ATOMIC THEORY

Atomic Particles

An atom is the smallest unit of matter that retains all of the chemical properties of an element.
It combine to form molecules, which then interact to form solids, gases, or liquids. For
example, water is composed of hydrogen and oxygen atoms that have combined to form
water molecules. 

Atoms consist of three basic particles: protons, electrons, and neutrons. The nucleus (centre)
of the atom contains the protons (positively charged) and the neutrons (no charge).

The outermost regions of the atom are called electron shells and contain the electrons
(negatively charged). Atoms have different properties based on the arrangement and number
of their basic particles.

Atomic Mass

Protons and neutrons have approximately the same mass, about 1.67 × 10-24 grams. Scientists
define this amount of mass as one atomic mass unit (amu) or one Dalton. Although similar in
mass, protons are positively charged, while neutrons have no charge. Therefore, the number
of neutrons in an atom contributes significantly to its mass, but not to its charge.

Electrons are much smaller in mass than protons, weighing only 9.11 × 10-28 grams.

Atomic Number - The atomic number is the number of protons in an element.

Mass Number - The mass number is the number of protons plus the number of neutrons.

Rutherford Atomic Model

Based on the above observations and conclusions, Rutherford proposed the atomic structure
of elements. According to the Rutherford atomic model:

1. The positively charged particles and most of the mass of an atom was concentrated in
an extremely small volume. He called this region of the atom as a nucleus.
2. Rutherford model proposed that the negatively charged electrons surround the nucleus
of an atom. He also claimed that the electrons surrounding the nucleus revolve around
it with very high speed in circular paths. He named these circular paths as orbits.
3. Electrons being negatively charged and nucleus being a densely concentrated mass of
positively charged particles are held together by a strong electrostatic force of
attraction.

Limitations of Rutherford Atomic Model

Although the Rutherford atomic model was based on experimental observations it failed to
explain certain things.
  Rutherford proposed that the electrons revolve around the nucleus in fixed paths
called orbits. According to Maxwell, accelerated charged particles emit
electromagnetic radiations and hence an electron revolving around the nucleus should
emit electromagnetic radiation. This radiation would carry energy from the motion of
the electron which would come at the cost of shrinking of orbits. Ultimately the
electrons would collapse in the nucleus. Calculations have shown that as per the
Rutherford model, an electron would collapse in the nucleus in less than 10-8
seconds. So Rutherford model was not in accordance with Maxwell’s theory and
could not explain the stability of an atom.

 One of the drawbacks of the Rutherford model was also that he did not say anything
about the arrangement of electrons in an atom which made his theory incomplete.

 Although the early atomic models were inaccurate and failed to explain certain
experimental results, they were the base for future developments in the world of
quantum mechanics.

ENERGY BANDS
Due to the intermixing of atoms in solids, instead of single energy levels, there will be bands
of energy levels formed. These set of energy levels, which are closely packed are called
as Energy bands.

Valance Band

The electrons move in the atoms in certain energy levels but the energy of the electrons in
the innermost shell is higher than the outermost shell electrons. The electrons that are
present in the outermost shell are called as Valance Electrons.
These valance electrons, containing a series of energy levels, form an energy band which is
called as Valence Band. The valence band is the band having the highest occupied energy.

Rutherford’s Model of Atoms

Conduction Band

The valence electrons are so loosely attached to the nucleus that even at room temperature,
few of the valence electrons leave the band to be free. These are called as free electrons as
they tend to move towards the neighbouring atoms.
These free electrons are the ones which conduct the current in a conductor and hence called
as Conduction Electrons. The band which contains conduction electrons is called
as Conduction Band. The conduction band is the band having the lowest occupied energy.

Forbidden gap

The gap between valence band and conduction band is called as forbidden energy gap. As
the name implies, this band is the forbidden one without energy. Hence no electron stays in
this band. The valence electrons, while going to the conduction band, pass through this.
The forbidden energy gap if greater, means that the valence band electrons are tightly bound
to the nucleus. Now, in order to push the electrons out of the valence band, some external
energy is required, which would be equal to the forbidden energy gap.
The following figure shows the valence band, conduction band, and the forbidden gap.
Depending upon the size of the forbidden gap, the Insulators, the Semiconductors and the
Conductors are formed.

