ESSENTIAL COMPONENTS OF INDICATING INSTRUMENTS

What are indicating instruments?

  Indicating instruments indicate, generally the quantity to be measured by means
of a pointer which moves on a scale, they give instantaneous values of quantity to be
measured. In terms of electrical or electronic sense the examples of indicating instrument are
ammeter, voltmeter, wattmeter etc.

An indicating instrument

Essentials of electrical indicating instruments includes three types of torques to be

working on the systemin order to measure the quantity. These torques are:
1. A deflecting or operating torque, Td
2. A controlling torque, Tc
3. A damping torque, Tv
The balance of these torques over the pointer indicates the measured value.

1. Deflecting Torque:
It is the torque which deflects pointer in a calibrated scale according to electrical
quantity passing through the instrument. It causes the moving system of the instrument to
move from its zero position to indicate the value of the electrical quantity being measured on a
graduated scale. The actual method of producing the deflecting torque depends upon the type
of instrument. This deflecting torque can be produced by various methods.
Ways to Obtain Deflecting Torque:
i. Magnetic field effect ii. Electric field effect
iii. Heating or thermal effect iv. Electromagnetic induction effect
v. Chemical effect
 vi. Hall effect (the production of a voltage difference across an electrical conductor, transverse
to an electric current in the conductor and to an applied magnetic field perpendicular to the
current)
vii. Piezo effect (the electric charge that accumulates in certain solid materials in response to
applied mechanical stress)

2. Controlling Torque:
The controlling torque developed in an instrument has two functions:
(a) It limits the movement of the moving pointer and ensures that the magnitude of the
deflections
always remains the same for a given value of the quantity to be measured.
(b) It brings back the moving system to its zero position where the quantity being measured is
removed or made zero.
If the deflecting torque were acting alone, the pointer will continue to move indefinitely and
would swing over to the maximum deflected position irrespective of the magnitude of the
electrical quantity to be measured. This controlling torque should increase with the deflection
of the moving system. The pointer will be brought to rest at a position where the two opposing
torques are equal. i.e., Td = Tc.
The controlling torque can be provided,
I. By using one or more springs
II. By the weight of moving parts.
III. By means of a permanent magnet (magnetic control system).

I. By Using spring:
In spring control method, a spiral hairspring made of a non-magnetic material such as
phosphor bronze is attached to the moving system. When the pointer deflects the spring twists
in the opposite direction producing a restoring torque proportional to the angle of deflection of
the moving system. The pointer comes to rest when Td = Tc. When the deflecting torque is
uniform, spring control provides evenly spaced scale over the whole range.

In a PMMC instrument, the deflecting torque is directly proportional to current flowing through
the operating coil (Td α I). With spring control Tc α θ. In the final deflected position: Td = Tc.
Hence θ αI.  Tc = Cθ where C is spring constant. For the controlling torque to be proportional to
the angle of deflection, the spring should have large number of turns so that the angular
deformation per unit length, on full-scale deflection is small. The spring materials should have
the following properties:
o   Should be non-magnetic.
o   Not subjected to much fatigue.
o   Have low specific resistance – especially in cases where they are used for leading current in
or out of the instrument.
o   Have low temperature resistance coefficient.
Gravity Control:
In gravity controlled instruments a small adjustable weight is attached to the
spindle of the moving system such that the deflecting torque produced by the instrument has
to act against the action of gravity. This produces controlling torque. The controlling torque can
be varied quite easily by adjusting the position of controlling weight upon the arm. Another
adjustable weight is attached for zero adjustment and balancing purpose. This weight is called
balancing weight. When the control weight is in vertical position, the controlling torque is zero
and hence the pointer reads zero. But when the deflecting torque lifts the controlling weight
from one position to other such that the spindle rotates by an angle θ, then controlling torque
is exerted on the moving system.

The controlling (or restoring) torque, Tc, is given by Tc = Wl sin θ=k gsinθ. Where W – Control
weight, l – distance of control weight from axis of rotation of moving system, k g – gravity
constant. If deflecting torque is directly proportional to I, Td α I. I α sinθ the relation shows that
the current is proportional to sinθ and not θ. Hence in gravity controlled instruments, scale is
not uniform. It is cramped for lower readings, instead of being uniformly divided.

Advantages:
1. It is cheap and not affected by temperature variations.
2. It does not deteriorate with time.
3. It is not subject to fatigue. 

Disadvantages:
1. Since the controlling torque is proportional to the sine of the angle of deflection, the
scale is not uniformly divided 
2.  It is not suitable for use in portable instruments (multimeters, cable fault locators,
insulation and breakdown testers, clamp meters)
3. Gravity control instruments must be used in vertical position so that the control weight
may operate and also must be leveled otherwise they will give zero error .
3. Damping Torque:
If the moving system is acted upon by deflecting and controlling torques alone, then
due to inertia, the pointer will oscillate about its final deflected position for some time before
coming to rest. This oscillation makes it difficult to obtain quick and accurate reading. In order
to avoid these oscillations of the pointer and to bring it quickly to its final deflected position, a
damping torque is provided in the indicating instruments. The damping torque is proportional
to the speed of rotation of the moving system.
In a measuring instrument, the damping torque is necessary to bring the moving system to
rest to indicate steady reflection in a reasonable short time. It exists only as long as the pointer
is in motion. Under the absence of damping torque, the pointer oscillates for a short period of
time and comes to steady position.
The damping torque in indicating instruments can be provided by,
  Air- friction (In this type of damping a light vane or vanes having considerable area is
attached to the moving system to develop a frictional force opposing the motion by
reason of the air they displace)
  Fluid friction ( Mineral oil is used in place of air and as the viscosity of oil is greater, the
damping force is also much greater. The vane attached to the spindle is arranged to
move in
the damping oil)
   Eddy currents (in PMMC) (A sheet of aluminum falls slowly between the poles of a
magnet because induced currents in the sheet set up magnetic fields which oppose the
motion)
 Electromagnetic damping (This damping method is used in galvanometers.  The
movement of a coil in a magnetic field produces a current in the coil which interacts
with
the magnetic field to produce a torque. This torque opposes the movement of the coil
and
slows the response.)

The behavior of the moving system is decided by the degree of damping. The fig.  given below
shows the graph for under damping, over damping, and critical damping.

  Under damped moving system: - The pointer will oscillate about the final position for some
time, before coming to rest.
Over damped: -  The pointer will become slow and lethargic.
Critically damped: - The degree of damping is so that, the pointer comes up to the correct
reading quickly without passing beyond it or oscillating about it.
Conclusion: In order to understand working of indicating instruments basic understanding of
above three torques is compulsory as the balance of these torques over the pointer indicates
the measured value. These torques work accordingly in different types of indicating
instruments.