-

XII SCIENCE
[PHYSICS NOTES]

1. ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS

Prof.Sunil V. Khandale
M.Sc.B.Ed.M.Phil(Physics)
R.D.Science College, Aheri
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 INTRODUCTION
Motion :- A particle changes its position with respect to time is called motion. According to the nature
of the movement, motion is classified into follows types:
1.Linear Motion: In linear motion, the particles move from one point to another in either a straight line
or a curved path. A few examples of linear motion are the motion of the train, football, the motion of a
car on the road, etc.
2.Rotational Motion:- Rotatory motion is the motion that occurs when a body rotates on its own axis.
A few examples of the rotatory motion are as follows:
• The motion of the earth about its own axis around the sun is an example of rotary motion.
• While driving a car, the motion of wheels and the steering wheel about its own axis is an example of
rotatory motion.
3.Oscillatory Motion:- Oscillatory motion is the motion of a body about its mean position. A few
examples of are
• The pendulum of a clock exhibits oscillatory motion as it moves to and fro about its mean position.
• The string of the guitar when strummed moves to and fro by its mean position resulting in an
oscillatory motion.
4.CIRCULAR MOTION: The motion of the particle along the circumference of a circle is called
circular motion.
Examples: Motion of satellite around the planet.
There are two types of circular motions,-
• Non-uniform circular motion: The motion of particle along the circumference of a circle with
variable speed. e.g. Motion of the particle in a vertical circle.
• Uniform circular motion: The motion of a particle along the circumference of a circle with constant
speed. Examples:- i) Motion of an electron around the nucleus.
ii) Motion of earth around the sun.
 Periodic motion:- The motion of particle which repeats after equal interval of time, called as
'periodic motion '. The uniform circular motion is also repeating after equal interval of time so it is
periodic motion.
 In any type of circular motion the linear velocity of the particle is always directed along the tangent to
circular path. Hence in UCM even the speed remains constant, the direction of linear velocity goes on
changing continuously. On account of this change in direction the linear velocity of particle varies.
Hence UCM is an accelerated motion.
 A vector drawn from the centre of the circular path to the position of the particle is called the radius
vector of the particle. The magnitude of the radius vector is constant but its direction changes
continuously, which is always directed away from the centre of the circular path
Kinematics of Circular Motion:
* ANGULAR DISPLACEMENT(𝜽) :- The angle made by radius vector, when particle moves from
𝐴𝑅𝐶
one point to another point on circumference of circle called as ‘angular displacement’. . 𝜃 =
𝑅𝐴𝐷𝐼𝑈𝑆
*ANGULAR VELOCITY (𝝎):-The rate of change of angular displacement with respect to time is
called angular velocity.
𝑑𝜃
𝜔=
𝑑𝑡

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 *Relation between linear velocity and angular velocity of a particle performing U.C.M. 𝑣 = 𝜔 × 𝑟 .
ANGULAR ACCELERATION (𝜶 ) :-“The rate of change of angular velocity with respect to time
𝒅𝝎
is called angular acceleration.” 𝜶=
𝒅𝒕
* v = r  , a = r , Torque () = f r , Angular Momentun L= r p, where p = Linear momentum.
Right hand rule: “Imagine the axis of rotation to be held in our right hand with fingers curled round
the axis and the thumb stretched along the axis. If the curled fingers indicate the sense of rotation
then the thumb indicates the direction of the vector (i.e. of angular displacement, velocity &
acceleration).”

a)Anticlockwise b) Clockwise
a) Rotation rate b) Rotation rate
increases decreases

 Inertia is the property of matter in which an object that is at rest wants to remain at rest, and an
object that is moving wants to remain moving in a straight line unless another force acts upon it.
Likewise, an Inertial frame of reference is a reference frame in which an object stays either at
rest or at a constant velocity unless another force acts upon it(i.e. Newton‟s 1st law holds true).In
general definition of an inertial frame would be: Inertial frame is at rest or moves with
constant velocity with respect to my assumed inertial reference frame.
 Non-inertial frame of reference When a body does not seem to be acting in accordance with
inertia, it is in a non-inertial frame of reference or accelerating (i.e. Newton‟s 1st law will not
hold true).
 Examples:− Inertial references frames − A train moving with constant velocity.Non−inertial
references frames− A turning car with constant speed.