Insulators

Insulators are such materials in which the conduction cannot take place, due to the large
forbidden gap. Examples: Wood, Rubber etc. The structure of energy bands in Insulators is
as shown in the following figure.

Characteristics
The following are the characteristics of Insulators.
 The Forbidden energy gap is very large.
 Valance band electrons are bound tightly to atoms.
  The value of forbidden energy gap for an insulator will be of 10eV.
 For some insulators, as the temperature increases, they might show some conduction.
 The resistivity of an insulator will be in the order of 107 ohm-meter.

Semiconductors

Semiconductors are such materials in which the forbidden energy gap is small and the
conduction takes place if some external energy is applied. Examples: Silicon, Germanium.
The following figure shows the structure of energy bands in semiconductors.

Characteristics
The following are the characteristics of Semiconductors.
 The Forbidden energy gap is very small.
 The forbidden gap for Ge is 0.7eV whereas for Si is 1.1eV.
 A Semiconductor actually is neither an insulator, nor a good conductor.
 As the temperature increases, the conductivity of a semiconductor increases.
 The conductivity of a semiconductor will be in the order of 102 mho-meter.

Conductors
Conductors are such materials in which the forbidden energy gap disappears as the valence
band and conduction band become very close that they overlap. Examples: Copper,
Aluminum etc. The following figure shows the structure of energy bands in conductors.

Characteristics
The following are the characteristics of Conductors.
 There exists no forbidden gap in a conductor.
 The valance band and the conduction band gets overlapped.
 The free electrons available for conduction are plenty.
 A slight increase in voltage, increases the conduction.
 There is no concept of hole formation, as a continuous flow of electrons contribute
the current.

SEMICONDUCTOR THEORY

A semiconductor can be defined as a substance with properties of a conductor and insulator

both. It can conduct electricity under certain circumstances but not always.
Semiconductor is a material that has electrical conductivity greater than an insulator but less
than a conductor.The property of resistivity is not the only one that decides a material as a
semiconductor, but it has few properties as follows.
  Semiconductors have the resistivity which is less than insulators and more than
conductors.
 Semiconductors have negative temperature co-efficient. The resistance in
semiconductors, increases with the decrease in temperature and vice versa.
 The Conducting properties of a Semiconductor changes, when a suitable metallic
impurity is added to it, which is a very important property. The impurities added to
the material to change its electrical property are called “dopants” and the process of
adding impurities to the pure semiconductor material is called doping.

A semiconductor can help controlled flow of electricity. The basic function of such a device
is to switch ON and OFF the flow of electricity as and when required. A semiconductor
device can perform the function of a vacuum tube with hundreds of times its volume.
Semiconductor materials include – Silicon, antimony, arsenic, boron, carbon, germanium,
gallium arsenide, selenium, silicon carbide, sulfur, tellurium, oxides of most metals.
Transistors, diodes, thyristors, integrated circuits and many more devices all have
semiconductor technology in common.

Diode
Diodes are basic unidirectional semiconductor devices that will only allow current to flow
through them in one direction only, acting more like a one-way electrical valve.
It is a device that consists of a p-n junction.
Unlike a resistor, a diode does not behave linearly with respect to the applied voltage as it has
an exponential I-V relationship and therefore can not be described simply by using Ohm’s
law as we do for resistors.
They are used most commonly to convert AC to DC, because they pass the positive part of
the wave, and block the negative part of the AC signal, or, if they are reversed, they pass only
the negative part and not the positive part.
Transistor
A transistor is a device made of a solid piece of semiconductor material and is used to
amplify and switch electronic signals. A Transistor can be active in only One Direction and
can draw more or less current through its load resistor.

CLASSIFICATION OF SEMICONDUCTORS
Semiconductors are classified into two:

Conduction in Semiconductors
After having some knowledge on the electrons, we came to know that the outermost shell has
the valence electrons which are loosely attached to the nucleus. Such an atom, having valence
electrons when brought close to the other atom, the valence electrons of both these atoms
combine to form “Electron pairs”. This bonding is not so very strong and hence it is a
Covalent bond.

