and is separately
excited from an external DC source. The generator is run at fixed speed (i.e. rated speed). The field
current (If) is increased from zero in steps and the corresponding values of generated e.m.f (E0)read of
an voltmeter connected across the armature terminals are tabulated. On plotting the relation between
E0 and If , we get the open circuit characteristics.


Tabular Column:
Rated Speed of the Generator = ………….
i) For Ascending Order of If and Descending order of If:
Sl No: Field Current Generated EMF Eg(V) Generated EMF Eg(V)
If (A) Ascending Descending
The following points may be noted from the OCC:

(i) When the field current is zero, there is some generated e.m.f which is due to residual
magnetism in the field poles
(ii) Over a fairly wide range of field current (in the initial portion) the curve is linear. It is
because in this range reluctance of iron is negligible as compared with that of air gap. The
air gap reluctance is constant and hence linear relationship.
(iii) After that the reluctance of iron also comes into picture. Consequently, the curve deviates
from linear relationship.
(iv) Finally the magnetic saturation of poles begins and E0 tends to level off
Procedure:
1. Connections are given as per the circuit diagram.
2. Set the field rheostat of motor should be in minimum resistance position.
3. Switch on the supply and start the motor with the help of the 3-point starter.
4. Adjust the Speed of the motor generator set to the rated speed of the generator by
controlling the Motor field resistance and see the speed is to be maintained constant
throughout the experiment.
5. Note down the voltmeter reading at zero field current.

6. Increase the field Current uniformly in steps, by moving rheostat divider jockey.
7. Simultaneously noting down the field current and the terminal Voltage across the generator
armature Terminals.
8. Continue the experiment till saturation of the field is reached.
Expected Graphs:
The graph is drawn in between Field Current (I f) on X-Axis Vs Generated EMF EG on y-Axis for
both increasing and decreasing values of field current and the average curve is
Eg
X
Z
Result:

EXPERIMENT -10
SWINBURNE’S TEST ON DC SHUNT MACHINE
Aim: To Predetermine the efficiency of the given DC Shunt machine by Swinburne’s test as a
Motor operation and Generator operation.
Apparatus Required:
Sl No Name of the apparatus Rating Type Quantity

1. Volt meter 0-300V MC 1 No
2. Ammeter 0-1A MC 1 No
0-5A MC 1 No
3. Tubular Rheostat 0 - 270 / 2.8A Wire Wound 1 No
0 -100 / 5A Wire Wound 1 No
4. Tachometer 0 – 10K rpm Digital 1 No
Name Plate Details:
S. No Specifications DC Shunt Motor

1 Rated Voltage
2 Arm Full Load Current
3 Rated Speed
4 Excitation current
Fuse Rating: For No load 10% of rated full load current
Theory:
There are several tests that are conducted upon a DC machine (Motor or Generator) to
judge its performance. One important test is performed measure the efficiency of the DC machine.
Efficiency depends on its losses. The smaller the losses the greater is its efficiency and vice versa. The
consideration of losses in a DC machine is important because they determine the efficiency of the
machine and appreciably influences its operating cost. And also they determine heating of the

machine and hence the power output that may be obtained without undue deterioration of the
insulation.

In Swinburne’s method the DC machine is run as a motor at no load, and the losses of the machine are
determined. Once the losses of the machine are known its efficiency at any desired load can be
determined in advance. It may be noted that this method is applicable to those machines in which flux
is practically constant (e.g. Shunt & Compound Machines).
Observations:
(a) For Motor operation:

Rated voltage V =…………..Volts
Line Current I LO = ………… Amps
Field Current I f =………….. Amps
Sl No IL (A) Input = Ia = IL - I f Copper Output %Efficiency

V IL watts (A) losses = Power = =
Ia2 Ra V IL - WT (O.P / I.P) x
100.
Part I:
Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure.
2. Insert the correct rating of fuse wires in the circuit.
3. Close the DPST switch and keep field rheostat in minimum resistance position.
4. Start the motor with the help of starter and by adjusting the field regulator of the Motor Such That it
runs at its rated speed given on the nameplate.
5. Now open DPST switch and note down the values of supply voltage V, Line Current I Lo, Field
current I f .
6. Calculate the efficiency of the machine as a Motor and as a Generator for Different Assured Values
of load current I L.

Predetermination of efficiency for motor:

Assume a line current IL
Armature current Ia = IL - If
Input Power = V IL
Copper losses = Ia2 Ra
Output = input – (Copper losses + Constant losses).
Efficiency = (Output / Input) x100.
Observations:
(b) For Generator operation:

Rated voltage V =…………..Volts
Line Current I LO = ………… Amps
Field Current I f =………….. Amps
S. No IL Output = Ia = IL+I Copper In put %Efficiency

(A) V IL f( A) loss = Ia2 Power = =
Watts Ra in V IL + (O.P / I.P) x
Watts WT 100.
Predetermination of Efficiency for Generator:

Output = V IL
Armature current Ia = IL +If
Copper losses = Ia2 Ra

Total losses ( WT ) = Cu loss + Constant loss
Input = Out put + (Cu loss + Const loss)
% Efficiency = (Output / Input) x 100.
Circuit diagram:
Tabular Column:
Sl No Va ( V ) IL ( A ) Ra = (Va / IL) 
Avg Ra =……..…….. 