 PERIOD AND FREQUENCY OF U.C.M.:-

 Time period:- “The time taken by a particle performing UCM to complete one revolution is
called period of UCM.” ∴ T = 2π/ω = 2πr/v
 Frequency:- “The number of revolution made by particle performing uniform circular motion in
one second (unit time) called as ' frequency of revolution' ( denoted by n or f). The frequency is
given by ∴ n = 1/T = ω/2π = v/2πr .
The SI unit for periodic time is second (s) while that of frequency is hertz (Hz)
Dimensions of period is [M0L0T1] and that of frequency are [M0L0T-1]

 Centripetal accelerationThe acceleration of a particle performing U.C.M., acting along radius

and directed towards the centre of circle called as ‘centripetal acceleration’.
a R = −ω2 r ⇒ The magnitude of centripetal acceleration is rω2 or v2/r or Vω

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 Evaluatary Part:
B) Dynamics of Circular Motion [Centripetal and Centrifugal Forces]:
1. Centripetal force:- “The force which acts on the particle along the radius towards the centre of the
circle and which keeps the particle moving along circular path is called centripetal force.
For the body of mass m moving in a circular path of radius „r‟ with the speed „v‟ or „ω‟ the
magnitude of the centripetal force is given by:
F = mv2/r Or F = mrω2 other forms F= 4π2n2mr = 4π2mr/T2.
Vector form: 𝐹 = - m ω2 𝑟 . Here – Ve sign for ' F ' opposite to ' r '
Examples:
1. For the circular motion of satellite around the planet, the centripetal force is the gravitational
force exerted by the planet on the satellite.
2. Electrostatic force is centripetal force for orbital motion of electron around the nucleus.
 From these examples it is clear that the centripetal force is due to any one of the known
interactions, hence it is a real force.
 It exists in inertial as well as non-inertial frame of reference, and it has independent existence.
 The work done by this force on the body is zero.

2. Centrifugal Force:-
“An imaginary force experienced by a particle in circular motion, along the radius away from the
centre of the circular path is called centrifugal force.”
 Magnitude of the centrifugal force is equal to the centripetal force. Vector form: 𝐹 = + m ω2 r.
Examples:
1. If vehicle is moving along a curved path a passenger in the vehicle experiences a push in the
outward direction, which is nothing but the centrifugal force.
2. Centrifugal force is used for drying cloths in washing machine.
3. The bulging of earth at equator & flattening at poles is due to centrifugal force acting on it.
* As centrifugal force is not due to any of the known interaction, it is not a real force but it is an
imaginary force. It arises due to the acceleration of frame of reference i.e. Non inertial frame of
reference; hence it is called as pseudo force.
* It exists in non-inertial frame of reference only, and it has no independent existence.

*Distinguishing between centripetal force and centrifugal force:

Centripetal Force Centrifugal force

This force is directed towards the centre This force is directed away from the
1. 1.
of circular path. centre of circular path.
2. This force is real force. 2. This force is imaginary force
It exist due to interaction between the It exist due to acceleration of frame of
3. 3.
two bodies. reference.
It exist in both inertial and non- inertial It exist in only non-inertial frame of
4. 4.
frame of references. reference.
5. It exist independently of motion. 5. It exists only during the motion.
6. Vector form: F = - m ω r 2
6. Vector form: F = + m ω2 r

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 C) Applications of Uniform Circular Motion:
1. Maximum speed of vehicle along a horizontal curved road:-
Consider a vehicle of mass m is moving along a horizontal curved road of radius r with
constant speed v. When vehicle moves along the curved
horizontal road, it performs the circular motion. The forces
acting on the vehicle are (i) weight mg, vertically
downwards, (ii) normal reaction N, vertically upwards that
balances the weight and (iii) force of static friction f s
between road and the tyres (Frictional force = μsN , from fig
N = mg) it provides the necessary centripetal force or
balances the centrifugal force.
Therefore, if μs is the coefficient of static
friction between road and vehicle, for the safety motion of
vehicle,
Centripetal force = Frictional force
∴ mv2/ r = μsmg ⟹ ∴ vmax = µ𝑠 𝑟𝑔
This is expression for the maximum speed of vehicle with which it can be safely driven along
a horizontal curved road without skidding.

2. Well (or Wall) of Death :

This is a vertical cylindrical wall of radius r inside which a
vehicle is driven in horizontal circles to perform the stunts. As shown
in figure, the forces acting on the vehicle are (i) Normal reaction N
acting horizontally and towards the centre. (ii) Weight mg acting
vertically downwards, and (iii) Force of static friction fs acting
vertically upwards between wall and tyres which prevent the
downward slipping of vehicle. Its magnitude must be equal to mg i.e.
fs = mg , as this is only upward force.
For the motion of the vehicle,
Normal reaction = Centripetal force i.e. N = mrω2 = mv2/r and fs = mg --------(1)
For static friction f is always less than or equal µs N . ∴ f s ≤ µs N

Using eqn (1)∴ mg ≤ µs (mv2/r) ⇒ v2 ≥ rg/µs ∴ vmin = 𝒓𝒈

𝝁𝒔

3.Vehicle on a Banked Road: [Banking of roads]

i) Necessity:- We know that when a vehicle goes along a horizontal curved road, for its circular
motion centripetal force is provided by the force of friction. But this force of friction is not reliable,
because it changes as the condition changes. Also for the fast moving vehicles it will not sufficient to
provide the centripetal force. In that case we can increase the frictional force by making road surface
rougher. But it will result in wear and tear of the tyres. To avoid all these difficulties banking of roads
is necessary.