For example, a germanium atom has 32 electrons. 2 electrons in first orbit, 8 in second orbit,
18 in third orbit, while 4 in last orbit. These 4 electrons are valence electrons of germanium
atom. These electrons tend to combine with valence electrons of adjoining atoms, to form the
electron pairs, as shown in the following figure.

CONDUCTION
Creation of Hole
Due to the thermal energy supplied to the crystal, some electrons tend to move out of their
place and break the covalent bonds. These broken covalent bonds, result in free electrons
which wander randomly. But the moved away electrons creates an empty space or valence
behind, which is called as a hole.

This hole which represents a missing electron can be considered as a unit positive charge
while the electron is considered as a unit negative charge. The liberated electrons move
randomly but when some external electric field is applied, these electrons move in opposite
direction to the applied field. But the holes created due to absence of electrons, move in the
direction of applied field.

Hole Current
It is already understood that when a covalent bond is broken, a hole is created. Actually, there
is a strong tendency of semiconductor crystal to form a covalent bond. So, a hole doesn’t tend
to exist in a crystal. This can be better understood by the following figure, showing a
semiconductor crystal lattice.
An electron, when gets shifted from a place A, a hole is formed. Due to the tendency for the
formation of covalent bond, an electron from B gets shifted to A. Now, again to balance the
covalent bond at B, an electron gets shifted from C to B. This continues to build a path. This
movement of hole in the absence of an applied field is random. But when electric field is
applied, the hole drifts along the applied field, which constitutes the hole current. This is
called as hole current but not electron current because, the movement of holes contribute the
current flow.
Electrons and holes while in random motion, may encounter with each other, to form pairs.
This recombination results in the release of heat, which breaks another covalent bond. When
the temperature increases, the rate of generation of electrons and holes increase, thus rate of
recombination increases, which results in the increase of densities of electrons and holes. As
a result, conductivity of semiconductor increases and resistivity decreases, which means the
negative temperature coefficient.

1) Intrinsic Semiconductors
A Semiconductor in its extremely pure form is said to be an intrinsic semiconductor. The
properties of this pure semiconductor are as follows −

 The electrons and holes are solely created by thermal excitation.

 The number of free electrons is equal to the number of holes.
 The conduction capability is small at room temperature.

In order to increase the conduction capability of intrinsic semiconductor, it is better to add

some impurities. This process of adding impurities is called as Doping. Now, this doped
intrinsic semiconductor is called as an Extrinsic Semiconductor.
2) Extrinsic Semiconductor
These are impure semiconductors.
They are formed by doping a pure semiconductor with either a trivalent or a pentavalent
element. There are two types of extrinsic semiconductors depending upon the type of
impurity added. They are N-type extrinsic semiconductor and P-Type extrinsic
semiconductor.
Doping - This is adding impurities to the semiconductor materials. The impurities added, are
generally pentavalent and trivalent impurities.
There are two types of extrinsic semiconductors based on the impurity used in dopping.
These are;
i. N-type Semiconductor
ii. P-type Semiconductor

i) N-type Semiconductor
Doping a semiconductor with pentavalent impurity produce N-type Semiconductor.
The pentavalent impurities are the ones which has five valence electrons in the outer most
orbit. Example: Bismuth, Antimony, Arsenic, Phosphorus.
The pentavalent atom is called as a donor atom because it donates one electron to the
conduction band of pure semiconductor atom. When an electric field is applied to an N-type
semiconductor, to which a pentavalent impurity is added, the free electrons travel towards
positive electrode. This is called as negative or N-type conductivity.
For example, if Arsenic atom is added to the germanium atom, four of the valence electrons
get attached with the Ge atoms while one electron remains as a free electron. This is as shown
in the following figure.