Part II:
Measurement of Armature circuit resistance of the machine:
Procedure:
1. Make the connections as per circuit diagram.
2. Keep the Rheostat in maximum resistance positions
3. Switch on the LV DC supply
4. Adjust the resistance in steps, Note down the readings of Voltmeter and ammeter
5. Calculate the value of Armature resistance R a = (V/I)
6. Take the average value Ra to nullify the errors on the scale of Voltmeter and Ammeter
Sample Calculation’s:
Armature current Iao = I Lo – I f
No load input = V I LO
Constant Power Losses Pc = V I Lo – Iao2 Ra watts.
Armature Resistance Ra =

Expected graphs:
The graph drawn between Load current Vs Efficiency
as a Generator
% Efficiency
as a Motor
o X
Load Current IL in Amps
Result:

EXPERIMENT -11
BRAKE TEST ON DC SHUNT MOTOR
Aim: To perform the Brake test on the given DC Shunt motor and to obtain the performance
characteristics of the motor.
Apparatus Required:
S. No Name of the apparatus Rating Type Quantity
1 Ammeter (0-25A) MC 1No
2 Voltmeter (0-300V) MC 1No
3 Tachometer Digital 1No
Name plate details:

S. No Specifications Shunt Motor
1 Rated Voltage
2 Rated Current
3 Speed
4 Type of Excitation
5 Power
Fuse Rating: 125% fuse rating of Rated full load Current.
Theory:
There are several tests that are conducted upon a DC machine (Motor or Generator) to
judge its performance. One important test is performed to measure the efficiency of the DC machine.
Efficiency depends on its losses. The smaller the losses the greater is its efficiency and vice-versa.
The consideration of losses in a DC machine is important because they determine the efficiency of the
machine and appreciably influences its operating cost. And also they determine heating of the

machine and hence the power output that may be obtained without undue deterioration of the
insulation.
In this method a brake drum is connected in the shaft of the motor with spring balances to
measure the load. The mechanical output of the motor is calculated with the help of spring balances
readings and speed of the machine.

Tabular Column:
SL VL IL F1 F2 Speed Input Torque Output %Efficie

No Power Power in ncy
(V) (A) (kg) (kg) ‘N’ in (w) ( T ) in
RPM ‘Newton Watts BHP
meter’s
Calculations:
Radius of the Brake drum r = …….. Mtrs
Torque (T) = (F1- F2) r.g N.mtr
Power Output = (2 π NT / 60) watts
%Efficiency = (Output / Input) X 100.

Procedure:
1. Make the connections as per circuit diagram.
2. Keep the field rheostat of the Motor at minimum Resistance position.
3. At the time of starting check that the belt on the pulley is free, so that there is no load on the pulley.
4. Start the motor slowly by using stator
5. Adjust the field rheostat so that motor runs at its rated speed.
6. Apply load on the pulley gradually in steps by adjusting of tension of spring Balance.
7. Take the readings of the Ammeter and Voltmeter and two spring balance readings and the speed for
each step.
8. Cool the pulley through out the loading period by pouring water.
9. Continue the experiment till full load of the motor is reached.
Expected Graphs:
i. % Efficiency Vs Output Power in BHP
ii. Speed Vs Output Power in BHP
iii. Torque Vs Output Power in BHP
iv. Load Current Vs BHP.
Y
% Efficiency
Load Current
% Efficiency
Load Current
Torque
Speed
Speed
Torque
O X
Out Put Power in BHP
Result:

EXPERIMENT -12
O.C. AND S.C. TESTS ON SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER
AIM :1. To predetermine the efficiency and regulation of the given single phase
Transformer at different power factors.
2. To draw equivalent circuit referred to the primary.
APPARATUS:
S.No: Apparatus Type Rating Quantity

1. Ammeter Moving iron 0-20A 1
2. Voltmeter Moving iron 0-300V 1
3. Wattmeter Dynamometer 5A/150V,LPF 1
4. Wattmeter Dynamometer 20A/150V,UPF 1
THEORY:
OPEN CIRCUIT TEST:
The main purpose of conducting this test is to determine core losses and no load
parameters Ro and X0 . While conducting this test one winding of the transformer usually high
voltage winding is kept open and the low voltage winding is engaged with measuring
instruments like voltmeter and ammeter.
From open circuit test data

Rcl=Vo/Ic
Xml=Vo/Im
SHORT CIRCUIT TEST:
This test is an economical method for determining the following
1. Equivalent quantities like Ro1, R02, X01, X02, Z01 , Z02 as referred to the winding in
which the instruments are connected.
2. Copper losses at full load can be determined which is useful for finding the efficiency.
3. Regulation of transformer can also be calculated