Banking of road :-“Banking of road is the process of constructing the road surface at the curve, in
which the outer edge of the road is kept at higher level than the inner edge, so that the road gets the
slop towards the centre.”

Angle of banking:- The angle made by inclined road surface to the horizontal called as ‘angle of
banking’.

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ii) Expression for Maximum speed of the vehicle along banked curved road:-
Consider a vehicle of mass m is moving with velocity v along a curve banked road of radius „r‟ and
banked at an angle of „θ‟. Considering the vehicle to be a point and
ignoring friction force. Then the different forces acting on the
vehicle are: i) Its weight, mg acting vertically downward, ii)
Normal reaction, N exerted by road surface on vehicle. From these
N can be resolved into two components as, Ncosθ and Nsinθ as
shown in figure. From these two components Ncosθ balances the
weight of vehicle and Nsinθ provides the necessary centripetal
force for the circular motion of vehicle.
∴ Ncosθ = mg -----(a)
Nsinθ = mv2/r ---(b)
Divide eq.(b) by (a) we get ∴ tanθ = v2/rg ------(i)
a) Most safe speed: As for the given road r and θ are fixed, from eq.(i) the expression for most safe
speed (not a minimum or maximum) is,
vs = 𝒓𝒈 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜽 --------(ii)
v𝟐
b) Banking angle: From equation (i) angle banking is given by: θ = tan-1 -------(iii)
𝒓𝒈

c) Speed limits: If the vehicle is moving with most safe speed given by equation (ii) above then the
above considerations are sufficient. But in actual practice vehicles are moving with speed more than this,
in that case the components of the frictional force (fs) are helping us, up to certain limit as shown in
figures (a) and (b) below.

1.Minimum safety speed:-When vehicle is moving with the speed v 1 < vs then mv12/r < Nsinθ. In this
case the direction of friction force is along the surface directed away from the centre of motion.
Components of this frictional force are as shown in figure (a).
From the figure, mg = fs sinθ + N cosθ ---(c) and mv12/r = N sinθ – fs cosθ ----(d)
Divide eq(d) by eq.(c) and again divide numerator and denominator of RHS by N cosθ we get ,
𝑁𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑓
𝑚 𝑣 2 /𝑟 − 𝑠 𝑣 2 /𝑟 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 − 𝑠
𝑁𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑁𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
= 𝑓 𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑁𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ∴ = 𝑓𝑠 𝑁
𝑚𝑔 + 𝑔 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 +1
𝑁𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑁𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑁
𝑓𝑠
but For the minimum possible speed f s is maximum and is equal to µsN i.e. fs = µsN ∴ = 𝜇𝑠
𝑁
𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜽−𝝁𝒔
we get, (v𝟏 )𝒎𝒊𝒏 = v𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝒓𝒈 -------(iv)
𝟏+𝝁𝒔 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜽
* For µs ≥ tanθ, vmin = 0
2. Maximum safety speed:-When vehicle is moving with the speed v2 > vs then mv22/r > Nsinθ. In this
case the direction of friction force is along the surface directed towards the centre of the motion.
Components of this frictional force are as shown in figure (b).
From the figure, mg = N cosθ - fs sinθ and mv22/r = N sinθ + fs cosθ

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 For the maximum possible speed f s is maximum and is equal to µsN. Using this along with
the above equations after solving for maximum possible we get,
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 +𝜇 𝑠
(v2 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 = v𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑟𝑔 -------(v)
1−𝜇 𝑠 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃

* For µs = cotθ, vmax = ∞. But max value of µs = 1. Hence for θ ≥ 450, vmax = ∞.
* Elevation of the road is the vertical distance through which outer edge of the road is raised above the inner edge, and
is given by: h = ℓsinθ = ℓv2/ rg , where ℓ is the width of the road or distance between the two rails
D) Conical Pendulum:
1.Defn:- (A tiny mass connected to massless, inextensible string and suspended to a rigid support is called a pendulum.
If the bob is made to oscillate in a single vertical plane it is simple pendulum while if the bob is performing circular
motion in horizontal plane then it is called conical pendulum and can be defined as, )
“Conical pendulum is a simple pendulum ,in which motion of that bob describes a horizontal
circle and the string describes a cone.”
2.Expression for period : Consider a conical pendulum consisting a bob of mass „m‟ and length
„L‟. Let bob revolves along
L the horizontal circle of
L radius „r‟ so that string
describes a cone of height h
and semi- vertical angle, θ
as shown in fig. When bob
is in position, A,
Forces acting on the bob are: i) it‟s weight „mg‟ & ii) tension in the string „T0‟. From these
tension, „T0‟ can be resolved into two components: T0cosθ & T0sinθ. The component T0cosθ
is balanced by mg. ∴ T0cosθ = mg -------(i)
While the component T0sinθ provides the centripetal force for the circular motion of the bob
∴ T0 sinθ = mr2 ------- (ii)
𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
Dividing equation (ii) by (i) we get: tan θ = r  /g ∴  = g sin/ r cos ∴ 𝜔 =
𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑔
From fig, sinr/L ⇒ r = L sin ∴ 𝜔 = ⇒ 𝜔=
𝐿 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝐿 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
2𝜋 𝑔 2𝜋 𝑳 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽
If T is the period of revolution of the bob , 𝜔 = ∴ = ⇒ 𝑻 = 𝟐𝝅
𝑇 𝐿 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑇 𝒈
𝟏 𝟏 𝒈
Frequency of revolution, 𝒏= ∴𝒏=
𝑻 𝟐𝝅 𝑳 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽

* In the frame of reference attached to the bob i.e. in non-inertial frame of reference, the centrifugal
force should balance the resultant of all the real forces i.e. centripetal force.
∴ T0 sinθ = mrω2 in magnitude, which same as (ii)

E) Vertical circular motion:

Defn or Explaination:- When a body is tied to one end of string and along the circumference of
vertical circle. Then this motion of body along the circumference of vertical circle known as ' Vertical
Circular Motion '.
Two types of vertical circular motion are commonly observed in practice:
(a) A controlled vertical circular motion:- In this case the speed is either kept constant or NOT totally
controlled by gravity such as a giant wheel.
(b) A controlled by gravity:- In this case, initially supply the necessary energy at the lowest point.
Then onwards, the entire kinetics is governed by the gravitational force. During the motion there is

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 inter conversion of kinetic energy and gravitational potential energy.
1. Point Mass Undergoing Vertical Circular Motion Under Gravity:
(Expression for velocity or tension of particle at different position on circumference of verticle circular motion.)
Case I: Mass tied to a string: Consider a point mass m is attached to a massless string and
whirled in vertical circle so that the mass performs a vertical circular motion and the string rotates in a
vertical plane. At any position of the mass, there
are only two forces acting on the mass: (a) its
weight mg, vertically downwards, which is
constant and (b) the force due to a tension, along
the string and towards the centre. Its magnitude
changes periodically with time and location. This
motion is the non uniform motion, hence the
resultant force acting on the mass is not directed
towards the centre except at topmost and
lowermost position.
i) Uppermost position (A): Tension in the string
TA and the weight mg are directed as shown. The
resultant of these two provides the centripetal
force.
If vA is the speed of mass at uppermost position (Top) then, mg + TA = mvA2/r ----------(1)
At uppermost position tension, TA = 0 , mg + 0 = mvA2/r , ∴ vA2 = rg
∴ (vA)min = 𝒓𝒈 ----(2) This is minimum speed at Uppermost position (Top)
ii) Lowermost position (B): Tension in the string „TB‟ and weight „mg‟ are opposite as shown. In this
case also resultant of these forces provides the centripetal force. Hence if vB is speed of mass at
position B, TB – mg = mvB2/r - --------(3)
When mass moves from A to B, the vertical displacement are 2r and the motion is governed by
gravity. Hence the corresponding decrease in gravitational potential energy is converted into the kinetic
1 1
energy. ∴ mg (2r) = mvB2 – mvA2 ⇒ vB2 – vA2 = 4rg .....(4)
2 2
From (2) vB2 – ( 𝑟𝑔) 2 = 4rg ⇒ vB2 = 4rg + rg ,
∴ (vB)min = 𝟓𝒓𝒈 ------(5) This is minimum speed at Lowermost position (Bottom)

For Tension at Lowermost (Bottom) position, Subtract eq.(1)From (3) we get ,

𝑚
TB – TA – 2mg = (v2𝐵 − v𝐴2 ) ------(6)
𝑟
𝑚
Using (4), TB – TA – 2mg = (4rg) ∴ TB – TA = 6mg ∴ TB = 6mg + TA - - - - - - - - (7)
𝑟
iii) Position when the string is horizontal (C and D): As weight act vertically thus its horizontal
component is zero.Hence tension in the string only provides the necessary centripetal force which
changes the direction of velocity and weight mg is used only to change the speed .
Hence Tc = mvc2 /r ---(8)
When mass moves from A to C, the vertical displacement is r.
1 1
∴ mg (r) = mvC2 – mvA2 ⇒ vC2 – vA2 = 2rg ------(9)
2 2
From (2) vC2 – ( 𝑟𝑔) 2 = 2rg ⇒ vC2 = 2rg + rg , ∴ (vC)min = 𝟑𝒓𝒈
For Tension at horizontal (Middle) position, Subtract eq.(1) from (8) we get
Tc - mg - TA = m/r (vc2- vA2) ∴TC – TA = m/r (2rg) + mg ∴TC – TA = 3mg
As C and D both position is at horizontal line thus speed and tension is same.
TC – TA = TD – TA = 3mg
i.e. TC = TD = 3mg + TA and (vC)min = (vD)min = 𝟑𝒓𝒈