ii) P-type Semiconductor

A small amount of trivalent impurity is added to a pure semiconductor to result in P-type
extrinsic semiconductor.
The trivalent impurities are the ones which has three valence electrons in the outer most orbit.
Example: Gallium, Indium, Aluminium, Boron etc.
The trivalent atom is called as an acceptor atom because it accepts one electron from the
semiconductor atom.
The added impurity has 3 valence electrons. For example, if Boron atom is added to the
germanium atom, three of the valence electrons get attached with the Ge atoms, to form three
covalent bonds. But, one more electron in germanium remains without forming any bond. As
there is no electron in boron remaining to form a covalent bond, the space is treated as a hole.
This is as shown in the following figure.
In P-type extrinsic semiconductor, as the conduction takes place through holes, the holes are
majority carriers while the electrons are minority carriers.
The impurity added here provides holes which are called as acceptors, because they accept
electrons from the germanium atoms.
As the number of mobile holes remains equal to the number of acceptors, the Ptype
semiconductor remains electrically neutral.
When an electric field is applied to a P-type semiconductor, to which a trivalent impurity is
added, the holes travel towards negative electrode, but with a slow pace than electrons. This
is called as P-type conductivity.

Why Silicon is Preferred in Semiconductors?

Among the semiconductor materials like germanium and silicon, the extensively used
material for manufacturing various electronic components is Silicon Si. Silicon is preferred
over germanium for many reasons such as −

 The energy band gap is 0.7ev, whereas it is 0.2ev for germanium.

 The thermal pair generation is smaller.
 The formation of SiO2 layer is easy for silicon, which helps in the manufacture of
many components along with integration technology.
 Si is easily found in nature than Ge.
 Noise is less in components made up of Si than in Ge.

Conduction in Semiconductors

After having some knowledge on the electrons, we came to know that the outermost shell
has the valence electrons which are loosely attached to the nucleus. Such an atom, having
valence electrons when brought close to the other atom, the valence electrons of both these
atoms combine to form “Electron pairs”. This bonding is not so very strong and hence it is
a Covalent bond.
For example, a germanium atom has 32 electrons. 2 electrons in first orbit, 8 in second orbit,
18 in third orbit, while 4 in last orbit. These 4 electrons are valence electrons of germanium
atom. These electrons tend to combine with valence electrons of adjoining atoms, to form
the electron pairs, as shown in the following figure.

Creation of Hole

Due to the thermal energy supplied to the crystal, some electrons tend to move out of their
place and break the covalent bonds. These broken covalent bonds, result in free electrons
which wander randomly. But the moved away electrons creates an empty space or valence
behind, which is called as a hole.
This hole which represents a missing electron can be considered as a unit positive charge
while the electron is considered as a unit negative charge. The liberated electrons move
randomly but when some external electric field is applied, these electrons move in opposite
direction to the applied field. But the holes created due to absence of electrons, move in the
direction of applied field.

Hole Current

It is already understood that when a covalent bond is broken, a hole is created. Actually,
there is a strong tendency of semiconductor crystal to form a covalent bond. So, a hole
doesn’t tend to exist in a crystal. This can be better understood by the following figure,
showing a semiconductor crystal lattice.
An electron, when gets shifted from a place A, a hole is formed. Due to the tendency for the
formation of covalent bond, an electron from B gets shifted to A. Now, again to balance the
covalent bond at B, an electron gets shifted from C to B. This continues to build a path. This
movement of hole in the absence of an applied field is random. But when electric field is
applied, the hole drifts along the applied field, which constitutes the hole current. This is
called as hole current but not electron current because, the movement of holes contribute the
current flow.
Electrons and holes while in random motion, may encounter with each other, to form pairs.
This recombination results in the release of heat, which breaks another covalent bond. When
the temperature increases, the rate of generation of electrons and holes increase, thus rate of
recombination increases, which results in the increase of densities of electrons and holes. As
a result, conductivity of semiconductor increases and resistivity decreases, which means the
negative temperature coefficient.

Intrinsic Semiconductors

A Semiconductor in its extremely pure form is said to be an intrinsic semiconductor. The

properties of this pure semiconductor are as follows −

 The electrons and holes are solely created by thermal excitation.

 The number of free electrons is equal to the number of holes.
 The conduction capability is small at room temperature.
In order to increase the conduction capability of intrinsic semiconductor, it is better to add
some impurities. This process of adding impurities is called as Doping. Now, this doped
intrinsic semiconductor is called as an Extrinsic Semiconductor.
Doping
The process of adding impurities to the semiconductor materials is termed as doping. The
impurities added, are generally pentavalent and trivalent impurities.
Pentavalent Impurities
 The pentavalent impurities are the ones which has five valence electrons in the outer
most orbit. Example: Bismuth, Antimony, Arsenic, Phosphorus
 The pentavalent atom is called as a donor atom because it donates one electron to the
conduction band of pure semiconductor atom.
Trivalent Impurities
 The trivalent impurities are the ones which has three valence electrons in the outer
most orbit. Example: Gallium, Indium, Aluminum, Boron
 The trivalent atom is called as an acceptor atom because it accepts one electron from
the semiconductor atom.
Extrinsic Semiconductor

An impure semiconductor, which is formed by doping a pure semiconductor is called as

an extrinsic semiconductor. There are two types of extrinsic semiconductors depending
upon the type of impurity added. They are N-type extrinsic semiconductor and P-Type
extrinsic semiconductor.
N-Type Extrinsic Semiconductor
A small amount of pentavalent impurity is added to a pure semiconductor to result in Ntype
extrinsic semiconductor. The added impurity has 5 valence electrons.
For example, if Arsenic atom is added to the germanium atom, four of the valence electrons
get attached with the Ge atoms while one electron remains as a free electron. This is as
shown in the following figure.

All of these free electrons constitute electron current. Hence, the impurity when added to
pure semiconductor, provides electrons for conduction.
 In N-type extrinsic semiconductor, as the conduction takes place through electrons,
the electrons are majority carriers and the holes are minority carriers.
 As there is no addition of positive or negative charges, the electrons are electrically
neutral.
  When an electric field is applied to an N-type semiconductor, to which a pentavalent
impurity is added, the free electrons travel towards positive electrode. This is called
as negative or N-type conductivity.
P-Type Extrinsic Semiconductor
A small amount of trivalent impurity is added to a pure semiconductor to result in P-type
extrinsic semiconductor. The added impurity has 3 valence electrons. For example, if Boron
atom is added to the germanium atom, three of the valence electrons get attached with the
Ge atoms, to form three covalent bonds. But, one more electron in germanium remains
without forming any bond. As there is no electron in boron remaining to form a covalent
bond, the space is treated as a hole. This is as shown in the following figure.

The boron impurity when added in a small amount, provides a number of holes which helps
in the conduction. All of these holes constitute hole current.
 In P-type extrinsic semiconductor, as the conduction takes place through holes, the
holes are majority carriers while the electrons are minority carriers.
 The impurity added here provides holes which are called as acceptors, because they
accept electrons from the germanium atoms.
  As the number of mobile holes remains equal to the number of acceptors, the Ptype
semiconductor remains electrically neutral.
 When an electric field is applied to a P-type semiconductor, to which a trivalent
impurity is added, the holes travel towards negative electrode, but with a slow pace
than electrons. This is called as P-type conductivity.
 In this P-type conductivity, the valence electrons move from one covalent bond to
another, unlike N-type.
Why Silicon is Preferred in Semiconductors?
Among the semiconductor materials like germanium and silicon, the extensively used
material for manufacturing various electronic components is Silicon SiSi. Silicon is
preferred over germanium for many reasons such as −
 The energy band gap is 0.7ev, whereas it is 0.2ev for germanium.
 The thermal pair generation is smaller.
 The formation of SiO2 layer is easy for silicon, which helps in the manufacture of
many components along with integration technology.
 Si is easily found in nature than Ge.
 Noise is less in components made up of Si than in Ge.

Types of Semiconductors
Semiconductors are of 2 Types:
An N-type semiconductor is one that carries current in the form of negatively-charged
electrons. This is very similar to conduction of current in a wire.
A P-type semiconductor is one that carries current predominantly as electron deficiencies
called holes. A hole has a positive electric charge. This charge is equal and opposite to the
charge on an electron. These holes flow in the opposite direction of electrons.
Charge carrier - Charge carrier is a free a free (mobile, unbound) particle carrying an
electric charge, e.g. an electron or a hole.
Conductor - A material in which electrons can move freely and electricity can flow.
Electron - A sub-atomic particle carrying a negative charge.
Hole - The absence of a valence electron in a semiconductor crystal. The motion of a hole is
equivalent to motion of a positive charge, i.e., opposite to the motion of an electron.
Insulator - A material in which there are no free electrons available to carry electricity.
Majority carrier - Current carriers, either free electrons or holes that are in excess i.e. in
the majority in a specific area of a semiconductor material. Electrons are the majority carriers
in N-type semiconductor, and holes in a P-type area.
Minority carrier - Current carriers, either free electrons or holes that are in the minority in
a specific area of a semiconductor material
Bipolar transistors are mainly formed of two layers of semiconductor material of the
opposite type, connected back-to-back. The type of impurity added to silicon or germanium
decides the polarity when it is formed.