In this test one winding usually the low voltage winding is short circuited by a thick gauge of
wire and measuring instruments are connected in HV winding.
From short circuit test data:
Z2=Vsc/Isc
R2=Wsc/Isc2
X2=(Z22-R22 )1/2
Referred to LV side
R1= R2*(N1/N2)2
X1=X2*(N1/N2)2
Efficiency curve:
Efficiency at any load (X times full load) and at a given power factor can be calculated as
follows.
Output at X times full load =X*rated KVA*PF
Iron loss=Wo
Copper loss at x times full load =X2 *full load copper loss
%Efficiency = output*100/(output+losses)
Efficiency at different assumed loads for a given power factor are calculated and tabulated.
Regulation curve:
Percentage regulation= rCos ± X sin
r, percentage resistance=I*R1*100/V
x, percentage reactance=I*X1*100/V
I, rated LV side current
V, rated LV side voltage
Positive sign for lagging power factor and negative sign for leading power factor percentage
regulation for full load for different power factors are calculated and results are tabulated.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
OPEN CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
SHORT CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
PROCEDURE:
Open circuit test:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram
2. HV side is kept open and rated voltage is applied to the low voltage winding by
adjusting the autotransformer
3. The meter readings are noted down and tabulated

Short circuit test:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram
2. LV side is short circuited and adjusting the autotransformer, rated current is send on
the HV side
3. The meter readings are noted down and tabulated
TABULAR FORMS:
Open circuit test:
Vo Io Wo Ic=Io* Coso Im=Io*Sino
Coso=Wo/(Vo*Io)
(V) (A) (W) (A) (A)
Short circuit test:
Vsc(V) Isc(A) Wsc(Watts)
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Wattmeter connections must be done as per the rating of the transformer
2. LPF wattmeter to be used for open circuit test
RESULT:

EXPERIMENT-13
BRAKE TEST ON THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
AIM :
1. Perform load test on 3-phase induction motor
2. Compute Torque, output power, input power, efficiency, input power factor and slip
for every load Setting.
APPARATUS:
S. No. Name Type Range Quantity

1. Ammeter MI 0-10/20 A 1
2. Voltmeter MI 0-300/600 V 1
3. Wattmeter Dynamometer 10/20 A, 2
4. 3-phase variac Fully variable 200/400 V 1
5. Tachometer Digital 15 A, 400/0- 1
400 V, 0-2000
rpm
THEORY:
The load test on induction motor is performed to compute its complete
performance i.e. torque, slip, efficiency, power factor etc. During this test, the motor is
operated at rated voltage and frequency and normally loaded mechanically be brake and
pulley arrangement from the observed data, the performance can be calculated, following the
steps given below.
SLIP :
The speed of the rotor, Nr droops slightly as the load on the motor is increased.
The synchronous speed, Ns of the rotating magnetic field is calculated field is calculated,
based on the number of poles, P and the supply frequency,  i.e.
𝟏𝟐𝟎𝐅
Synchronous speed, Ns =
𝑷
𝐍𝐬−𝐍𝐫
Then, slip, S =
𝐍𝐬
Normally, the range of slip at full load is from 2 to 5 per cent.

TORQUE :
Mechanical loading is the most common type of method employed in
laboratories. A brake drum is coupled to the shaft of the motor and the load is applied by
tightening the belt, provided on the brake drum. The net force exerted at the brake drum in kg
is obtained from the readings S1 and S2 of the spring balances i.e.
Net force exerted, W = (S1 – S2) kg
Then, load torque, T = W X d/2 kg –m
= W X d/2 X 9.8 Nw-m
where, d- effective diameter of the brake drum in meters.
OUTPUT POWER, P0 :
The output power in watts developed by the motor is given by,
𝟐𝐍𝐓
Output power, P0 = watts
𝟔𝟎
where, N is the speed of the motor in r.p.m.
INPUT POWER :
Input power is measured by the two wattmeters, properly connected in the
circuit i.e.
Input power = (W1 + W2) watts
Where, W1 and W2 are the readings of the two watttmeters.
INPUT POWER FACTOR :
Input power factor can also be calculated from the readings of two wattmeters
for balanced load. If φ is the power factor angle, then
𝐖𝟏−𝐖𝟐
tan φ =  3𝐖𝟏+𝐖𝟐
Knowing the power factor angle, φ, from the above, power factor, cos φ can be
calculated. It may be noted clearly at this stage, that the power factor of the induction motor
is very low at no load, hardly 0.1 to 0.25 lagging. As such, one of the wattmeter will record a
negative reading, till the power factor is less than 0.5, which may be measured by reversing
the connections of either the current coil or pressure coil of this wattmeter.
EFFICIENCY :
𝐎𝐮𝐭𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐩𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫
Percentage efficiency of the motor,  = X 100
𝐢𝐧𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐩𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫

Full load efficiency of 3 phase induction motor lies in the range of 82 % (for
small motors) to 92 % (for very large motors).
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
PROCEDURE:
2. Ensure that the motor is unloaded and the variac is set at zero output voltage.
3. Switch-on 3 phase ac mains and start the motor at reduced applied voltage. Increase
the applied voltage, till its rated value.
4. Observe the direction of rotation of the motor. In case, it is reverse, change the phase
sequence of the applied voltage.
5. Take-down the readings of all the meters and the speed under no load running.
6. Increase the load on the motor gradually by turning of the hand wheels, thus tighting
the belt. Record the readings of all the meters and the speed at every setting of the
load. Observations may be continued upto the full load current rating of the motor.
7. Reduce the load on the motor and finally unload it completely.
8. Switch-off the supply to stop the motor.
9. Note-down the efficiency diameter of the brake drum.
TABULAR COLUMN:
S. No. Line Input W1 W2 S1 S2 speed

Voltage current

S.No. Current Input Torque OutputBASICSlip
ELECTRICAL
Power ENGINEERING
Efficiency
power power factor
PRECAUTIONS:-
1. Ensure that the starter arm is at extreme left position.
2. Avoid loose connections
3. Note down the readings form the meters without any parallax error
RESULT:

EXPERIMEMT-14
REGULATION BY SYNCHRONOUS IMPEDANCE METHOD
AIM :
1. Perform no load and short circuit tests on a 3-phase alternator.
2. Measure the resistance of the stator winding of alternator.
3. Find out regulation of alternator at full load and at (i) unity p.f. (ii) 0.85 p.f. lagging
(iii) 0.85 p.f leading, using synchronous impedance method.
APPARATUS:
S.No. Name Type Range Quantity
1. Ammeter MC 0-1/2 A 1
2. Ammeter MI 0-10/20 A 1
3. Voltmeter MI 0-300/600 V 1
4. Rheostat Single tube 370Ω, 1.7 A 2
5. Techometer digital 0-2000 rpm 1
THEORY
To find out the regulation of alternator by synchronous impedance method,
following characteristics and data has to be obtained experimentally,
1. open circuit characteristic at synchronous speed.
2. short circuit characteristic at synchronous speed.
3. ac resistance of the stator winding, per phase i.e. Ra.
The open circuit and short circuit characteristics of a 3 phase alternator, plotted
on the phase basis. To find out the synchronous impedance from these characteristics, open
circuit voltage, E1 and short circuit current, I1 (preferably full load current), corresponding to
a particular value of field current is obtained. Then , synchronous impedance per phase is
𝑬𝟏
given by, Synchronous impedance, Za =
𝑰𝟏
Then, Synchronous reactance, Xz =  Z2S - R2a

The phasor diagram of the alternator, supplying full load current of I a ampere,
lagging the terminal voltage V by an angle φ. The open circuit voltage E of the alternator is
given by, E = V + Ia Ra + Ia Xa (Phasor sum)
The diagram has been drawn with the current as the reference phasor and is self
explanatory. The open circuit voltage as finally obtained from the phasor diagram,
corresponding to this loading condition is E volts. Then the regulation of the alternator under
the above loading condition is given by,
𝑬−𝑽
Regulation = X 100 percent
𝑽
An approximate expression for the open circuit voltage can be establish
referring to the phasor diagram.
Open circuit voltage, E =  OD2 + DC2
=  (OF + FD)2 + (DB + BC)2
or E =  (V cos φ + Ia Ra )2 + (V sin φ + Ia Xa)2 ( for lagging p.f.
load)
The above expression is for lagging power factor load. In case, alternator is
operating at leading power factor, open circuit voltage, E can be found out in a similar way
and is given by,
E =  (V cos φ + Ia Ra)2 - (V sin φ + Ia Xa)2 (for leading p.f. load)

The value of regulation obtained by this method is higher than obtained from as
actual load test, as such it is called the pessimistic method.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
PROCEDURE
2. Adjust the position of rheostat, R1 for maximum possible current in the field
circuit of dc motor, to
3. Ensure (i) low starting speed (ii) high starting torque.
4. Set the position of rheostat, R2 for minimum current in the field circuit of
alternator, to ensure low value of generated emf at starting.
5. Switch on the dc mains, feeding the dc motor and the field circuit of alternator.
6. Start the dc motor, using the starter properly. Various resistance steps of the
starter should be cur out slowly, so that the motor does not draw high current
during starting.
7. Set the speed of the motor and hence the alternator at its rated value by varying
rheostat, R1, provided in the field circuit of the motor.
8. Note-down the open circuit voltage of the alternator and the field current.

