Properties of Solids

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS
CHAPTER 9
LOURDES CONVENT HIGH SCHOOL

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Solids are made up of atoms or molecules.
Each molecule or atom in a solid is at fixed average location with respect to other molecule.
This average location does not change with time.
Hence solids have definite shape and size.
In a solid the net force acting on a molecule (or atoms) is zero. So, every atom or molecule is in
equilibrium.
Suppose a force is exerted on a molecule and its displaced slightly, then a restoring force is
developed in it, which brings the molecule back in equilibrium position.
Thus, a solid retains its shape and is said to be rigid, within certain limits.
Under large force, the solid may break or flow.
The inter-atomic distance is of the order of a few angstrom units and there are about 10 29 atom
per cubic metre in a solid.
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Crystals. In a crystalline solid, the atoms are arranged in periodic, regular
and repeated geometrical pattern.
If the atoms are not arranged in a regular, periodic and repeated
pattern, the solid is called amorphous.
A crystal can be formed by repeating small identical building block in

space called the structural unit.
In the case of simple crystals like silver, copper etc., the structural unit
contains only one atom.
The basic structural unit is called a basis and it contains an atom or a group
of atoms or ions. LOURDES CONVENT HIGH SCHOOL
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Lattice is simply a regular periodic arrangement in space. It is only a mathematical
concept.
Unit cell. a unit cell of a lattice is the smallest block or geometric figure of a crystal which
is repeated again and again in all direction, to form the lattice structure and have to
generate the complete crystal.
Inter-atomic and Inter-molecular forces

The force between atoms of an element is called inter-atomic force. The force between
molecules of compound (or elements) is called inter-molecular forces. These forces are
electrical in nature. Depending on the distance between the atoms, this force may be
attractive or repulsive In nature. These forces are responsible for the definite size or shape
of a solid LOURDES CONVENT HIGH SCHOOL
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An atom consists of +vely charged protons and -vely charged
electrons. They are equal in number.
So, atom is electrically neutral. When two atoms are brought to
a close distance comparable to the size of an atom, there is
interaction between the charges and this gives rise to inter
atomic forces.
The force between molecules of compound (or element) is

called intermolecular force. It is electrical in nature.
Molecular forces are short range forces.
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“Ut Tensio sic vis” – Cryptographic form of Hooke’s Law.
It’s a Latin expression which means , “ as the tension , so the strain “ .
He published a law on elasticity as an array of letters arranged in alphabetical order like

‘ ceiinosstuv’.
Hooke discovered this law in 166o but not published for sixteen years .
When he first published it was in the cryptographic form ,may be never wanted to give the
Credit to other investigators.

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Deforming Force
When a force is applied on a body , not
free to move , the size or shape or both of
the body may change due to change in
relative positions of molecules .
Such a force is called Deforming Force .
Deforming force can be a tensile force , a

normal force , or a tangential force .

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What is Elasticity?
When an external force is applied to a rigid body there is a change in its length, volume (or) shape.
When external forces are removed the body tends to regain its original shape and size. Such a property
of a body by virtue of which a body tends to regain its original shape (or) size when external forces are
removed is called elasticity.

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What is Stress?
Elastic bodies regain their original shape due to internal
restoring forces. This internal restoring force, acting per unit
area of the deformed body is called stress.
Stress = { Restoring or Deforming Force / Unit Area} = F / A
S I unit..( N / m2 ) or pascal ….in cgs ..dynes / cm 2 …dimn…
( M L -1 T -2 )
Types of Stress Longitudinal Stress

There are three types of stress
•Longitudinal stress When the stress is normal to the surface area of the
•Volume stress body it is known as longitudinal stress.
•Tangential stress (or) shear stress
Again it is classified into two types
•Tensile stress
•Compressive stress.
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Tensile stress: When longitudinal stress produced due to an increase in the length of the
object is known as tensile stress.
Compressive stress: Longitudinal stress produced due to the decrease in length of the object
is known as compressive stress.
Volume Stress or hydraulic stress. ( normal force / surface area )

= change in pressure.
If equal normal forces are applied every one surface of a body then change in volume
produced. The force opposing this change in volume per unit area is called volume stress.
Tangential Stress ( Tangential force per unit area )
When the stress is tangential (or) parallel to the surface of the body is known as Tangential
(or) Shear stress. Due to this shape of body changes (or) gets twisted.

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What is Strain?
The ratio of change of any dimension to its original dimension is called strain.
Strain is a measure of deformation.
Strain = {Change in dimension} / {original dimension}
Strain also classified into three types
•Longitudinal strain
•Volume strain
•Shearing strain
Longitudinal or Linear or Tensile Strain

The strain produced by a tensile deforming force is called linear strain.
Longitudinal strain = {Change in length of the body} / { original length of the body}
= { Delta L} / { L} = Δ L/ L = l / L

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Volume Strain
The strain produced by a deforming force acting perpendicular to the whole
surface of the body .
Volume strain ={ Change in volume of the body}/{ Original volume of the
body}
= {Delta V} / {V} = ΔV / V
Shearing Strain
The strain produced by a tangential force .
Shearing strain is equal to theangle of shear .
When a deforming force is applied to a body parallel to its surface its shape
(not size) changes this is known as shearing strain.
The angle of shear ( teta )

= {displacement of upper face} / { distance between two faces}
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Hooke’s Law
Robert Hooke ( 1635 – 1703 ) an English experimental physicist studied the

relation connection the tension in a wire and the linear strain produced in it .
Hooke’s Law states that “ within the elastic limit , the stress is directly proportional to the
Strain .
Stress / strain = constant
This constant is called Modulus of elasticity .
There are 3 modulus of elasticity
1 . Young’s modulus
2. Bulk modulus
3. Rigidity modulus

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Hooke’s Law
In the 19th-century, while studying springs and elasticity, English scientist Robert Hooke noticed that
many materials exhibited a similar property when the stress-strain relationship was studied. There was a
linear region where the force required to stretch the material was proportional to the extension of the
material. This is known as Hooke’s Law.
Hooke’s Law states that the strain of the material is proportional to the applied stress
within the elastic limit of that material.
Hooke’s Law states that the strain of the material is proportional to the applied stress within the
elastic limit of that material.
Mathematically, Hooke’s law is commonly expressed as:
F=–kx
Where,
•F is the force
•x is the extension length
•k is the constant of proportionality known as spring constant in N/m
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Stress Strain Graph
1.Proportion limit: The limit in which Hook’s law is valid and stress
is directly proportional to strain.
2.Elastic limit: That maximum stress which on removing the

deforming force makes the body to recover completely its original
state.
3.Yield point: The point beyond the elastic limit at which the length
of the wire starts increasing with increasing stress. Is defined as the
yield point.
4.Breaking point: The point when the strain becomes so large that
the wire breaks down, at last, is called the breaking point.

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Explaining Stress-Strain Graph
The stress-strain graph has different points or regions as follows:
•Proportional limit
•Elastic limit
•Yield point
•Ultimate stress point
•Fracture or breaking point
(i) Proportional Limit

It is the region in the stress-strain curve that obeys Hooke’s Law. In
this limit, the ratio of stress with strain gives us proportionality
constant known as young’s modulus. The point OA in the graph is
called the proportional limit.
(ii) Elastic Limit

It is the point in the graph up to which the material returns to its
original position when the load acting on it is completely removed.
Beyond this limit, the material doesn’t return to its original position
and a plastic deformation starts to appear in it. LOURDES CONVENT HIGH SCHOOL
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(iii) Yield Point
The yield point is defined as the point at which the material
starts to deform plastically. After the yield point is passed,
permanent plastic deformation occurs. There are two yield
points (i) upper yield point (ii) lower yield point.
(iv) Ultimate Stress Point

It is a point that represents the maximum stress that a
material can endure before failure. Beyond this point, failure
occurs.
(v) Fracture or Breaking Point

It is the point in the stress-strain curve at which the
failure of the material takes place . LOURDES CONVENT HIGH SCHOOL
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Materials which break as soon as the stress is increased beyond the elastic limit are
called Brittle. Eg : glass , ceramics etc .
Materials which has large plastic range of extension are called Ductile . Using this
Property materials can be drawn into thin wires .
Eg : copper , aluminium etc .
Materials which can be hammered into thin sheets are called Malleable .
Eg : Gold , silver , lead etc .

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Elastic hysteresis
The strain persists even when the stress is removed. This
lagging behind of strain is called elastic hysteresis.
This is why the values of strain for the same stress are different
while increasing the load and while decreasing the load.
Elastic Hysteresis is the difference between the strain energy required
to generate a given stress in a material, and the
material's elastic energy at that stress.
,This energy is dissipated as internal friction (heat) in a material during

one cycle of testing (loading and unloading).
Hard metals, for example, display less hysteresis than high-

elongation materials such as elastomers.
High-speed testing tends to generate the most noticeable results,

as forces on the specimen will be greater over a shorter
elongation. LOURDES CONVENT HIGH SCHOOL
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An elastomer is a polymer with viscoelasticity (i.e., both What are Elastomers?
viscosity and elasticity) and has very weak intermolecular Elastomers are polymers that are having a viscosity as well as
forces, elasticity and therefore are known as viscoelasticity.
Generally low Young's modulus and high failure strain
compared with other materials. The molecules of elastomers held together by weak
intermolecular forces, generally they exhibit low
1.Natural rubber: These are used in the automotive industry Young’s modulus and high yield strength or high failure strain.
and in the manufacture of medical tubes, balloons, adhesives.
They inherit the unique property of regaining original shape
2.Polyurethanes: These are used in the textile industry for and size after being stretched to a great extent.
manufacturing elastic clothing like lycra.
3.Polybutadiene: These are used for providing wear resistance

in wheels of vehicles.
4.Silicone: These are used in the manufacture of medical

prostheses, lubricants as they have an excellent chemical and
thermal resistance.
5.Neoprene: These are used in the manufacture of wet-suits and

in industrial belts.
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•Temperature: The specific working temperature of elastomers vary depending on the factors like media
compatibility, seal design, and the dynamic and static operation.
•Low-temperature flexibility: The rate of recovery of elastomeric material can be studied by subjecting
the material to low-temperature retraction.
•Hardness: The measurement of the material’s resistance towards the deforming force for a defined
length of time is done by measuring the hardness. It differs from material to material. The soft compounds
deform easily and have high friction while the harder compounds have high resistance and low friction.
•Ageing: This property helps to understand the behavior of a material when exposed to heat. If the
elastomers are pushed beyond their ageing resistance, they will suffer from hardening, cracking, and
splitting.
•Colour: Colouring is used mainly to differentiate between the compound grades based on their usage.
•Elongation at break: This property is used for testing the moment of rupture when the material is under
tensile stress.

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Applications
•Motor vehicles: Some elastomers like thermoset doesn’t melt easily, making it efficient in building seals, tyres
various components throughout the automobile design. Especially those components which will be exposed to heat
during the functioning. The material of the type polybutadiene offers extraordinary wear resistance hence they are
preferable in building tyres.
•Consumer products: This comprises the widest range of products starting from shoe sole to baby pacifiers and many
more miscellaneous.
•Constructions: Adhesives and sealants materials enfolded under elastomers, which are an unavoidable part of any
constructions. Especially for filling the gaps.
•Industrial products: Elastomers are hugely used in making industrial tools, appliances, belts, molds, lubricants, etc.
•Wire and cable: Material needed to build wires should have high resistance to heat, easily reshaped(elongated), and
provide insulation. The elastomers like neoprene are perfect for this.
•Medical products: Medical field needs a wide range of products like prosthetics, lubricants, molds with superior
class of chemical and thermal resistance. Elastomer like silicon has widely used the material to build them and many
other goods.

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Elastic After – effect
The delay in restoring the original condition on the removal of deforming
force is called
Elastic After – effect .
Elastic Fatigue
It is the property of an elastic body due to which it exhibits its elastic
nature to a lesser extent .

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Young’s
Young’s modulus
modulus is
is also
also known
known as
as modulus
modulus of
of elasticity
elasticity and
and is
is defined
defined as:
as:
The
The mechanical
mechanical property
property of
of aa material
material to
to withstand
withstand the
the compression
compression or
or the
the elongation
elongation with
with respect
respect to
to its
its
length.
length.
It
It is
is denoted
denoted as
as E
E or
or Y.
Y.
Young’s
Young’s Modulus
Modulus (also
(also referred
referred toto as
as the
the Elastic
Elastic Modulus
Modulus or or Tensile
Tensile Modulus),
Modulus), isis aa measure
measure of
of mechanical
mechanical
properties
properties of
of linear
linear elastic
elastic solids
solids like
like rods,
rods, wires,
wires, and
and such.
such.
There
There are
are other
other numbers
numbers that
that give
give us
us aa measure
measure of
of elastic
elastic properties
properties of
of aa material,
material, like
like Bulk
Bulk modulus
modulus and
and
shear
shear modulus,
modulus, but
but the
the value
value ofof Young’s
Young’s Modulus
Modulus isis most
most commonly
commonly used.
used.
This
This isis because
because it
it gives
gives us
us information
information about
about the
the tensile
tensile elasticity
elasticity of
of aa material
material (ability
(ability to
to deform
deform along
along an
an
axis).
axis).
Young’s
Young’s modulus
modulus describes
describes the
the relationship
relationship between
between stress
stress (force
(force per
per unit
unit area)
area) and
and strain
strain (proportional
(proportional
deformation
deformation in in an
an object.
object.
The
The Young’s
Young’s modulus
modulus is
is named
named after
after the
the British
British scientist
scientist Thomas
Thomas Young.
Young.
A
A solid
solid object
object deforms
deforms when
when aa particular
particular load
load is
is applied
applied to
to it.
it. If
If the
the object
object is
is elastic,
elastic, the
the body
body regains
regains its
its
original
original shape
shape when
when the
the pressure
pressure is
is removed.
removed.
Many materials are not linear and elastic beyond a small amount of deformation.
Many materials are not linear and elastic beyond a small amount of deformation. The constant
constant Young’s
INDUTheR PILLAI Young’s
A

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Shear modulus or modulus of rigidity, denoted by G, or
sometimes S or μ, is defined as the ratio of shear stress to
the shear strain.

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In mechanics, Poisson’s ratio is the negative of the ratio of transverse strain to lateral or axial strain. It is named after Siméon
Poisson and denoted by the Greek letter ‘nu’, It is the ratio of the amount of transversal expansion to the amount of axial
compression for small values of these changes.
What is Poisson’s Ratio?

Poisson’s ratio is “the ratio of transverse contraction strain to longitudinal extension strain in the direction of the stretching
force.” Here,
•Compressive deformation is considered negative
•Tensile deformation is considered positive.
Symbol Greek letter ‘nu’,ν

Poisson’s ratio = – Lateral strain /
Formula
Longitudinal strain
Range -1.0 to +0.5
Units Unitless quantity
Scalar /
Scalar quantity LOURDES CONVENT HIGH SCHOOL
Vector
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Does Poisson’s ratio is dependent on temperature?
In general, Colder temperature decreases both strains and high-temperature

increases both horizontal and vertical strain. Thus, the net effect on
Poisson’s Ratio is small since the change in both horizontal and vertical
strain is by a similar amount. LOURDES CONVENT HIGH SCHOOL
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What is elastic potential energy?
This is the energy than an object has in it due to being deformation of its shape. Any object
which can be deformed and then return to its original shape, then it can have elastic potential
energy.
Examples of such objects are rubber bands, sponges, and bungee cords, and many others.
When we deform these objects, they move back to their original

shape on their own.
It is only possible due to accumulated potential energy which is
elastic potential energy.
Thus, elastic potential energy is the stored energy of a compressible

or stretchable object.

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1 2
∫ 𝑘𝑥 𝑑𝑥=𝑘∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥= 2 𝑘 𝑥
The elastic Potential Energy can be expressed in

Joule.

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volume

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In structural engineering, buckling is the sudden change in shape
(deformation) of a structural component under load, such as the
bowing of a column under compression or the wrinkling of a plate
under shear.
Bending is a state of stress while buckling is the state of instability.

Bending always occurs in beam and slabs, while column mostly
faces buckling behaviour because, upon axial loads on the column, the
column becomes unstable due to greater load.

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Why Are I Beams Used in Structural Steel Construction?
The shape of I beams makes them excellent for unidirectional bending

parallel to the web. The horizontal flanges resist the bending movement,
while the web resists the shear stress. They can take various types of loads
and shear stresses without buckling.

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THE END

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Properties of Solids

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Properties of Solids

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MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS

LOURDES CONVENT HIGH SCHOOL

A crystal can be formed by repeating small identical building block in

Inter-atomic and Inter-molecular forces

The force between molecules of compound (or element) is

It’s a Latin expression which means , “ as the tension , so the strain “ .

He published a law on elasticity as an array of letters arranged in alphabetical order like

LOURDES CONVENT HIGH SCHOOL

Such a force is called Deforming Force .

Deforming force can be a tensile force , a

LOURDES CONVENT HIGH SCHOOL

LOURDES CONVENT HIGH SCHOOL

Types of Stress Longitudinal Stress

Volume Stress or hydraulic stress. ( normal force / surface area )

Tangential Stress ( Tangential force per unit area )

LOURDES CONVENT HIGH SCHOOL

Strain = {Change in dimension} / {original dimension}

Strain also classified into three types

Longitudinal or Linear or Tensile Strain

LOURDES CONVENT HIGH SCHOOL

The angle of shear ( teta )

Robert Hooke ( 1635 – 1703 ) an English experimental physicist studied the

LOURDES CONVENT HIGH SCHOOL

2.Elastic limit: That maximum stress which on removing the

LOURDES CONVENT HIGH SCHOOL

(i) Proportional Limit

(ii) Elastic Limit

(iv) Ultimate Stress Point

(v) Fracture or Breaking Point

LOURDES CONVENT HIGH SCHOOL

,This energy is dissipated as internal friction (heat) in a material during

Hard metals, for example, display less hysteresis than high-

High-speed testing tends to generate the most noticeable results,

3.Polybutadiene: These are used for providing wear resistance

4.Silicone: These are used in the manufacture of medical

5.Neoprene: These are used in the manufacture of wet-suits and

LOURDES CONVENT HIGH SCHOOL

LOURDES CONVENT HIGH SCHOOL

LOURDES CONVENT HIGH SCHOOL

LOURDES CONVENT HIGH SCHOOL

LOURDES CONVENT HIGH SCHOOL

What is Poisson’s Ratio?

Symbol Greek letter ‘nu’,ν

In general, Colder temperature decreases both strains and high-temperature

When we deform these objects, they move back to their original

Thus, elastic potential energy is the stored energy of a compressible

LOURDES CONVENT HIGH SCHOOL

The elastic Potential Energy can be expressed in

LOURDES CONVENT HIGH SCHOOL

LOURDES CONVENT HIGH SCHOOL

Bending is a state of stress while buckling is the state of instability.

LOURDES CONVENT HIGH SCHOOL

The shape of I beams makes them excellent for unidirectional bending

LOURDES CONVENT HIGH SCHOOL

LOURDES CONVENT HIGH SCHOOL

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