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 iv) Arbitrary positions: The tension and weight are neither along the same line nor perpendicular.
Tangential component of weight is used to change the speed. It decreases the speed while going
up and increases it while coming down.
Case II: Mass tied to a rod: Consider a bob tied to rod and whirled along the vertical circle.
The basic difference between the rod and string is that the string needs some tension at all the points,
including the uppermost point and hence require some minimum speed i.e 𝑟𝑔 to avoid slackening
the string.
i) In the case of rod as the rod is rigid, such condition is not necessary. Thus practically zero speed is
possible at the uppermost point. ∴ (vuppermost)min = 0 i.e. (vA)min = 0
2
ii) from eq (4) , vB – 0 = 4rg (vlowermost)min = 4𝑟𝑔 i.e. (vB)min = 2 𝐫𝐠
iii) From eq (9), vC2 – 0 = 2rg ∴ (vC)min= 𝟐𝐫𝐠 at the horizontal position of rod and from eq (6)
𝑚 𝑚
TB – TA – 2mg = (v2𝐵 − v𝐴2 ) but vA = 0 and vB = 2 rg ∴TB – TA – 2mg = (4rg − 0)
𝑟 𝑟
∴TB – TA = 4mg + 2mg ∴TB – TA = 6mg i.e. Tlowermost – Tuppermost = 6mg
2. Sphere of Death:- In the circus, two-wheeler rider undergoes rounds inside a hollow sphere.
Starting with small horizontal circles, they eventually perform revolutions along vertical circles. The
dynamics of this vertical circular motion is same as that of the point mass tied to the string, except that
force due to tension T is replaced by the normal reaction N. During this motion it is found that
linear speed is more for larger circles but angular speed or frequency is more for smaller circles.
3. Vehicle at the Top of a Convex Over Bridge:
When a vehicle going along a convex bridge is at top
position, both weight mg and normal reaction N are along the
vertical. Hence if v is the speed at this position, then, mg – N =
mv2/r. Normal reaction is the indication of contact of vehicle with
surface of road. Thus, for just maintaining contact, N = 0. This
imposes an upper limit on the speed as vmax = 𝑟𝑔

F) Moment of inertia as an Analogous Quantity for Mass:

1. Expression for rotational kinetic energy of rotating body:
Rotational kinetic energy of rotating body is the sum of the translational kinetic
energies of all the individual particles of body. Consider a rigid
body rotating with constant angular velocity (ω) about an axis
axis passing through the point 'O' Let m1,m2,---,mn be the masses
of 'n' number of particles situated at distances r1,r2,..,rn
respectively from the axis of rotation. As the body rotates,
different particles moves in circular manner with different radius
but with constant angular velocity (ω). The linear velocity
depends on the distance of particles from axis of rotation., Thus
linear velocity for different particle is different. Let these linear
velocities are v1, v2, ---,vn respectively. Then for the first particle
of mass m1, Linear velocity, v1 = r1ω. ∴ kinetic energy, E1 = ½ m1 v12 = ½ m1 r12 ω2 .
Similarly, kinetic energies of remaining particles are: E2 =½ m2 r22 ω2,---, En = ½ mn rn2 ω2.
Therefore, Total rotational kinetic energy of the rotating body about a given axis of rotation is
E = E1+E2+.......+E

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 𝑛
1 1 2
∴𝐸= m r 2 +m2 r22 +…+mn rn2 ω2 = 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖2 ω2 = Iω .
2 1 1 2
𝑖=1
𝑛 2
since 𝐼 = 𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖
1
∴𝑬= Iω2 This is an expression for Rotational K.E.
2

*Physical significance of moment of inertia:-If I replaces mass „m‟ and angular speed „ω‟ replaces
the linear speed „v‟, rotational K.E. = ½ Iω2 is analogous to translational K.E. = ½ mv2. Thus I is
defined to be the moment of inertia of the object known as rotational inertia or moment of inertia. Role
of moment of inertia' I ' in rotational motion is same to the role of mass ' m ' in linear motion.The
mass opposes linear motion and moment of inertia opposes rotational motion i.e. moment of inertia
and mass are analogous to each other.