9. Repeat step 7 for various value of field current (can be obtained by varying the
rheostat, R2 provided in the field circuit of alternator). Observation should be
continued, till the open circuit voltage is 25 to 30 percent higher than its rated
value.
10. Set the position of rheostat, R2 again for minimum possible current in the field
circuit of alternator.
11. Short-circuit the stator winding of the alternator, by closing the switch, provided
for this purpose in the circuit diagram.
12. Note-down the short circuit current and the field current.
13. Repeat step 11, for various values of field current, till the short circuit current
becomes equal to the full load current of alternator.
14. Readjust the setting of rheostats R1 and R2 to their initial positions and then
switch-off the dc supply to stop the dc motor.
15. Measure the dc resistance of the stator winding by usual voltmeter-ammeter
method. To obtain ac resistance, skin effect must be taken into account. As such,
ac resistance may be taken approximately 1.3 times the dc resistance measured.
TABULAR COLOUMN:
Open Circuit Test Short Circuit Test
S. No. If E If Isc
RESULT

9. VIVA QUESTION AND ANSWERS
1. What is Current?
Current can be defined as the motion of charge through a conducting material. The unit of
current is Ampere whilst charge is measured in Coulombs.
2. Please define Ampere?
The quantity of total charge that passes through an arbitrary cross section of a conduct-ing
material per unit second is defined as an Ampere.”
Mathematically,
I =Q/t
or Q = It
where Q is the symbol of charge measured in Coulombs (C), I is the current in amperes (A)
and t is the time in seconds (s).
3. Could you measure current in parallel?
No, Current is always measured through (in series with) a circuit element.
4. What is the difference between Voltages or Potential Difference? And what are they?
1. Voltage or potential difference between two points in an electric circuit is1V if

1J (Joule) of energy is expended in transferring 1 C of charge between those points.
2. It is generally represented by the symbol V and measured in volts (V). Note
that the symbol and the unit of voltage are both denoted by the same letter; however,
it rarely causes any confusion.
3. The symbol V also signifies a constant voltage (DC) whereas a time-varying
(AC) voltage is represented by the symbol v or v (t)
5. Could you measure Voltage in series?
No, Voltage is always measured across (in parallel with) a circuit element
6.How many Types of Circuit Loads are there in a Common Electrical Circuit?
A load generally refers to a component or a piece of equipment connected to the output of an

electric circuit. In its fundamental form, the load is represented by any one or a combination
of the following:
1. Resistor (R)
2. Inductor (L)
3. Capacitor (C)
A load can either be of resistive, inductive or capacitive nature or a blend of them. For

example, a
light bulb is a purely resistive load where as a transformer is both inductive and resistive. A
circuit
load can also be referred to as a sink since it dissipates energy whereas the voltage or current
supply can be termed as a source.
7. What are the different Sign Conventions used in electric circuits?
It is common to think of current as the flow of electrons. However, the standard convention is
to take the flow of protons to determine the direction of the current.
In a given circuit, the current direction depends on the polarity of the source voltage. Current
always flow from positive (high potential) side to the negative (low potential) side of the
source as shown in the schematic diagram of Figure 2.4(a) where Vs is the source voltage,
VL is the voltage across the load and I is the loop current flowing in the clockwise direction.
In Source current leaves from the positive terminal
In Load (Sink) current enters from the positive terminal.
8. What do you mean by Passive Circuit Elements and why these are called Passive?
Passive Circuit Elements :

Resistor, Capacitor, Inductor
9.State and define Ohm’s Law?
It is the most fundamental law used in circuit analysis. It provides a simple formula
describing the
voltage-current relationship in a conducting material.
Statement:
The voltage or potential difference across a conducting material is directly proportional
to the current flowing through the material.
V∝I
V = RI or I =V/R
or R =V/I
where the constant of proportionality R is called the resistance or electrical resistance,
measured in ohms (Ω).
10. Please Define Ohm’s Law for A.C (Alternating Current)?
Everything else would remain same only the resistance will be replaced with Impedance,
which is defined as the opposition to the flow of A.C.
11. What is the function of Capacitor in Electrical Circuits?
A capacitor is a passive circuit element that has the capacity to store charge in an electric
field. It is widely used in electric circuits in the form of a filter.
12. Why Inductors are installed in electrical Circuits?
An inductor is a piece of conducting wire generally wrapped around a core of a ferromagnetic

material. Like capacitors, they are employed as filters as well but the most well known
application is their use in AC transformers or power supplies that converts AC voltage levels.
13. Briefly explain the purpose of Inductor in an electric circuit?
An inductor is a piece of conducting wire generally wrapped around a core of a ferromagnetic

material. Like capacitors, they are employed as filters as well but the most well known
application is their use in AC transformers or power supplies that converts AC voltage levels.
14. What do you mean by dependent and independent voltage sources?
In general, there are two main types of DC sources

