Chapter - 8

i.e., the areal velocity of the planet

Gravitation around the sun is constant.
Proof:
Ptolemy about 2000 years ago
introduced the ‘geocentric’ model to
explain the motion of planets.
Later Copernicus (1473 – 1543) put
forward the ‘heliocentric theory’ in
which the sun is at the centre of the
planetary system.

Let a planet P is at ‘A’ at t = 0 and

travels to ‘B’ in a time interval ∆t. Let
∆A be the area covered during this
time.
 From figure,
1 2
A= r 
2
Dividing by ∆t on both sides,
A 1 2 
Kepler’s laws of planetary = r
t 2 t
motion Taking limits as ∆t→ 0 on both sides,
A 1 
Kepler’s first law (Law of orbit)
lim = r 2 lim
 t 0 t 2  t 0  t
dA 1 d
= r2
dt 2 dt
dA 1
= r 2
dt 2
m r 2
=
2m
L
=
2m
“Every planet revolves round
the sun in an elliptical orbit with sun dA L
i.e., =
at one of its foci”. dt 2m
The gravitational force is acting
Kepler’s Second Law (Law of Area) along the line joining the sun and the
planet (or it is a central force). So the
“The radius vector drawn from torque on the planet about the sun is
the sun to the planet sweeps out zero.
equal areas in equal intervals of
time”

SAJU K JOHN, M.Sc. Physics, NET, Doctoral Research Fellow at NIT Calicut 1
Since τ = 0, L = Constant When earth approaches the
dA L perihelion, its speed increases.
 = = Constant
dt 2m Explain
Ans:
i.e., areal velocity of the planet is
constant.

Kepler’s Third Law (Law of Period)

“The square of the time

period of revolution of the planet
around the sun is proportional to
the cube of the semi-major axis of
the elliptical orbit” Pr.3: A Saturn year is 29.5 times the
earth year. How far is the saturn from
T2 α a3 the sun if the earth is 1.50 × 10 8 km
away from the sun?
Pr. 1: (i) A comet orbits round the sun
in a highly elliptical orbit. Does the Soln:
comet have a constant
a) Linear speed
b) Angular speed
c) Angular momentum
d) Kinetic energy
e) Potential energy
f) Total energy throughout the
orbit?
(ii) What are the consequences if the
angular momentum is conserved?
Soln:

Newton’s Universal Law of

Gravitation

According to Newton’s law of

Pr.2: Earth revolves around the sun in
elliptical orbit. The closest approach
of earth with the sun is called
perihelion.
gravitation, “everybody in the
universe attracts every other body
with a force which is directly
proportional to the product of their
masses and inversely proportional
to the square of the distance
between them.”

SAJU K JOHN, M.Sc. Physics, NET, Doctoral Research Fellow at NIT Calicut 2
 Vector form of Newton’s Law of
Gravitation

F α m1m2

1
F
r2
m1m2 G m1m2
F Hence F =
r2 r2

Where G is a constant called universal

gravitational constant
We have,
The value of G is 6.67 × 10-11 Nm2/
Kg2
 
r21 = - r12
And
Dimensional formula for G
G mm  
F 1 2 r12 = r21 or r12 = r21
ML T-2  L2  r2
G =  = M-1 L3 T-2 
M M G 
F r2 The gravitational force on m1 exerted
mm1 2 by m2 is
Definition of G
 G m1m2
F12 = rˆ12
We have r122

G mm The gravitational force on m2 exerted

F 1 2

r2 by m1 is,
If m1 = m2 = 1 Kg and r = 1 m  G m1m 2
F21 = ˆr21
G11 r212
F G
12 G m1m 2
=  - ˆr12 
r12 2
“Universal gravitational constant is
numerically equal to the force of  G m 1m 2 
= 2
rˆ12 = - F12
attraction between two unit masses r12
 
kept at a distance of 1 m apart”. ie, F21 = - F12

Note:- The value of G is independent i.e., Newton’s Law of Gravitation

of the (i) size and shape of the bodies obeys Newton’s third Law of motion.
and
Characteristics of Gravitational force
(ii) The nature of the medium in which
they are kept. 1. It is always attractive.
2. It is independent of the intervening
medium.

SAJU K JOHN, M.Sc. Physics, NET, Doctoral Research Fellow at NIT Calicut 3
3. It is independent of the presence or G Mm
In equilibrium,  = C
absence of other bodies. d2
4. It is a central force. C  d2
5. It is a conservative force.  G =
Mm
6. It obeys the principle of
Substituting all values in the above
superposition.
equation, Cavendish calculated the
7. It is the weakest force in nature.
value of G as 6.75 × 10-11 N m2/ Kg2
8. It is a long range force.
Pr.4: A rocket is fired from the earth
Determination of G – Cavendish
towards the sun. At what distance from
method
the earth’s centre is the gravitational
force on the rocket is zero? Mass of the
Cavendish calculated the value
sun= 2×1030 kg, mass of the
of G using the given arrangement
earth=6×1024 kg. Neglect the effect of
called torsional balance. It consist of
other planets etc. (Orbital radius of
two small identical lead balls of mass
earth=1.5×1011m)
‘m’ each, suspended by a wire. Two
Soln:
equal heavy lead spheres of mass ‘M’
each kept at a distance of‘d’ from each
‘m’ mass, on opposite sides.

The gravitational force on each pair of

masses (M, m) is
G Mm
F =
d2
The two equal and opposite forces at
the two ends create a deflecting torque
which is given by
G Mm
 =  
d2
Due to this torque, the suspension wire
Acceleration due to Gravity of
twists through an angle ‘θ’. The
Earth
restoring couple developed in the
suspension wire = C θ, The acceleration with which a
Where C is the couple per unit twist. body falls towards the surface of earth

SAJU K JOHN, M.Sc. Physics, NET, Doctoral Research Fellow at NIT Calicut 4
when dropped from a height is called
acceleration due to gravity.

Or, it is the acceleration of a freely

falling body.

Acceleration due to gravity near the

surface of earth, g = 9.8 m/s2

Expression for acceleration due to

gravity
We have,
GM
g =
R2
1
 g 
R2
The equatorial radius of earth is greater
than the polar radius. That is
Rp < Re, Therefore gp > ge,
Thus the acceleration due to gravity at
Consider a body of mass ‘m’ the pole is greater than that at the
placed on the surface of earth. equator.
The gravitational force on the body is Note: - When a body is taken from
given by equator to the pole, its weight
G Mm increases.
F =       (1)
R2 2. Variation of ‘g’ with altitude
Again w e have, F = m g       (2) (Height)
 From eqns (1) and (2),
G Mm
mg =
R2
G M
g =
R2

Variation of Acceleration due to

gravity

Acceleration due to gravity varies with

the shape of earth, altitude, depth
and rotation of earth.
The value of ‘g’ on the surface of earth
1. Variation of ‘g’ due to the shape of is
earth
GM
g= (1)
R2
Suppose the body is taken to a height
‘h’ above the surface of earth, the

SAJU K JOHN, M.Sc. Physics, NET, Doctoral Research Fellow at NIT Calicut 5
value of acceleration due to gravity is
GM
g(h) =  (2)
R + h
2

(2) g (h) GM R2
 = 
R + h
2
(1) g GM
g (h) R2
=
R + h
2
g
R2
=
  h 
2 If ‘ρ’ is the mean density of earth,
R 1 +  
R  then mass of earth,
 
M = Volume × density
4
R2 =  R3  
= 2 3
 h
R 2 1 +  4
 R G  R3 
 eqn (1)  g = 3
R2
2
g(h)
 h 4
= 1 +  g=  G R (2)
g  R 3
h If the body is kept at a depth of ‘d’
If h < < R, then R is very small from the surface of earth, then the mass
compared to 1. Expanding the RHS of of radius R–d will only be effective for
the above equation by Binomial the gravitational pull towards the
theorem and neglecting the higher centre.
h
4
powers of R , we get , g(d) =  G  R - d (3)
3
g (h )  2h g(d)
= 1 -  (3) R- d d
g  R   = = 1-
(2) g R R
 2h
 d
 g (h ) = g  1 -   g(d) = g 1 - 
 R 
 R
The above equation shows that the
value of acceleration due to gravity The above eqn. shows that the value of
decreases with height. g decreases with depth.
3. Variation of ‘g ’ with depth At the centre of earth, d = R
 R
g(d) = g 1 -  = 0
 R
For a body of mass ‘m’ placed on
the surface of earth, we have Note: - The weight of a body of mass
G M m ‘m’ at the centre of earth is zero.
mg =
R2
Pr.5: A body of mass ‘m’ falls freely
G M
 g =       (1 ) under gravity, near the surface of earth.
R2

SAJU K JOHN, M.Sc. Physics, NET, Doctoral Research Fellow at NIT Calicut 6
 (a) Will the acceleration of the body
change if a part of the mass is thrown
away from it?

(b) What will be the free fall

acceleration if it is falling from a height
equal to R, the radius of earth?

Soln: -

(a) No. The acceleration due to gravity

does not depend on the mass of the falling Pr.7: A body weighs 63N on the
body. surface of the earth. What is the
gravitational force on it due to the earth
(b) at a height equal to the radius of earth?

Soln:

Pr.6: Find the value of acceleration

due to gravity at a height of 400km
above the surface of the earth. Given
radius of earth=6400 km and
acceleration due to gravity at the
surface of earth is 9.8 ms-2. Pr.8: Assuming the earth to be a
sphere of uniform mass density, how
Soln: much would be a body weigh half way
down to the centre of earth if it
weighed 250N on the surface?

Soln:

SAJU K JOHN, M.Sc. Physics, NET, Doctoral Research Fellow at NIT Calicut 7

Pr.9: Find the height at which the
acceleration due to gravity is reduced
to half.
Soln:
Pr.10: Find the percentage decrease
in the weight of a body when taken
16km below the surface of earth.
Radius of earth=6400 km.
Soln:
SAJU K JOHN, M.Sc. Physics, NET, Doctoral Research Fellow at NIT Calicut
Pr.11: How far above the earth’s
surface does the value of g become
the 16% of its value on the surface?
Assume radius of earth to be 6400km.
Soln:
Pr.12: At what height above earth’s
surface, value of g is the same as in a
100km deep?
Ans:
8

Pr.13: Keeping the mass of earth the
same if the diameter is shrinked by
1%, what will be the percentage
change in acceleration due to gravity
on the surface?
Soln:
Pr.14: Acceleration due to gravity ‘g’
depends on the distance ‘r’ from the
centre of the earth. Draw a graph
showing the variation of ‘g’ with ‘r’.
Ans:
SAJU K JOHN, M.Sc. Physics, NET, Doctoral Research Fellow at NIT Calicut
Pr.15: Imagine the motion of a body
from the centre of earth to the surface
of moon, what changes will you
observe in the weight of the body
during that motion? (Neglect the
effect of all other bodies)
Ans:
Gravitational Potential Energy
Gravitational potential energy is
defined as “the work done in bringing a
mass from infinity to a point in the
gravitational field of another body.”
Let the body of mass ‘m’ be at a
distance x from the mass ‘M’.
9
Now the gravitational force on ‘m’ is ‘h’, then we can substitute r1 = R and
GMm r2 = R + h in
F=
x2 1 1
U = G M m  -  , W e get
The work done to displace the body  r1 r2 
through a distance dx is
1 1 
GMm U = G M m  -
dW = F  dx = dx R R + h 
x2
R +h - R 
= GM m  
Then the total work done to bring the  R R + h  
body from infinity to the point P is If h < < R , R + h  R
given by,
 h 
r
GMm  U  G M m 
W =  dw = dx  R  R 
x2

 h 
r = G Mm  2 
1 R 
= GMm  x2
dx
 G M
r
=  2 
mh = gmh
 -1   R 
= GMm  
 x   U=m g h
r
1 Gravitational Potential
= -GM m  
 x  Gravitational potential at a
1 1 point in a gravitational field is defined
= -GM m  - 
r  as “the work done in bringing a body of
-GMm unit mass from infinity to that point”.
=
r -G M W
This work done is stored in the body as V= V=
r m
its gravitational potential energy U.
It is a Scalar quantity.
-GMm
 U = The S.I unit of V is J/Kg
r
Dimensional formula is
The work done to bring the body
from r1 to r2 (the change in potential W   M L2 T -2 
V = =
energy of the body) is given by ,  m M 
 1 1 =  M 0 L2 T -2 
U = - G M m  - 
 r2 r1  Escape Velocity
1 1  Escape velocity is the minimum
i.e., U = G M m  -   (1) velocity with which a body must be
 r1 r2  projected so that it escapes from the
Gravitational potential energy near gravitational attraction of earth
the surface of earth permanently.
If a body of mass ‘m’ is taken
from the surface of earth to a height Expression for escape velocity

SAJU K JOHN, M.Sc. Physics, NET, Doctoral Research Fellow at NIT Calicut 10
 The total work done to move a 2.5 km/s) more than escape velocity
body of mass ‘m’ from the surface of from the moon. Therefore gas
earth (r = R) to infinity (r = ∞) is given molecules escape from the moon and
by, hence moon has no atmosphere.
GMm
W 
R Earth Satellites
Let v be velocity of the body, then
K.E of the body when projected is A body revolving around a planet in a
1 fixed orbit is called a satellite.
K m v2
2 The natural satellite of earth is moon.
The body can escape from the Examples for artificial (manmade)
gravitational pull of earth only if its KE satellites are Sputnik, Aryabatta,
is greater than or equal to the work INSAT etc.
done in overcoming the gravity.
1 GMm Orbital Velocity
m v2 
2 R Orbital velocity of a satellite is the
1 G M m
m ve 2 = velocity with which it revolves
2 R
2G M round a planet in its fixed orbit.
ve2 =
R Expression for orbital velocity
2G M
ve =
R Consider a satellite of mass
G M ‘m’ that revolves round the earth in an
Bu t g = or G M = g R 2
R2 orbit of radius R + h, with velocity vo.
2g R 2 The centripetal force for the revolution
ve =
R of the satellite is provided by the
gravitational force between satellite
ve = 2gR
and earth.
S ub stitu tin g th e values, m vo 2 GMm
R = 6.4  10 m , g = 9.8 m /s
6 2 =
 R+ h 
2
R+h
ve = 2  9.8  6 .4  1 0 6 GM
vo 2 =
= 1 1.2  1 0 m /s = 1 1.2 K m /s  R+ h 
3

Note:- (1) Escape velocity is

GM
independent of the mass of the body. GM g =
 vo = R2
(2) Escape velocity of a body from R+ h
G M = g R2
moon is 2.38 km/s.
But G M = g R 2
Question: Moon has no atmosphere. g R2
vo =
Why? R+ h
Ans: - Escape velocity of a body from If the satellite is very close to earth,
the surface of moon is 2.38km/s. The then R + h ≈ R
root mean square velocity of gas
molecule on the surface of moon is (≈

SAJU K JOHN, M.Sc. Physics, NET, Doctoral Research Fellow at NIT Calicut 11
 g RE2
 vo =  vo = g R E
RE
vo = 7.92 km/s
The nearest orbit of a satellite is
called minimum orbit and the The Time Period of a satellite (T)
corresponding velocity is called first
cosmic velocity. “The time taken by a satellite to
complete one orbital motion around a
Relation between escape velocity and planet is called time period of a
first cosmic velocity satellite”.
Escape velocity v e = 2 g RE Consider a satellite revolving around
the earth in an orbit of radius ‘R + h’
= 2 g RE
with a velocity vo.
= 2 v0 Time period= Distance moved for one
Escape velocity is called revolution / Orbital velocity
second cosmic velocity. 2  R + h 
T 
vo
Pr.17: The radius of the earth is
reduced by 4% of its initial value. g R2
But v 0 =
The mass of earth remains unchanged. R+ h
What will be the percentage change in R+ h
T  2  R + h
the escape velocity? g R2
Soln:
 R + h  R + h 
2

 2
g R2

 R + h
3

 2
g R2

 R + h
3

T2
g R2
For minimum orbit, h=0

 R+ 0
3

T = 2
g R2
R
 T = 2
Pr.18: A rat and a horse are to be g
projected from earth to space. State Substituting the values of R and g,
whether the velocity is the same or T = 84.6 minutes.
different in projecting each animal. Energy of an orbiting Satellite
Justify
Ans:

SAJU K JOHN, M.Sc. Physics, NET, Doctoral Research Fellow at NIT Calicut 12
 The K.E of the satellite in a Geostationary satellite revolves the
circular orbit with orbital velocity ‘vo’ earth in the equatorial plane.
is The time period is 24 hours.
1 The direction of motion of the satellite
K= m vo2 is same as that of earth, i.e., from west
2
to east.
GM
But vo = The height of the orbit of
R+ h geostationary satellite is 36,000km.
1 GM Uses
 K= m
2 R+ h These satellites are mainly used for
GMm communication purpose like T V and
=
2  R + h radio broadcasting and weather
The gravitational P.E at a distance (R forecasting.
+ h) from the centre of earth is
-GMm Polar Satellites
U= A satellite which revolves in polar
 R+ h 
orbit is called a polar satellite. The
Thus the total energy,
polar orbit is in the north-south
E = K+U
direction, while earth spins below it in
GMm GMm the west-east direction. Thus a polar
= -
2  R + h R+ h satellite can scan the entire surface of
- GMm earth.
E= Uses
2  R + h
The satellites low lying polar orbits
(500 – 800 km) are used for studying
Geostationary and polar the weather, environment and spying.
Polar satellites are extremely useful for
Satellites
remote sensing, meteorology as well as
for environmental studies of the earth.
Weightlessness
Consider an astronaut (or space-man)
of mass ‘m’ is present in the artificial
satellite. When the satellite is orbiting
around the earth, the man in the
satellite experiences a centrifugal force
whose direction is away from the
Geostationary Satellites centre.

A satellite which appears

stationary with respect to earth is
called geo-stationary satellite.
The orbit of such a satellite is called
geosynchronous orbit.

SAJU K JOHN, M.Sc. Physics, NET, Doctoral Research Fellow at NIT Calicut 13
The gravitational force, a) Can a person on the moon
GMm experience weight? Why?
Fg = , directed towards
r2 b) A satellite is revolving very
the centre of earth. close to earth. What is the
Centrifugal force, percentage increase in the
m v02 velocity needed to make it
Fc = , directed opposite
r2 escape from the gravitational
to the force of gravity. field of earth?
 Net force, F = Fg - Fc
GMm m v0 2
= -
r2 r2
GM
But v0 = , where r = R + h
r
GMm m G M
 F= 2
-  
r r  r 
GMm GMm
= 2
- = 0
r r2
Hence an astronaut feels
weightlessness in an artificial satellite.

Pr.19: If a satellite is put into an orbit

at height where it has no sufficient
velocity for revolution. How will the
motion of satellite be affected? Draw
the path of it.

Ans:

Pr. 20: A person in an artificial

satellite experiences weightlessness.
The moon is a natural satellite of the
earth.

SAJU K JOHN, M.Sc. Physics, NET, Doctoral Research Fellow at NIT Calicut 14