2. Moment of Inertia :-
The moment of inertia of a rigid body about given axis of rotation is defined as “sum of product
of masses of each particles and square of their distances from axis of rotation”.
Let m1, m2 - - - - - mn be the masses of ' n ' number of particles situated at distance r 1, r2 - - - - - -
rn from axis of rotation, then moment of inertia of body is –
I = m1 r12 +m2 r22 +…+mn rn2
𝒏

𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑰 = 𝒎𝒊 𝒓𝟐𝒊
𝒊=𝟏
The S.I. unit of M. I. are ' Kg -m ' and its dimension is [ M1 L2 T0].
2

3.Moment of inertia of a Uniform Ring: In the object such as uniform ring, the mass is uniformly
distributed on circumference of a circle as shown in figure
If it is rotating about its own axis its entire mass
M is practically at a distance equal to its radius R from the
axis. Hence the expression for the moment of inertia of a
uniform ring of mass M and radius R is:

I = MR2
4.Moment of inertia of a uniform Disc: Consider a thin uniform disc of mass M and radius R and
surface density (mass per unit surface area) σ. Then σ = M / A = M / πR2.
When this disc is rotating about its own axis (axis
passing through centre and perpendicular to plane of disc)
then to find its moment of inertia about this axis we assume
that disc is made from large number of identical concentric
rings each having mass dm. Consider one such ring of
radius r and width dr. Then, Area of ring, A = 2πr.dr ∴ dm =
Aσ = 2πrσ dr. Moment of inertia of this ring about the axis of
rotation of disc is,
Ir = dm (r2). Moment of inertia (I) of the disc can now
be obtained by integrating Ir from r = 0 to r = R.
𝑹 𝑹 𝑹 𝑹
∴𝑰= 𝑰𝒓 = 𝒅𝒎. 𝒓𝟐 = 𝟐𝝅𝝈. 𝒅𝒓. 𝒓𝟐 = 𝟐𝝅𝝈 𝒓𝟑 𝒅𝒓
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎

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 𝑹𝟒 𝑴 𝑹𝟒
𝑰 = 𝟐𝝅𝝈 = 𝟐𝝅
𝟒 𝝅𝑹𝟐 𝟒

𝟏
⟹ 𝑰 = 𝑴𝑹𝟐 M.I. of disc about its own axis.
𝟐
G) Radius of Gyration:
Defn:- Radius of Gyration of a body about given axis of rotation is defined as the distance between
axis of rotation and centre of mass so as to have same moment of inertia about given axis of rotation.
For a body of mass M having moment of inertia I about the axis of rotation and K is the radius
of gyration of body about same axis of rotation then we write, I = MK2
Physical significance :-From this, it is clear that radius of gyration measures the distribution of
mass about the axis of rotation. The larger value of K represents that the distribution of mass is
farther from the axis of rotation while smaller value of K represents that the mass of body is
distributed closer to axis.

H ) Theorem of parallel Axes and Theorem of Perpendicular axes:

1. Theorem of parallel axes:
Statement: It states that, “The moment of inertia of an object about any axis (Io) is the sum of its
moment of inertia about a parallel axis passing through centre of mass (Ic) and the product of mass of
object and square of distance between the parallel axes (Mh2).”
Proof: Consider a rigid body of mass M and centre of mass at point C. In the figure axis MOP is any
axis passing through point O. Axis ACB is a parallel axis passing through the centre of mass C of the
body and at a distance h from O.
Then according to theorem of parallel axes, Io = Ic + Mh2.
To prove this, consider a small element of mass „dm‟ located at
point „D‟. Draw perpendicular DN on extended OC. Moment of
inertia of the element about the axis ACB is [dm.(DC) 2]. Hence
moment of inertia of body about the axis ACB is given by, Ic =
𝐷𝐶 2 . 𝑑𝑚. Similarly, moment of inertia of body about the axis
MOP is,
2 2 2
Io = (𝐷𝑂) . 𝑑𝑚 = ( 𝐷𝑁 + 𝑁𝑂 ) dm
( by Pythagoras theorem)
Io = ( [DN] + [NC] + 2. NC. CO + [CO] 2 )dm
2 2

(Since from fig., NO = NC + CO)

Io = ( [DC] + 2NC. h + h )dm
2 2

(Since from fig., DC2 = NC2 + DN2 and CO = h)

Io = (DC) 2dm + 2h 𝑁𝐶 . dm + h 𝑑𝑚
2

Now as NC is the distance of a point from the centre of mass. Thus, from the definition of the centre of
mass, 𝑁𝐶 . dm = 0 and 𝑑𝑚 = M mass of body.
∴ Io = Ic + M h2 Hence prove.

2. Theorem of Perpendicular Axes:

Statement: It states that, “The moment of inertia of a laminar object about an axis (IZ)
perpendicular to its plane is the sum of its moment of inertia about two mutually perpendicular
axes (Ix and Iy) in its plane, all three axes are concurrent.”

Proof:- Let Ix, Iy and Iz be the moment of inertia of lamina about X, Y and Z- axes respectively.