1. Independent (Voltage and Current) Sources
2. Dependent (Voltage and Current) Sources
 An independent source produces its own voltage and current through some chemical
reaction and does not depend on any other voltage or current variable in the circuit.
 The output of a dependent source, on the other hand, is subject to a certain parameter
(voltage or current) change in a circuit element. Herein, the discussion shall be confined to
independent sources only.
15. Differentiate between ideal and non-ideal voltage sources?
The Ideal Voltage Source An ideal voltage source which has a terminal voltage which is
independent of the variations in load. In other words, for an ideal voltage source, the supply
current alters with changes in load but the terminal voltage, VL always remains
constant.Non-Ideal or Practical Voltage Source For a practical source, the terminal voltage
falls off with an increase in load current.
16. What does the term “Voltage Regulation” means?
Voltage regulation (VR) is an important measure of the quality of a source. It is used to

measure the variation in terminal voltage between no load (IL =0, open circuit) and full load
(IL = IFL)
17.What is DC Current source? Differentiate between ideal and non ideal current
sources?
A current source, unlike the DC voltage source, is not a physical reality. How ever, it i s
useful in deriving equivalent circuit models of semiconductor devices such as a transistor. It
can also be subdivided
into ideal and non-ideal categories.
The Ideal Current Source By definition, an ideal current source, that produces a current which
is independent of the variations in load. In other words the current supplied by an ideal
current source does not change with the load voltage.
Non-Ideal or Practical Current Source The current delivered by a practical current source

falls off with an increase in load or load voltage.
18. What id difference between power and energy?
Energy is defined as the capacity of a physical system to perform work. In the context of
electric circuits, energy (w) is related to power by the following relationship p = vi =dw/dt
So the difference is that power is the rate of change of energy.
19. What is Voltage Divider Rule?
Voltage divider rule provides a useful formula to determine the voltage across any resistor
when two or more resistors are connected in series with a voltage source.
20. What is Kirchoff ’s Current Law (KCL)?
The algebraic sum of all the currents entering or leaving a node in an electric circuit is
equal to zero. In other words, the sum of currents entering is equal to the sum of currents
leaving the node in an electric circuit.
21. What is Current Divider Rule (CDR)?
Current divider rule provides a useful relationship for determining the current through
individual circuit elements that are connected in parallel.
22. What is Superposition Theorem?

Superposition theorem is extremely useful for analyzing electric circuits that contains two or
more active sources. In such cases, the theorem considers each source separately to evaluate
the current through or voltage across a component. The resultant is given by the algebraic
sum of all currents or voltages caused by each source acting independently. Superposition
theorem can be formally stated
as follows:
“The current through or voltage across any element in a linear circuit containing several
sources is the algebraic sum of the currents or voltages due to each source acting alone, all
other sources being removed at that time.”
23. Please elaborate Thévenin’s Theorem?
Thévenin’s theorem provides a useful tool when solving complex and large electric circuits
by reducing them to a single voltage source in series with a resistor. It is particularly
advantageous where a single resistor or load in a circuit is subject to change. Formally, the
Thévenin’s theorem can be stated as:
“Any two-terminal linear electric circuit consisting of resistors and sources, can be re-placed
by an equivalent circuit containing a single voltage source in series with a resistor connected
across the load.”
he following steps outline the procedure to simplify an electric circuit using Thévenin’s
theorem
where VTH and RTH are the Thévenin’s voltage and Thévenin’s resistance respectively.

1. Remove the load resistance RL.
2. VTH is the open circuit (OC) voltage across the load terminals and
3. RTH is the resistance across the load terminals with all sources replaced by their internal
resistances.
24. State and define Norton’s Theorem?

Thévenin’s equivalent circuit is a practical voltage source. In contrast, Norton’s equivalent
circuit is a practical current source. This can be formally stated as:
“Any two-terminal, linear circuit, of resistors and sources, can be replaced by a single
current source in parallel with a resistor.”
To determine Norton’s equivalent circuit, Norton current, IN , and Norton resistance, RN ,

are required. The following steps outline the procedure required:
1. Remove the load resistance, RL.

2. IN is the SC current through the load terminals and
3. RN is the resistance across the load terminals with all sources replaced by their internal
resistances. Clearly RN = RTH .
25. What is the method to solve circuit using Source Transformation?
In an electric circuit, it is often convenient to have a voltage source rather than a current
source (e.g. in mesh analysis) or vice versa. This is made possible using source
transformations. It should be noted that only practical voltage and current sources can be
transformed. In other words, a Thévenin’s equivalent circuit is transformed into a Norton’s
one or vice versa. The parameters used in the source
transformation are given as follows.
Thévenin parameters: VTH ,RTH =⇒ RN = RTH ,IN = VTH/RTH
Norton parameters: IN ,RN =⇒ RTH = RN ,VTH = RN IN
Any load resistance, RL will have the same voltage across, and current through it when
connected across the terminals of either source.
26. What is Maximum Power Transfer Theorem?
As discussed in the section on Thévenin’s theorem, any DC network of sources and