NPN Transistor

An NPN transistor is composed of two N type material separated by a thin layer of P type
semiconductor material. The crystal structure and schematic symbol of the NPN transistor
are shown in the above figure.

There are three leads taken out from each type of material recognized as the emitter, base,
and collector. In the symbol, when the arrowhead of the emitter is directed outwards from
the base, it indicates that the device is of the NPN type.

PNP Transistor

A PNP transistor is composed of two P type material separated by a thin layer of N type
semiconductor material. The crystal structure and schematic symbol of a PNP transistor is
shown below.
In the symbol, when the arrowhead of the emitter is directed inwards towards the base, it
indicates that the device is of the PNP type.

TRANSISTOR CONFIGURATIONS
There are three types of circuit connections (called configurations or modes) for operating a
transistor. They are
(i) common emitter (CE) mode
(ii) and common base (CB) mode
(iii) common collector (CC) mode.

The term common is used to denote the lead that is common to the input and output circuits.
The different modes are shown in Fig  for NPN transistor.
In a similar way, three configurations can be drawn for PNP transistor.
 
Current Amplification Factors α and β and the relation between them
 The current amplification factor or current gain of a transistor is the ratio of output current to
the input current. If the transistor is connected in common base mode, the current gain α = IC
/  IE and if the transistor is connected in common emitter mode, the current gain β = IC /IB .
Since, 95% of the injected electrons reach the collector, the collector current is almost equal
to the emitter current. Almost all transistors have � , in the range 0.95 to 0.99.

We know that
α = IC /IE =IC /(IB+IC)
1/ α = (IB+IC) / IC
( 1/ α ) - 1 = 1/ β
β =  α / (1- α)
Usually, β lies between 50 and 300. Some transistors have β as high as 1000.
 
1) COMMON EMITTER CONFIGURATION
Characteristics of an NPN transistor in Common Emitter Configuration
The three important characteristics of a transistor in any mode are
(iv) input characteristics
(v) output characteristics and
(vi) transfer characteristics.
 The circuit to study the characteristic curves of NPN transistor in common emitter mode is
as shown in Fig.
(i) Input characteristics
Input characteristic curve is drawn between the base current (I B) and voltage between base
and emitter (VBE), when the voltage between collector and emitter (VCE) is kept constant at a
particular value. VBE is increased in suitable equal steps and corresponding base current is
noted. The procedure is repeated for different values of VCE.
IB values are plotted against VBE for constant VCE. The input characteristic thus obtained is
shown in Fig.The input impedance of the transistor is defined as the ratio of small change in
base - emitter voltage to the corresponding change in base current at a given VCE.

The input impedance of the transistor is defined as the ratio of small change in base - emitter
voltage to the corresponding change in base current at a given VCE.
∴ Input impedance, r1 = (∆VBE/∆IB) VCE
The input impedance of the transistor in CE mode is very high.
(ii) Output characteristics 
Output characteristic curves are drawn between I C and VCE, when IB is kept constant at a
particular value.
 
The base current IB is kept at a constant value, by adjusting the base emitter voltage
VBE. VCE is increased in suitable equal steps and the corresponding collector current is
noted. The procedure is repeated for different values of IB. Now, Ic versus VCE curves
are drawn for different values of IB. The output characteristics thus obtained are
represented in Fig. The three regions of the characteristics can be discussed as follows:
Saturation region: The initial part of the curve (ohmic region, OA) is called saturation
region. (i.e) The region in between the origin and knee point. (Knee point is the point, where
Ic is about to become a constant).
Cut off region : There is very small collector current in the transistor, even when the base
current is zero (IB = 0). In the output characteristics, the region below the curve for I B = 0 is
called cut off region. Below the cut off region, the transistor does not function.
Active region:  The central region of the curves is called active region. In the active region,
the curves are uniform. In this region, E-B junction is forward biased and C-B junction is
reverse biased.
The output impedance ro is defined as the ratio of variation in the collector emitter voltage
to the corresponding variation in the collector current at a constant base current in the active
region of the transistor characteristic curves.
output impedence, ro = (∆VCE/ ∆IC)IB
The output impedance of a transistor in CE mode is low.
(iii) Transfer characteristics
The transfer characteric curve is drawn between I C and IB, when VCE is kept constant at a
particular value. The base current IB is increased in suitable steps and the collector current IC
is noted down for each value of IB. The transfer characteristic curve is shown in Fig.
The current gain is defined as the ratio of a small change in the collector current to the
corresponding change in the base current at a constant VCE.
Current gain, β = (∆IC/ ∆IB)VcE
The common emitter configuration has high input impedance, low output impedance and
higher current gain when compared with common base configuration.
Characteristics of an NPN transistor in common emitter configuration

2) COMMON BASE(CB) CONFIGURATION

In common base configuration circuit is shown in figure. Here base is grounded and it is used
as the common terminal for both input and output.
It is also called as grounded base configuration. Emitter is used as a input terminal where as
collector is the output terminal.

Input characteristics:
It is defined as the characteristic curve drawn between input voltage to input current whereas
output voltage is constant.
To determine input characteristics, the collector base voltage VCB is kept constant at zero
and emitter current IE is increased from zero by increasing VEB. This is repeated for higher
fixed values of VCB.
 
A curve is drawn between emitter current and emitter base voltage at constant collector base
voltage is shown in figure below. When VCB is zero EB junctions is forward biased. So it
behaves as a diode so that emitter current increases rapidly.
Output Characteristics
It is defined as the characteristic curve drawn between output voltage to output current
whereas input current is constant.To determine output characteristics, the emitter current IE is
kept constant at zero and collector current Ic is increased from zero by increasing VCB.This
is repeated for higher fixed values of IE.
From the characteristic it is seen that for a constant value of IE, Ic is independent of VCB and
the curves are parallel to the axis of VCB.As the emitter base junction is forward biased the
majority carriers that is electrons from the emitter region are injected into the base region.
In CB configuration a variation of the base-collector voltage results in a variation of the
quasi- neutral width in the base. The gradient of the minority-carrier density in the base
therefore changes, yielding an increased collector current as the collector-base current is
increased. This effect is referred to as the Early effect.
3) COMMON COLLECTOR CONFIGURATION
In common collector configuration circuit is shown in figure. Here collector is grounded and
it is used as the common terminal for both input and output. It is also called as grounded
collector configuration. Base is used as a input terminal whereas emitter is the output
terminal.
 Input Characteristics
It is defined as the characteristic curve drawn between input voltage to input current whereas
output voltage is constant.
To determine input characteristics, the emitter base voltage VEB is kept constant at zero and
base current IB is increased from zero by increasing VBC.This is repeated for higher fixed
values of VCE.A curve is drawn between base current and base emitter voltage at constant
collector base voltage is shown in figure2.17.

Output Characteristics
It is defined as the characteristic curve drawn between output voltage to output current
whereas input current is constant.
To determine output characteristics, the base current IB is kept constant at zero and emitter
current IE is increased from zero by increasing VEC. This is repeated for higher fixed values
of IB.
From the characteristic it is seen that for a constant value of IB, IE is independent of
VEB and the curves are parallel to the axis of VEC.
 
A comparison of CB, CE and CC Configurations

TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIER

The important function of a transistor is the amplification. An amplifier is a circuit capable of

magnifying the amplitude of weak signals. The important parameters of an amplifier are input
impedance, output impedance, current gain and voltage gain. A good design of an amplifier
circuit must possess high input impedance, low output impedance and high current gain.

Operating point

For the given values of the load resistance Rc and supply voltage Vcc, two points A (VCC, 0)
and B (0,Vcc/Rc) are located on the axes of VCE and IC respectively, of the output
characteristics of the transistor (Fig ).
Joining A and B, load line AB is obtained. The point of intersection Q of this line in the
active region of the output characteristics with a suitable value of the base current IB, such
that the output voltage is symmetrical is called operating point or quiescent point for the
amplifier. IB(Q) is the input base current at the operating point. VCE(Q) and IC(Q) are the
collector to emitter voltage and the collector current respectively at the operating point.

Working

A basic circuit of an amplifier in common emitter mode with NPN transistor is shown in Fig.
The emitter-base junction is forward biased by a supply voltage VBB. The input ac signal to
be amplified is applied between base and emitter of the transistor. RC is the load resistance.
The amplifying action of a transistor can be explained as follows. When the a.c. signal is not
applied, the base current is available in small quantity in microamperes, which is represented
by OP and the corresponding collector current in milliamperes is represented by PQ (Q is the
operating point).

When the ac signal voltage is applied, the potential difference between the base and emitter
changes continuously. This results in increase of base current (IB) from OP to OA, then
decrease of base current from OA to OP (during positive half cycles of he input a.c. voltage)
and then to PB and once again increase from OB to OP (during negative half cycle of the
input a.c. voltage) for each cycle of the input signal voltage. This variation in base current is
reflected in the collector current as shown in Fig.

The collector current (IC) increases from PQ to AA1, falls from AA1 to BB1and again
increases from BB1 to PQ. Thus a variation in the base current in micro amperes produces a
corresponding variation in the collector current in milliamperes. This produces a
corresponding potential difference across RC. The increase of potential difference across Rc
makes a decrease in the output voltage.

Therefore, there is always a phase reversal of 180o between the input and output voltages in
CE amplifier.
TRANSISTOR AS A SWITCH

Transistors are widely used in switching operations. In the Fig, NPN transistor is connected
in common emitter configuration and a resistor RB is connected in series with the base. The
load resistance Rc is connected in series with the collector. A pulse type waveform is applied
as the input to the transistor through RB. When the input is high, base emitter junction is
forward biased and current flows through RB into the base. The values of RB and RC are
chosen in such a manner that that the base current flowing, is enough to saturate the
transistor. When the transistor is saturated, it is said to be ON (maximum current). When the
input is low (i.e.) at 0 V, the base emitter junction is not forward biased. So, no base current
flows. Hence the transistor is said to be OFF.

TRANSISTOR BIASING

In order to amplify the input signal using a transistor, the signal is to be applied at an
operating point called Q point in the active region. Once the operating point is established, its
position should not change. If the Q point shifts near the saturation line or near cut off region
of the output characteristics, the signal will be distorted after amplification.

  The proper selection of operating point of a transistor and maintenance of proper emitter
voltage during the passage of the signal is known as transistor biasing.

  The most commonly used methods of obtaining transistor biasing are

(i) base bias,

(ii) base bias with emitter feedback, (iii)
(iii) base bias with collector feedback and (iv)
(iv) voltage divider bias.
 The principle involved in all these types is to obtain the required base current corresponding
to the operating point under zero signal conditions.

 In all the bias circuits except voltage divider bias, the collector current depends on the
current gain (β) of the transistor. But β of a transistor is very sensitive to temperature
changes. For this reason, it is desirable to have a bias circuit whose action is independent
of β. The requirement is met by the voltage divider bias circuit.

Voltage Divider Bias

This is the most widely used method of providing bias and stabilization to a transisitor. In this
method, two resistances R1 and R2 are connected across the supply voltage VCC (Fig) and
provide biasing. The emitter resistance RE provides stabilization. The voltage drop across
R2 forward biases the base emitter junction. This causes the base current and hence collector
current to flow in zero signal conditions.

The stabilization provided by RE can be explained as follows. Since β is very sensitive to

temperature changes, the collector current IC increases with rise in temperature.
Consequently, it can be seen that IE increases. This will cause the voltage drop across emitter
resistance RE to increase. The voltage drop across R2 = VBE + VRE. As voltage drop across
R2 is independent of IC, VBE decreases. This decreases IB and the reduced value of IB tends to
bring back IC to the original value. Hence any variation of β will have no effect on the
operating point.