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 Then according to this principle,
Iz = Ix + Iy
To prove this, consider a small element of mass
(dm) at a point P(x, y). Join OP, and draw PM and PN
perpendicular on X and Y axes respectively. Then, as
element remain at a distance of x from Y-axis; moment
of inertia of element about Y-axis is (x2dm). Therefore
moment of inertia of lamina about Y-axis is:

Iy = 𝑥 2 dm ------------ (1)

Similarly, element is at a distance of y from X-axis, moment of inertia of element about X-axis is
(y2dm). Therefore moment of inertia of lamina about X-axis is: Ix = 𝑦 2 dm -------- (2)
2
Similarly, moment of inertia of lamina about Z-axis will be: Iz = (𝑂𝑃) dm (3)
But, from the figure in ∆OMP, OP 2 = x2 + y2 put in equn (3)
∴ Iz = (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ) 𝑑𝑚 = 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑚 + 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑚 = Iy + Ix [∵ by eqns (1) and (2) ]
∴ Iz = Ix + Iy This is the proof.

I) Angular momentum or moment of linear momentum (L):

1. Defn :- The angular momentum of rigid body about given axis of rotation is defined as product of
moment of inertia and its angular velocity.
If 'I' is moment of inertia and 'ω' is angular velocity then angular momentum of rigid body is –
L = Iω
The S. I. unit is Kg-m /sec. and C.G.S. unit is gm-cm2/sec.
2

The dimension of angular momentum is – [ M1 L2 T –1]

2. Expression for Angular Momentum in Terms of Moment of Inertia:
Consider a rigid body rotating with constant angular velocity (ω) about an axis passing through the
point 'O' Let m1,m2,---,mn be the masses of 'n' number of
particles situated at distances r1,r2,..,rn respectively from the
axis of rotation. As the body rotates, different particles moves
in circular manner with different radius but with constant
angular velocity (ω). The linear velocity depends on the
distance of particles from axis of rotation., Thus linear velocity
for different particle is different. Let these linear velocities are
v1, v2, ---,vn respectively. Then for the first particle i.e. having
mass m1 we write: Linear velocity, v1 = r1ω.
Linear momentum, P1 = m1V1 = m1r1ω.
∴ Angular momentum L1 = r1P1 = m1r12ω.
Similarly, Angular momentum for remaining particles are L2= m2r22ω, L3= m3r32ω ,---, Ln=mnrn2 ω.
∴ Moment of linear momentum of rotating body will be sum of all these moments
i.e. L = L1+L2+---+Ln
∴ Angular momentum of body (L) = m1r12ω + m2r22ω+ m3r32ω + ----+ mnrn2 ω.
L= (m1r12 + m2r22+ ----+ mnrn2 )ω
⟹ L=Iω
𝑛 2
In vector form, 𝐿 = I 𝜔 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐼 = 𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖

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 3.Expression for Torque in Terms of Moment of Inertia:
Consider a rigid body rotating with constant angular
acceleration (α) about an axis passing through the point ' O '.
Let m1, m2, - - - mn be the masses of ' n ' number of particles
situated at distance r1, r2. - - - rn respectively from axis of rotation.
As the body rotates, different particles moves in circular manner
with different radius but constant angular acceleration (α) as that of
body. The linear acceleration depends on the distance of particles
from axis of rotation. Let these accelerations are, a1, a2, ----, an
respectively.
Then for the first particle i.e. having mass, m1, Linear acceleration, a1 = r1α
∴ Force acting on particle, f1 = m1 a1 ∴ f1 = m1 r1α and torque acting on the particle,
1 τ1 = f1 r1 = m1r12α.
Similarly, torque acting on remaining particles are: , τ2 = m2 r22α, , τ3 = m3 r32α ,.........., , τn = mn rn2α.
Therefore, total torque acting on the rotating body will be, τ = τ1 + τ2+---+τn
∴ τ = (m1r12+ m2 r22 + ........+ mn m2 rn2) α ⟹ ∴ τ = I α - Required relation.
This torque is a vector quantity and is expressed as, τ = I α .

J ) Conservation of Angular Momentum:

1. Principle of conservation of angular momentum:
Statement: “If the external torque acting on the rotating body is zero, then the angular momentum of the
body remains constant.” i.e. τ = 0 , then L = constant.
Proof : let m –mass, τ - torque, P is the linear momentum of particle, then its angular momentum is
dL d
given by: L= rr x P differentiating this equation w.r.t. t we get: = rxP
dt dt
dL dP dr dr dP
∴ = rx + x P ......... (i) But , =v; = F; P = mv
dt dt dt dt dt
dL
∴ Equation (i) becomes: = r x F + (v x mv) = r x F + m(v x v)
dt
= r x F + 0 [∵ Self cross product is zero]
dL
Now , r x F = τ ∴τ= .
dt
dL
If resultant torque is zero then = 0.
dt
∴ L = constant. This is proof.
2. Examples: Explaination of principle of conservation of angular momentum with suitable
examples.
1. Ballet dancers: During ice ballet, the dancers have to undertake rounds of smaller and larger radii.
The dancers come together while taking the rounds of smaller radius (near the centre). In this case,
the moment of inertia of system becomes minimum and the frequency increases, to make it thrilling.
While outer rounds, the dancers outstretch their legs and arms. This increases their moment of inertia
that reduces the angular speed and hence the linear speed. This is essential to prevent slipping.
i.e.ballet dancer with her legs and arms stretched outwards has low angular velocity and more
moment of inertia. But if she suddenly folds her arms and brings stretched legs closed to each other,
moment of inertia decreases and angular velocity increases. Thus, I11 = I2 2 = Constant.
2. Diving in a swimming pool (during competition): While executing a somersault, a diver pulls in his
hands and legs, so that his M.I. decreases, causing an increase in his speed of rotation. So that diver
can make more number of somersaults. When diver is about to tough water surface, he stretches his
hands so that M.I. increases and speed decreases so that he strikes the water gently without any harm.

K) Rolling Motion: A motion is said to be rolling motion if a body passes both i.e. linear motion and
rotational motion.
1.Kinetic energy of a rolling body: When body performs rolling motion, its motion is the combination
of translational motion and rotational motion. Therefore its kinetic energy will be the sum of

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 translational K.E. (ET) and rotational K.E. (ER). ∴E = ET + ER
If M and R be the mass and radius of the body, V is the translational speed, ω is the angular
speed and „I‟ is the moment of inertia of the body about an axis passing through the centre of mass
then, ET = ½ MV2 and ER = ½ I ω2.
∴ E = ½ MV2 +½ I ω2 = ½ M V2 + ½ MK2ω2 . Since I = MK2, where K is radius of gyration.
∴ E = ½ M(R2ω2) + ½ MK2ω2 = ½ Mω2 [R2 + K2] (Since , V = R ω)
1 𝑉2 2 2 𝐾2
E= 𝑀 2 (𝑅 + 𝐾 ) i.e. E = ½ MV2 1 +
2 𝑅 𝑅2

2.Rolling motion of body without slipping on an inclined plane (Expression for the linear
velocity(speed) and acceleration of rigid body rolling on a inclined plane without slipping) :-
Consider a rigid body of mass M and radius R rolling down inclined plane of inclination „θ‟ from
height „h‟. Body starts from rest and rolls down, it loses its gravitational potential energy. This potential energy
is converted into kinetic energy.
If „v‟ is the linear speed acquired by the body when it reaches the bottom of the inclined plane,
then: Loss in P.E. = gain in K.E.
M g h = ½ Mv2 + ½ Iω2 ∴ M g h = ½ Mv2 + ½ MK2 (v/R)2 (since I = MK2)
𝐾2
M g h = ½ Mv2 1 +
𝑅2
s
2𝑔𝑕 2𝑔𝑕
∴ v2 = 𝐾2
⇒v= 𝐾2
...(i)
h 1+ 2 1+ 2
𝑅 𝑅

θ Let „a‟ be the linear acceleration of the body while

rolling down the plane. As body starts from rest, u = 0,
v2 = 0 + 2 as where „s‟ is the length of the plane.
𝑣2 2𝑔𝑕 1
∴𝑎= From (i) ∴ 𝑎 = 𝐾2
. ----------(ii) but from fig sin = h/s ∴ s = h/sin
2𝑠 1+ 2 2𝑠
𝑅

2𝑔𝑕 1 𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

∴𝑎= 𝐾2
. 𝑕 = 𝐾2
⇒ ∴𝑎= 𝐾2
-------(iii)
1+ 2 2 1+ 2 1+ 2
𝑅 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑅 𝑅

Remarks:
1. For a rolling object, if expression for its moment of inertia is of the form n(MR2), the factor n
gives the value of K2/R2 for that object.
2
For example, for a uniform solid sphere, I = 𝑀𝑅2 & I = MK2 equating we get ∴ C = 2/5
5
Similarly for ring or hollow cylinder, K2/R2 = 1
For uniform disc or solid cylinder, K2/R2 = ½
For thin walled hollow sphere, K2/R2 = 2/3
2. When rod rolls, it is actually a cylinder that is rolling.
3. While rolling, the ratio of different KEs,
Translational K.E : Rotational K.E. : Total K.E. is 1: K2/R2: (1 + K2/R2)
For example, for hollow sphere K2/R2 = 2/3
∴ Translational K.E : Rotational K.E. : Total K.E. is 1: 2/3: (1 + 2/3) = 3:2:5
Generally percentage wise, 60% of its kinetic energy is translational and 40% is rotational.

Note:-
Kinematical equations for Linear motion 1) v = u + at 2) s = ut + ½ at2 3) v2 = u2 + 2as

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