resistances can be replaced by a single voltage source in series with a resistance connected
across the load:
The maximum power transfer theorem states that the power delivered to the load is maximum
when the load resistance, RL is equal to the internal (source) resistance, Rs of the DC power
supply.
In other words, it can be said that the load resistance must match the Thévenin’s resistance
for maximum power transfer to take place i.e.,
(Rs = RTH )= RL
When this occurs, the voltage across the load resistance will be Vs/2 and the power delivered
to the load is given by

which clearly demonstrates maximum power delivered when Rs = RL. Under this condition,
the maximum power will be:
27. Define Super node?
A supernode exists when an ideal voltage source appears between any two nodes of an
electric circuit. The usual way to solve this is to write KCL equations for both nodes and
simply add them together into one equation ignoring the voltage source in question.However,
this would mean one less equation than the number of variables (node voltages) present in the
circuit. A constraint equation can be easily specified given by the magnitude of the ideal
voltage source present between the nodes and the respective node voltages. The following
example will help clarify this scenario.
28. What does the term Super mesh means?
A supermesh exists when an ideal current source appears between two meshes of an electric
circuit. In such a situation, like supernode, mesh equations are written for the meshesinvolved
and added giving a single equation. Again, there would be one less equation than the number
of variables (mesh currents) and hence a constraint equation is needed. This would be based
on the magnitude of the ideal current source present between the two meshes and their mesh
currents.
29. What do you mean by Phasors?
Addition of two out-of-phase sinusoidal signals is rather complicated in the time domain. An
example could be the sum of voltages across a series connection of a resistor and an inductor.
Phasors simplify this analysis by considering only the amplitude and phase components the
sine wave. Moreover, they can be solved using complex algebra or treated vectorially using a
vector diagram.
30. What does the term Power Factor shows?
The term cos φ is called the power factor and is an important parameter in determining the
amount of actual power dissipated in the load. In practice, power factor is used to specify the
characteristics of a load.
For a purely resistive load φ =0 Degree, hence Unity Power Factor

For a capacitive type load I leads V , hence Leading power factor
For an inductive type load I lags V , hence Lagging power factor
Clearly, for a fixed amount of demanded power, P , at a constant load voltage, V , a higher
power factor draws less amount of current and hence low I2R losses in the transmission lines.
A purely reactive load where φ → 900 and cos φ → 0 will draw an excessively large amount
of current and a power factor correction is required.
31. Differentiate between Real and Apparent Power?
It is important to highlight that in AC circuits, the product of voltage and current yields the
apparent power which is measured in volt-amperes or VA
KW which is also written ad Kilo-Watt is the real power that is actually converted to the
useful work.
KVAR is also termed as Kilo-Volt Reactive this power is used for magnetic field excitation
and flows back and forth between source and load.
32.What does Bode Plots shows?
Bode plots are a graphical way to display the behavior of a circuit over a wide range of
frequencies. By plotting the amplitude and phase versus the logarithm of frequency, each unit
of change on the ω axis is equal to a factor of 10 also called a decade of frequency. Also,
there may be a wide distribution in the amplitude response over a specified range of
frequencies. The usual way is to plot the amplitude in dB and phase in degrees or radians
versus the logarithm of frequency.
33.Differentiate between Low Pass, High pass and Band Pass filter?
Filters form a vital part in electrical networks especially where a particular frequency range is
of prime concern. For instance, a radio station is broadcasting a transmission at a frequency
of 100 MHz. This means that it is required to design a receiving filter which allows only 100
MHz frequency to pass hrough whilst other frequencies are filtered out. An ideal filter will
attenuate all signals with frequencies less than and greater than 100 MHz thus providing the
best channel sound quality without any distortion.
Low Pass Filter
A low pass Filter allows low frequencies to pass through the circuit whereas high frequencies
are severely attenuated or blocked.
High Pass Filter
A high pass filter, as the name suggests, allows high frequencies to pass through the circuit
whilst low frequencies are attenuated or blocked. The cut-off point or bandwidth concept is
the same as in the low pass filter.
Band Pass Filter
A band pass filter permits a certain band of frequencies to pass through the network which is
adjusted by the designer. It is simply an amalgamation of a low pass and a high pass filter.
34. What is Corkscrew Rule?

As current flows along a wire, the magnetic field rotates in the direction of a corkscrew.
35. What does Ampere turns shows?
mmf A coil of N turns carrying a current I amps gives an mmf of N I ampere turns In a
vacuum, a magnetizing force of 1 ampere turn / metre produces a magnetic field of 1.26*10^-
6 tesla.
36. Differentiate between Magnetic field and Magnetic Flux?
Magnetic field is B = µ H where B is in tesla and H = 1.26 x 10-6 times ampere turns/metre
MMF in a solenoid of N turns and current I mmf = (4 m / 10) N I Gilberts.
Whereas Magnetic flux ø= B A where ø is in weber, B is in tesla and A is in square meters.
Magnetic flux in a uniform closed magnetic circuit, length L meters and cross section A
square meters is =1.26NItAx10^-6/Lweber.
37.What is Force on a conductor in a magnetic field ?
F = B I L Newtons where B in tesla, I in amps and L in meters
38.What is force on parallel conductors ?
F = [2 I2 / d] 10-' Newtons/meter where I is in amps and d is in meters With currents in

opposite directions, the force is pushing the conductors apart
39.What do you mean by Pull of Electromagnet?
Pu11= B2 107 / (8 ) Newtons per m2 of magnet force where B is in tesla
40.How would you calculate Power loss in a resistor?
W = I2 R = V2 / R
41.At what factor Resistance R of a conductor depends?
R = p L (1 + αT) / A ohms where p is resistivity in ohms per cm cube, L cm is the length, A

in cm2 is the cross sectional area, α is temp co-efficient and T is the temperature in degrees
Celsius.
Several sources give Copper p = 1.7 * 10-6 ohms per cm cube and α = 0.004. At very low
Temperatures, the resistance of some materials falls to zero
42.Differentiate between Kirchhoff’s First law and Kirchhoff’s Second law?
Kirchhoff’s First law is the total current leaving a point on an electrical circuit = total current
entering
Kirchhoff’s Second law The sum of the voltages round any circuit = net "I R" drop in the
circuit
43.Differentiate between Induced emf and Self inductance?

Induced emf , E = - N dø/dt where E is in volts, N is number of turns and dø/dt is in Wb/sec
This equation is the foundation on which Electrical Engineering is based.
Whereas Self Inductance E = - L dI/dt where E is in volts, L is inductance in henneries and
dI/dt is in amps/sec Self inductance of a coil wound on a ring of permeability is L = 1.26 N2
μ A / S x 10-6 Henneries where N is number of turns, A is cross sectional area in m2 and S
meters is the length of the magnetic circuit. Experimental results for a coil of length S meters,
diameter d meters and radial thickness t meters with at core indicate L = 3 d2 N2 / (1.2 d +
3.5 S + 4 t) micro Henneries. (t = 0 for a single layer coil).
44.How to calculate Energy stored in an inductance?
Energy stored =1/2 L I2 Joules where L is in henries and I is in amps
45.How to calculate Energy stored in a capacitance
= 1/2 C V2 Joules where C is in farads and V in volts
46.At what base you will tell the direction of rotation of DC Motors and Generators?
Motors obey the left hand rule and generators the right hand rule

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BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Loop 1: -Vs +V1 +V2 +V5 = 0 (1a)

G. ANJANEYULU, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

Figure1 yields the following equations;

G. ANJANEYULU, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

G. ANJANEYULU, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

Circuit Diagram of Series Resonance:

G. ANJANEYULU, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

G. ANJANEYULU, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

G. ANJANEYULU, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

S.no Frequency Current

S.no Frequency Current

Series resonance Parallel Resonance

Theoretical Practical Theoretical Practical

G. ANJANEYULU, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

1. Making loose connections are to be avoided

G. ANJANEYULU, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

S.no Name of the equipment Range Type Quantity

6 CRO Probes As required

For RL Series circuit, time constant T= L/R

For RC Series circuit, Time constant r = RC

G. ANJANEYULU, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

G. ANJANEYULU, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

Series resonance Parallel Resonance

Theoretical Practical Theoretical Practical

Time constant (T)

1. Making loose connections are to be avoided

G. ANJANEYULU, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

TWO PORT NETWORK PARAMETERS – Z – Y PARAMETERS,

S.no Name of the Range Type Quantity

3 Connecting wires As Required

G. ANJANEYULU, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

Calculation of Z12 and Z22

Calculation of Y11 and Y21

G. ANJANEYULU, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

Open Circuit Impedance Parameters (Z-Parameters):

G. ANJANEYULU, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

1. Open Circuiting Output Terminals (I2 = 0):

G. ANJANEYULU, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

Z11 Z12 Z21 Z22 Y11 Y12 Y21 Y22

1. Avoid making loose connections.

G. ANJANEYULU, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

TWO PORT NETWORK PARAMETERS – A, B, C, D & HYBRID

S.no Name of the Range Type Quantity

3 Connecting wires As Required

G. ANJANEYULU, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

CALCULATION OF H11 And H21

Calculation of h12 and h22

G. ANJANEYULU, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

ABCD parameters can be defined by the following equations

If port 2-21 is open circuited i.e., I2=0 then

A is called reverse voltage ratio and C is known as transfer admittance.

B is called transfer impedance and D is called reverse current ratio.

Hybrid Parameters (h-Parameters):

G. ANJANEYULU, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

If port 2-21 is short circuited, i.e. V2 = 0 then

1. To find A and C Parameters (I2 = 0):

G. ANJANEYULU, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

1. Avoid making loose connections.

G. ANJANEYULU, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

MAX POWER TRANSFER THEOREM:

G. ANJANEYULU, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

FIG. MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM

G. ANJANEYULU, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR