GALGOTIAS UNIVERSITY

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSIOTHERAPY

LAB MANUAL

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF BIOMECHANICS

BHPP2008

2nd Semester

PREPARED BY:

Dr. JYOTI SHARMA

List Of Practical:

1. To demonstrate body levers.

2. To Study different force systems (GRF, moment arm) in various instruments

(shoulder wheel, shoulder ladder, balancing board etc).

3. To study different types of pulley’s & anatomical pulleys.

4. To study basic Human joint design. (concavo-convex rule).

5. To study different joints with relation to design, axis/planes of motion & ROM

6. To study general structure, types of muscles & their functions.

7. To Study biomechanical properties of muscles. (Extensibility, strength, endurance

etc).

8. To study biomechanical properties of muscle in special cases (aged, diseased,

disorder, contractures etc)

9. To Study Biomechanics of thoracic cage & breathing pattern. (Bucket handle, pump
handle)

10. To study biomechanics of abnormal breathing pattern. (Pregnancy, scoliosis, COPD

etc).

Practical 1
Aim : To demonstrate the types of levers in human body.

A lever is a rigid object that is used with an appropriate fulcrum or pivot point to multiply the
mechanical force that can be applied.

Most of the muscles in the human body use bones as the levers against which they work.
Bones, ligaments, and muscles are the structures that form levers in the body to create human
movement. In simple terms, a joint (where two or more bones join together) forms the axis
(or fulcrum), and the muscles crossing the joint apply the force to move a weight or
resistance.

Levers are typically labeled as first class, second class, or third class. All three types are
found in the body, but most levers in the human body are third class.
A first-class lever has the axis (fulcrum) located between the weight (resistance) and the
force. An example of a first-class lever is a pair of pliers or scissors. First-class levers in the
human body are rare. One example is the joint between the head and the first vertebra (the
atlantooccipital joint) .The weight (resistance) is the head, the axis is the joint, and the
muscular action (force)come from any of the posterior mu Heavy film greasescles attaching
to the skull, such as the trapezius.

In a second-class lever, the weight (resistance) is located between the axis (fulcrum) and the
force. The most obvious example is a wheelbarrow, where a weight is placed in the bed of the
wheelbarrow between the wheel (axis) and the hands of the person using the wheelbarrow
(force). In the human body, an example of a second-class lever is found in the lower leg when
someone stands on tiptoes. The axis is formed by the metatarsophalangeal joints, the
resistance is the weight of the body, and the force is applied to the calcaneus bone (heel) by
the gastrocnemius and soleus muscles through the Achilles tendon.
In a third-class lever, the most common in the human body, force is applied between the
resistance (weight) and the axis (fulcrum). For example, someone using a shovel to pick up
an object. The axis is the end of the handle where the person grips with one hand. The other
hand, placed somewhere along the shaft of the handle, applies force. At the other end of the
shovel (the bed), a resistance (weight) is present. There are numerous third-class levers in the
human body; one example can be illustrated in the elbow joint. The joint is the axis
(fulcrum). The resistance (weight) is the forearm, wrist, and hand. The force is the biceps
muscle when the elbow is flexed.

 MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE: Efficacy of force in relation to lever depends on two

factors.
They are
i) Force exerted (W/L) or (E)
ii) Perpendicular distance from fulcrum to the weight’s arm or efforts arm.
- When both weights/load arm and efforts arm are of equal length no advantage is
gained.
 - However, if the length of effort arm exceeds weight/load arm an advantage will be
gained by the use of lever. This is known as Mechanical advantage.
- Here less effort is required to lift a weight.
- Mechanical advantage is obtained in all levers of the 2nd order and in few 1st order
lever when fulcrum is nearer to weight than to effort,
- It is NEVER obtained in 3rd order lever and there is always Mechanical
disadvantage in 3rd order lever.
- It is the ratio of weight to effort M.A = EA/LA or EA/WA or Load/Effort

Practical 2
Aim: To Study different force systems (GRF, moment arm) in various instruments
(shoulder wheel, shoulder ladder, balancing board etc).

FORCE: It is defined as an agent which produces or tends to produce, destroys or tends to

destroy motion. e.g., a horse applies force to pull a cart and to set it in motion. Force is also
required to work on a bicycle pump. In this case, the force is supplied by the muscular power
of our arms and shoulders.

SYSTEM OF FORCES: When two or more forces act on a body, they are called to form a
system of forces.

Following systems of forces are important from the subject point of view;

1. Coplanar forces: The forces, whose lines of action lie on the same plane, are known as
coplanar forces.
2. Collinear forces: The forces, whose lines of action lie on the same line, are known as
collinear forces
3. Concurrent forces: The forces, which meet at one point, are known as concurrent forces.
The concurrent forces may or may not be collinear.
4. Coplanar concurrent forces: The forces, which meet at one point and their lines of action
also lie on the same plane, are known as coplanar concurrent forces.
5. Coplanar non-concurrent forces: The forces, which do not meet at one point, but their lines
of action lie on the same plane, are known as coplanar non-concurrent forces.
6. Non-coplanar concurrent forces: The forces, which meet at one point, but their lines of
action do not lie on the same plane, are known as non-coplanar concurrent forces.
7. Non-coplanar non-concurrent forces: The forces, which do not meet at one point and their
lines of action do not lie on the same plane, are called non-coplanar non-concurrent forces.
CHARACTERISTIC OF A FORCE: In order to determine the effects of a force, acting on a
body.

We must know the following characteristics of a force:

1. Magnitude of the force (i.e., 100 N, 50 N, 20 kN, 5 kN, etc.)
2. The direction of the line, along which the force acts (i.e., along OX, OY, at 30° North of
East etc.). It is also known as line of action of the force.
3. Nature of the force (i.e., whether the force is push or pull). This is denoted by placing an
arrow head on the line of action of the force.
4. The point at which (or through which) the force acts on the body

EFFECTS OF A FORCE: A force may produce the following effects in a body, on which it
acts:
1. It may change the motion of a body. i.e. if a body is at rest, the force may set it in motion.
And if the body is already in motion, the force may accelerate it.
2. It may retard the motion of a body.
3. It may retard the forces, already acting on a body, thus bringing it to rest or in equilibrium.
4. It may give rise to the internal stresses in the body, on which it acts.

PRINCIPLE OF TRANSMISSIBILITY: It states, “If a force acts at any point on a rigid

body, it may also be considered to act at any other point on its line of action, provided this
point is rigidly connected with the body.”

PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION: This principle states that the combined effect of force
system acting on a particle or a rigid body is the sum of effects of individual forces.

ACTION AND REACTION FORCE: Forces always act in pairs and always act in opposite
directions. When you push on an object, the object pushes back with an equal force. Think of
a pile of books on a table. The weight of the books exerts a downward force on the table. This
is the action force. The table exerts an equal upward force on the books. This is the reaction
force.

FREE BODY DIAGRAM: A free body diagram is a graphical illustration used to visualize
the applied forces, moments, and resulting reactions on a body in a given condition. They
depict a body or connected bodies with all the applied forces and moments, and reactions,
which act on the body. The body may consist of multiple internal members (such as a truss),
or be a compact body (such as a beam). A series of free bodies and other diagrams may be
necessary to solve complex problems.

REOSLUTION OF A FORCE: The process of splitting up the given force into a number of
components, without changing its effect on the body is called resolution of a force. A force is,
generally, resolved along two mutually perpendicular directions.

COMPOSITION OF FORCES: The process of finding out the resultant force, of a number of
given forces, is called composition of forces or compounding of forces.

RESULTANT FORCE: If a number of forces, P, Q, R ... etc. are acting simultaneously on a

particle, then it is possible to find out a single force which could replace them i.e., which
would produce the same effect as produced by all the given forces. This single force is called
resultant force and the given forces R ...etc. are called component forces.
NEWTON LAWS

Newton’s first law, the law of inertia, describes how a body moves in the absence of external
forces, stating that “a body will remain in its current state of motion unless acted upon by an
external force.” The “state of motion” is described by the body’s momentum (p), defined as
the product of its mass and linear velocity (p = mv). Simply put, if no force is applied to a
body, its momentum will remain constant.

Law of acceleration (Newton’s second law), which describes how a rigid body moves when
an external force is applied. It states, “the force will cause the body to accelerate in direct
proportion to the magnitude of the force and in the same direction as the force.” This
proportionality can be stated as an equality with the introduction of the body’s mass, resulting
in the famous Newtonian equation F = ma.

Newton’s third law describes how two masses interact with each other. The law of reaction
states that “when one body applies a force to another body, the second body applies an equal
and opposite reaction force on the first body.” A common example in biomechanics involves
a human in contact with the surface of the Earth, as when running. When the runner’s foot
strikes the ground, the runner applies a force to the Earth. This force can be represented as a
vector having a certain magnitude and direction.
The physical interaction of two bodies results in the application of action and reaction forces.
In this example, the runner is pushing against the ground. The figure on the left depicts the
force acting on the Earth resulting from the runner’s muscular efforts. On the right, the equal
but opposite reaction force that acts on the runner is shown, giving rise to the term ground
reaction force.

Newton’s laws can then be considered using this single resultant force. A useful tool when
dealing with kinetics problems is the free-body diagram (FBD), which is a simple sketch of
the body that includes all of the forces acting on it.

Figure 4.2a shows a runner crossing a force plate. In this case, because of the relative
complexity of the body shape, we chose to draw the outline of the runner. At the mass center
we drew the force of gravity and the accelerations of the mass center. The ground reaction
forces are included at the subject’s stance foot. Note that these are the reaction forces acting
on the runner, rather than the forces the runner is applying to the Earth. Figure 4.2b is an
FBD of a bicycle crank showing the known pedal forces. The crank is represented as a single
line and its mass center is indicated. At the distal end of the crank are the horizontal and
vertical forces of the pedal; we measured these forces and labelled their magnitudes. Because
the pedal has an axle with smooth bearings, we assumed that there was no moment of force
exerted about the pedal axle. At the proximal end of the crank, we drew the reaction forces on
the crank’s axle. These are unknown, so we gave them names and drew them in the positive
GCS directions. We also drew a resulting moment about the crank axle, which we gave a
positive counter clockwise direction because its magnitude is unknown. This moment is
nonzero because of the resistance of the chain driving the bicycle.

RE EDUCATION BOARD
It is a semi-circular board. Usually, it is made up of wood. It will help in performing
movement in gravity eliminated position and also against gravity.
Indications:
1. Hemiplegia. 2. Cerebral palsy. 3. Weakness of muscles. Uses: 1. Assist in performing
movement. 2. Maintain ROM. 3. Strengthening exercises.

SWISS BALL
It is a large inflated ball made up of plastic and filled with air used in physiotherapy
department to give balance exercises. It has transverse ridges for friction.
Indications:
1.Balance and co-ordination problems 2. Vestibular disease. 3. Cerebral palsy. 4. Lumbar
pain. 5. Weakness of trunk muscles. Uses 1. For postural training. 2. Gives balance training.
3. Head control training. 4. Strengthening of trunk and limb muscle.

SHOULDER WHEEL
It is mainly used for the purpose of shoulder rehabilitation. It is either made up of metal or
wood.
Uses
1. To improve the range of motion of shoulder. 2. For strengthening the upper limb
muscles. 3. To improve neuro muscular co-ordination.

FINGER LADDER
It is a wooden device which gives the objective reinforcement and motivation to patient for
improving shoulder range of motion. It also feed back to the patient about improvement. Uses
1. For improving range of motion. 2. For improving neuromuscular co-ordination of upper
limb.
Indication
1. Frozen shoulder. 2. Periarthritis shoulder. 3. Post traumatic stiffness of shoulder. 4.
Weakness of shoulder muscles.

PARALLEL BAR
It is equipment used in physiotherapy gym. It has got two horizontal frames which are
mounted on four vertical frames and a walking platform with one central divider to prevent
crossing of leg. A postural correction mirror will be placed at the end of the board. The main
purpose is to improve
(i) Standing tolerance. (ii) Gait training. (iii) Postural correction. Uses 1. Gait
training 2. Postural training. 3. Trunk control training. 4. Balance training with
and without support. 5. Strengthening and mobility management of lower limb.
Indications 1. Hemiplegia. 2. Cerebral palsy. 3. Post fracture and post traumatic
gait training. 4. Paraplegia.

MEDICINE BALLS
It is a leather ball which has got many layers of different materials. It has got outer layer
made up of thick leather and second layer made of foam and coir. Innermost layer is filled
with stone chips and sands. The coir and foam is for preventing injury to patient on direct hit.
Uses
(i) Strengthening of upper limb muscles. (ii) Eye hand co-ordination. (iii) Neuro-
muscular co-ordination. Indications 1. Paraplegia. 2. Patient with stiff hip. 3. Hand
eye co-ordination. 4. Maintenance of upper limb motion.
 EQUILIBRIUM BOARD
It is a board made up of wood or metal used in the physiotherapy department.
Indications
(i) Imbalance and co-ordination. (ii) Stiffness of ankle. (iii) Cerebral functioning

Practical 3
Aim: To study different types of pulley’s & anatomical pulleys.

Pulley is a grooved wheel which rotates about a fixed axis by a rope which passes round it.
The axis is supported by a frame work or block. The pulley is used to change the direction of
force. A pulley wheel is a mechanism which helps move or lift objects.

pulley

Exercise Machine
Parts of Pulley

Types of pulleys

i) Fixed pulleys
ii) Movable pulleys

i) Fixed Pulleys: These are used to alter the direction of force. The pulley block is
fixed and the rope which passes round the wheel is attached to the weight at one
end and the effort is applied at the other. Example: A ski lift operates on a fixed
pulley system.
ii)

Movable pulleys: These are used to gain mechanical advantage when lifting
heavy weights. Commonly used for lifting the trunk for suspension exercises. The
upper pulley is fixed to an overhead support, to which one end of rope is attached.
The rope is then wound round the movable pulley, to which the weight is attached,
and round the fixed pulley, the effort being applied at the free end. A movable
pulley rises and falls with load/weight being moved.
iii) A block and tackle - Consists of two or more pulleys (fixed and moveable).

The Pulley Advantage

A. In this simple pulley system, the force is equal to the load, so the
Mechanical Advantage is 1:1 or 1.
The Mechanical Advantage is calculated like so:
Mechanical Advantage = Load / Effort = 100 N / 100 N
Mechanical Advantage = 1:1 or 1

Eg.1. A simple pulley system

B. In movable pulleys or A block and tackle pulleys, the Mechanical

Advantage is 2:1 or 4:1 etc.

Eg.2. Each side of the rope carries half the load. Therefore, the force required by
the person to keep the load in equilibrium is also half the load. This system has a
Mechanical Advantage of 2:1 or 2.
The Mechanical Advantage is calculated like so:
Mechanical Advantage = Load / Effort = 100 N / 50 N
Mechanical Advantage = 2:1 or 2
+
Eg.2. A movable pulley system

Eg.3. This system has a Mechanical Advantage of 4:1 or 4.

The Mechanical Advantage is calculated like so:
Mechanical Advantage = Load / Effort = 2000 N / 500 N
Mechanical Advantage = 4:1 or 4
 Eg.3. Block and tackle pulley system

Practical 4
Aim: To study basic Human joint design. (concavo-convex rule).

'Arthrokinematics' refers to the movement of joint surfaces. Arthrokinematics differs

from Osteokinematics - in general Osteokinematics means bone movement and
Arthrokinematics joint movement.

The angular movement of bones in the human body occurs as a result of a combination
of rolls, spins, and slides.

1. A roll is a rotary movement, one bone rolling on another.

2. A spin is a rotary movement, one body spinning on another.
3. A slide is a translatory movement, sliding of one joint surface over
another.
 

Types of Arthrokinematics Motion

1. Joint Play: movement not under voluntary control (passive), cannot be

achieved by active muscular contraction.
2. Component Movement: involuntary obligatory joint motion occurring
outside the joint accompanies active motion – i.e. - scapulohumeral
rhythm

The convex-concave rule is the basis for determining the direction of the mobilizing
force when joint mobilization gliding techniques are used to increase a certain joint
motion.

The direction in which sliding occurs depends on whether the moving surface is concave
or convex. 

 Concave = hollowed or rounded inward

 Convex = curved or rounded outward
If the moving joint surface is CONVEX, sliding is in the OPPOSITE direction of the
angular movement of the bone.

If the moving joint surface is CONCAVE, sliding is in the SAME direction as the
angular movement of the bone.
 

Examples:

Glenohumeral articulation: concave glenoid fossa articulates with the

convex humeral head
Glenohumeral posterior glide increases flexion and internal rotation

Glenohumeral anterior glide increases extension and external rotation.

 Humeroradial articulation: convex capitulum articulates with the concave

radial head
Dorsal or posterior glide of the head of radius increases elbow extension

Volar or anterior glide of the head of the radius increases elbow flexion

 Hip joint: concave acetabulum articulates with the convex femoral head

Hip posterior glide increases flexion and internal rotation

Hip anterior glide increases extension and external rotation

 Tibiofemoral articulation: concave tibial plateaus articulate on the convex

femoral condyles
Tibiofemoral posterior glide increases flexion

Tibiofemoral anterior glide increases extension

 Talocrural joint: convex talus articulates with the concave mortise (tibia and
fibula)
Talocrural dorsal or posterior glide increases dorsiflexion

Talocrural ventral or anterior glide increases plantarflexion

Practical 5
Aim: To study different joints with relation to design, axis/planes of motion & ROM

. Anatomical Planes: relate to positions in space and found at right angles to each other and
these planes can be positioned on any specific parts of the body.
Frontal (Coronal)-vertical-splits the body into front and back halves.
Sagittal-vertical -splits the body into left and right halves.
Transverse -horizontal; splits the body into upper and lower halves.
Sagittal

 Flexion:  Decreasing the angle between two bones

 Extension: Increasing the angle between two bones
 Dorsiflexion: Moving the top of the foot toward the shin (only at the ankle)
 Plantarflexion: moving the sole of the foot downward (pointing the toes)

Frontal

 Adduction: Motion toward the midline

 Abduction: Motion away from the midline of the body
 Elevation: Moving to a superior position (only at the scapula)
 Depression: Moving to an inferior position (only at the scapula)
 Inversion: Lifting the medial border of the foot
 Eversion: Lifting the lateral border of the foot

Transverse

 Rotation- Internal (inward) or external (outward) turning about the vertical axis of the
bone
 Pronation- Rotating the hand and wrist medially from the bone
 Supination-Rotating the hand and wrist laterally from the bone
 Horizontal Flexion (adduction)- From the 90-degree abducted arm position, the
humerus is flexed (adducted) in toward the midline of the body in the transverse plane
 Horizontal Extension (abduction)- Return of the humerus from horizontal flexion

Joint actions
Knowing how the body moves and the actions that various joints allow is crucial for safe and
effective exercise instruction.  Some of the key joint actions that you should know are
detailed in the following tables.

 
Flexion:
Refers to movement where the angle between two bones decreases. 
Flexion is commonly known as bending.

Extension:
Refers to movement where the angle between two bones increases. 
Extension is otherwise known as straightening.

 
 Horizontal flexion:
Refers to movement where the angle between two bones decreases
and on the horizontal plane.

Horizontal extension:
Refers to movement where the angle between two bones increases
and occurs on the horizontal plane.

Lateral Flexion:
Refers to movement of the spine laterally away from the midline of
the body.  This can be seen when we bend to one side.

Abduction:
Is movement of a body segment away from the midline of the body.

Adduction:
Is movement of a body segment toward the midline of the body.

Circumduction:
This is a movement where the joint is the pivot and the body segment
moves in a combination of flexion, extension, adduction and
abduction.

 
 Protraction:
This is forward movement of the scapula that results in ‘hunching’ of
the shoulders.

Retraction:
This is backward movement of the scapula as they pull together to
‘square’ the shoulders and push the chest out.

Elevation:
Refers to the raising of the scapula to a more superior level (shrugging
the shoulders).

Depression:
Refers to the scapula moving to a more inferior position as they are
pulled downwards.

Supination:
Hand – movement so the palm of the hand faces upward or forward
(anteriorly).

Foot – combination of inversion, plantar flexion and adduction of the

foot occurring at the same time.

Pronation:
Hand – movement so the palm of the hand faces downward or
backward (posteriorly).

Foot – combination of eversion, dorsiflexion and abduction of the foot

occurring at the same time.

Plantar flexion:
Is moving the top of the foot away from the shin or ‘pointing’ the toes.
 Dorsiflexion:
Is moving the top of the foot toward the shin or ‘raising’ the toes.

  
Eversion:
Is the movement of the foot to bring the sole of the foot to face
outward.

Inversion:
Is the movement of the foot to bring the sole of the foot to face inward.

 
Rotation:
Refers to a pivoting or ‘twisting’ movement.  Rotation is broken down
further into medial and lateral rotation.

Medial rotation:  The movement of a body segment where the front

(anterior) of the segment rotates medially (inwards) towards the
midline of the body.

Lateral rotation:  The movement of a body segment where the front

(anterior) of the segment rotates laterally (outwards) away from the
midline of the body.

Anatomical Axes -a lot of our movement occurs via our joints -axes are used to describe the
direction of movement at joints.
  Anterior-posterior Axis-also known as the Sagittal Axis or Anteroposterior Axis

Imagine a pin that inserts through a joint from front to back (anteriorly and posteriorly),
effectively pinning down the joint to limit its potential freedom of motion. For example, you
can think of a pin entering through the front of the hip joint and exiting out the back. Because
of the pin’s position, the only movement allowed about this axis is lateral movement
(abduction or adduction) in the frontal plane.

 Mediolateral Axis-also known as the Transverse Axis

Mediolateral means that we take our imaginary pin and insert it from a lateral, or side
approach. As in the earlier elbow example, the axis projects from the medial side of the joint
and extends out the lateral side. The position of the pin allows only forward and backward
movement (flexion and extension) in the sagittal plane about this axis.

 Longitudinal Axis

If we insert our pin through the joint from top to bottom, it will allow movement in
transverse plane only (i.e., rotation). Imagine a long pin entering the top of the cervical spine
and exiting out the lumbar spine. The pin would effectively prevent the spine from bending
forward, backward, or side-to-side, but it would allow the spine to twist along a transverse
plane.

Joints rotate in these axes, allowing movement to occur in the planes. Some only rotate in one
axis, while others rotate in multiple axes.
Uniaxial or uniplanar joints (also called hinge joints) rotate in one axis, allowing
movement in one plane. The elbow joint is a hinge joint because it only allows movement
forward and backward (flexion and extension) in the sagittal plane.

Biaxial or biplanar joints rotate in two axes, allowing movement in two planes. The foot
and hand are examples of biaxial/biplanar joints. They both move laterally, or side-to-side, in
the frontal plane and forward and backward (flexion and extension) in the sagittal plane.

Multiplanar or triaxial joints rotate in all three axes allowing movement in all three planes.
The shoulder joint is an example of a multiplanar/triaxial joint. It allows forward and
backward movement in the sagittal plane, lateral, or side-to-side movement, in the frontal
plane, and internal and external rotation in the transverse plane.

Practical 6
Aim: To study general structure, types of muscles & their functions.

Human skeletal muscle is composed of a heterogenous collection of muscle fiber types.

This range of muscle fiber types allows for the wide variety of capabilities that human
muscles display.
The three types of muscle fibres are slow oxidative (SO), fast oxidative (FO) and fast
glycolytic (FG). Most skeletal muscles in a human contain(s) all three types, although in
varying proportions. In addition, muscle fibers can adapt to changing demands by
changing size or fiber type composition.

Skeletal muscle fibers can be classified based on two criteria: 1.How fast do fibers

contract relative to others. 2 How do fibers regenerate ATP.

Type 1: Slow oxidative (SO) fibers contract relatively slowly and use aerobic
respiration (oxygen and glucose) to produce ATP. They produce low power contractions
over long periods and are slow to fatigue.

These fibers have a rich capillary supply, numerous mitochondria and aerobic respiratory

enzymes, and a high concentration of myoglobin. Myoglobin is a red pigment, similar to
the hemoglobin in red blood cells, that improves the delivery of oxygen to the slow-
twitch fibers. Because of their high myoglobin content, slow-twitch fibers are also called
red fibers.

The fact that SO fibers can function for long periods without fatiguing makes them
useful in maintaining posture, producing isometric contractions, stabilizing bones and
joints, and making small movements that happen often but do not require large amounts
of energy. They do not produce high tension, and thus they are not used for powerful,
fast movements that require high amounts of energy and rapid cross-bridge cycling.

Type 2 A: Fast oxidative (FO) fibers have fast contractions and primarily use aerobic
respiration, but because they may switch to anaerobic respiration (glycolysis), can
fatigue more quickly than SO fibers.
Type 2A (FO) fibers are sometimes called intermediate fibers because they possess
characteristics that are intermediate between fast fibers and slow fibers. They produce
ATP relatively quickly, more quickly than SO fibers, and thus can produce relatively
high amounts of tension. They are oxidative because they produce ATP aerobically,
possess high amounts of mitochondria, and do not fatigue quickly. However, FO fibers
do not possess significant myoglobin, giving them a lighter color than the red SO fibers.
FO fibers are used primarily for movements, such as walking, that require more energy
than postural control but less energy than an explosive movement, such as sprinting. FO
fibers are useful for this type of movement because they produce more tension than SO
fibers but they are more fatigue-resistant than FG fibers.

Type 2 B: Fast glycolytic (FG) fibers have fast contractions and primarily use
anaerobic glycolysis. The FG fibers fatigue more quickly than the others.

Type 2B (FG) fibers primarily use anaerobic glycolysis as their ATP source. They have a
large diameter and possess high amounts of glycogen, which is used in glycolysis to
generate ATP quickly to produce high levels of tension. Because they do not primarily
use aerobic metabolism, they do not possess substantial numbers of mitochondria or
significant amounts of myoglobin and therefore have a white color. FG fibers are used to
produce rapid, forceful contractions to make quick, powerful movements. These fibers
fatigue quickly, permitting them to only be used for short periods.
Speed of Contraction

The speed of
contraction is
dependent on how
quickly myosin’s
ATPase hydrolyzes
ATP to produce
cross-bridge action.
Fast fibers
hydrolyze ATP
approximately twice
as rapidly as slow
fibers, resulting in
much quicker cross-
bridge cycling
(which pulls the thin filaments toward the center of the sarcomeres at a faster rate).

e.g. The extraocular muscles that position the eyes have a high proportion of fast-twitch
fibers and reach maximum tension in about 7.3 msec (milliseconds—thousandths of a
second). The soleus muscle  in the leg, by contrast, has a high proportion of slow-twitch
fibers and requires about 100 msec to reach maximum tension.
Numbers of Slow and Fast-Twitch Fibers
The number of slow and fast-twitch fibers contained in the body varies greatly between
individuals and is determined by a person’s genetics. People who do well at endurance
sports tend to have a higher number of slow-twitch fibers, whereas people who are better
at sprint events tend to have higher numbers of fast-twitch muscle fibers. Both the slow
twitch and fast-twitch fibers can be influenced by training. It is possible through sprint
training to improve the power generated by slow twitch fibers, and through endurance
training, it is possible to increase the endurance level of fast-twitch fibers. The level of
improvement varies, depending on the individual, and training can never make slow-
twitch fibers as powerful as fast-twitch, nor can training make fast-twitch fibers as
fatigue resistant as slow-twitch fibers.

Practical 7
Aim: To Study biomechanical properties of muscles. (Extensibility, strength, endurance
etc).

Skeletal, or striated, muscle performs the important functions of maintaining upright body
posture, moving the body limbs, and absorbing shock. Because straited muscle can only
perform these functions when appropriately stimulated, the human nervous system and the
muscular system are often referred to collectively as the neuromuscular system.

Properties of muscles
All muscle has several properties: contractility, excitability, extensibility, and elasticity:
1. Contractility is the ability of muscle cells to forcefully shorten. For instance, in order
to flex (decrease the angle of a joint) your elbow you need to contract (shorten) the
biceps brachii and other elbow flexor muscles in the anterior arm. Notice that in order
to extend your elbow, the posterior arm extensor muscles need to contract.
Thus, muscles can only pull, never push.
2. Excitability or Irritability is the ability to respond to a stimulus, which may be
delivered from a motor neuron or a hormone.
3. Extensibility is the ability of a muscle to be stretched. For instance, let's reconsider
our elbow flexing motion we discussed earlier. In order to be able to flex the elbow,
the elbow extensor muscles must extend in order to allow flexion to occur. Lack of
extensibility is known as spasticity.
4. Elasticity is the ability to recoil or bounce back to the muscle's original length after
being stretched.

 The properties of extensibility and elasticity are common to many biological tissues.
Extensibility is the ability to be stretched or to increase in length, and elasticity is the
ability to return to normal length after a stretch. Muscle's elasticity returns it to normal
resting length following a stretch and provides for the smooth transmission of tension
from muscle to bone.
The elastic behaviour of muscle has been described as consisting of two major components.
The parallel elastic component (PEC), provided by the muscle membranes, supplies
resistance when a muscle is passively stretched. The series elastic component (SEC),
residing in the tendons, acts as a spring to store elastic energy when a tensed muscle is
stretched. These components of muscle elasticity are so named because the membranes and
tendons are respectively parallel to and in series (or in line) with the muscle fibers, which
provide the contractile component. The elasticity of human skeletal muscle is believed to be
due primarily to the SEC.

Both the SEC and the PEC have a viscous property that enables muscle to stretch and recoil
in a time-dependent fashion. When a static stretch of a muscle group such as the hamstrings
is maintained over time, the muscle progressively lengthens, increasing joint range of motion.
From a mechanical perspective, the musculotendinous unit behaves as a contractile
component (the muscle fibers) in parallel with one elastic component (the muscle
membranes) and in series with another elastic component (the tendons).

 Another of muscle’s characteristic properties, irritability, is the ability to respond to a

stimulus. Stimuli affecting muscles are either electrochemical, such as an action
potential from the attaching nerve, or mechanical, such as an external blow to a
portion of a muscle. When activated by a stimulus, muscle responds by
developing tension. The ability to develop tension is the one behavioral characteristic
unique to muscle tissue. Historically, the development of tension by muscle has been
referred to as contraction, or the contractile component of muscle function.

MUSCLE STRENGTH, POWER, ENDURANCE

The force-generating characteristics of muscle are discussed with the concepts of muscular

strength, power, and endurance. 

MUSCLE STRENGTH

Muscular strength is the ability of a given muscle group to generate torque at a particular
joint. Torque is the product of force and the force’s moment arm, or the perpendicular
distance at which the force acts from an axis of rotation.

Resolving a muscle force into two orthogonal components, perpendicular and parallel to the
attached bone, provides a clear picture of the muscle’s torque-producing effect. Because the
component of muscle force directed perpendicular to the attached bone produces torque, or a
rotary effect, this component is termed the rotary component of muscle force. The size of the
rotary component is maximum when the muscle is oriented at 90° to the bone, with change in
angle of orientation in either direction progressively diminishing it. 
The component of muscular force that produces torque at the joint crossed (Ft) is directed
perpendicular to the attached bone.

MUSCLE POWER

Muscular power is more generally defined as the rate of torque production at a joint, or the
product of the net torque and the angular velocity at the joint. Accordingly, muscular power
is affected by both muscular strength and movement speed.

Muscular power is an important contributor to activities requiring both strength and speed.

The strongest shot-putter on a team is not necessarily the best shot-putter, because the ability
to accelerate the shot is a critical component of success in the event. Athletic endeavours that
require explosive movements, such as Olympic weight lifting, throwing, jumping, and
sprinting, are based on the ability to generate muscular power.

Since FT fibers develop tension more rapidly than do ST fibers, a large percentage of FT

fibers in a muscle is an asset for an individual training for a muscular power–based event.
Individuals with a predominance of FT fibers generate more power at a given load than do
individuals with a high percentage of ST compositions.

MUSCLE ENDURANCE

Muscular endurance is the ability of the muscle to exert tension over time. The tension may
be constant, as when a gymnast performs an iron cross, or may vary cyclically, as during
rowing, running, and cycling. The longer the time tension is exerted, the greater the
endurance. Although maximum muscular strength and maximum muscular power are
relatively specific concepts, muscular endurance is less well understood because the force
and speed requirements of the activity dramatically affect the length of time it can be
maintained.

Training for muscular endurance typically involves large numbers of repetitions against
relatively light resistance. This type of training does not increase muscle fibre diameter.
MUSCLE FATIGUE

Muscle fatigue has been defined as an exercise-induced reduction in the maximal force

capacity of muscle. Fatigability is also the opposite of endurance. The more rapidly a muscle
fatigues, the less endurance it has. A complex array of factors affects the rate at which a
muscle fatigues, including the type and intensity of exercise, the specific muscle groups
involved, and the physical environment in which the activity occurs. Moreover, within a
given muscle, fiber type composition and the pattern of motor unit activation play a role in
determining the rate at which a muscle fatigue.

Characteristics of muscle fatigue include reduction in muscle force production capability and

shortening velocity, as well as prolonged relaxation of motor units between recruitment.
High-intensity muscle activity over time also results in prolonged twitch duration and a
prolonged sarcolemma action potential of reduced amplitude.

A muscle fiber reaches absolute fatigue once it is unable to develop tension when stimulated
by its motor axon. Fatigue may also occur in the motor neuron itself, rendering it unable to
generate an action potential. FG fibers fatigue more rapidly than FOG fibers, and SO fibers
are the most resistant to fatigue.

Practical 8
Aim: To study biomechanical properties of muscle in special cases (aged, diseased,
disorder, contractures etc)

AGING

 Aging effects all body organs and systems, even the skeletal muscle. As we age our
muscles undergo progressive changes, primarily involving loss of muscle mass
and strength.
 The age-related loss of muscle function is known as Sarcopenia, derived from the
Greek words for flesh (sarcos) and loss (penia) and its definition includes loss of
muscle strength and power, as well as reduced function. It occurs with increasing age,
and is a major component in the development of frailty.
 The loss of muscle mass during the aging process is important clinically as it reduces
strength and exercise capacity, both which are needed to perform activities of daily
living.
 With increasing age, we lose muscle mass: lean muscle mass contributes up to 50% of
total body weight in young adults, but this decreases to 25% by 75 to 80 years
 The total number of muscle fibers is significantly reduced with age, beginning at
about 25 years and progressing at an accelerated rate thereafter the decline in
muscle cross-sectional area is most likely due to decreases in total fiber number,
especially type II fast-twitch glycolytic fibers. This results in reduced muscle
power.
DISEASE OR DISORDERS

 Muscle Disorders are the diseases and disorders that affect the  human muscle
system and their main manifestation is skeletal muscle weakness. The terms
‘muscular dystrophy’, ‘neuromuscular conditions’ and ‘neuromuscular disorders’
fall under the umbrella of the term 'Muscle Disorders'.
 These disorders are a large group of conditions which affect either the muscles,
such as those in the arms and legs or heart and lungs, or the nerves which control
the muscles. Disorders of muscle may cause weakness or paralysis in the presence
of an intact nervous system. 

 Muscle disorders can be classified on the basis of :

 Primary or secondary: Diseases and disorders as a result of direct abnormalities of

the muscles are considered primary muscle diseases, Eg. Polymyositis . And
Diseases that are secondary to another condition and may have caused muscle
damage, Eg. diseases due to endocrine issues.
 Genetic or Acquired
 Neuromuscular or Myopathies

Symptoms vary with the different types of muscular disorder.

Symptoms of muscular disorder may include:

 Muscle weakness that slowly gets worse.

 breathing issues, especially dyspnea (shortness of breath)
 dizziness,
 Fatigue
 Muscle wasting, loss of strength
 high fever,
 a stiff neck. 
 Numbness, tingling, or painful sensations
 Double vision
 Droopy eyelids
 Problems with swallowing—dysphagia
 Difficulty using one or more muscle groups, muscle weakness,
 Problem in walking, balance and frequent falls .

CONTRACTURES
  Contracture is a clinical term meaning a decrease in passive range of motion (ROM)
at a joint. It may be the result of loss of length in muscle(s) or periarticular connective
tissues (cartilage, capsule, and ligament) with increased stiffness in these structures.
All neurological conditions which involve muscle weakness and spasticity are prone
to developing contracture. The most detrimental effect on activity when muscles
shorten and stiffen tend to be in those muscles where the full range is needed in
everyday tasks, e.g. gastrocnemius for standing and walking. 
 Contractures results due to lack of full passive range of motion (ROM) of a joint
resulting from structural changes of non-bony tissues, such as muscles, tendons,
ligaments, joint capsules and/or skin.
 Contractures develop when normal elastic connective tissues are replaced with
inelastic fibrous tissue. There are many causes of contractures including chronic
inflammation (rheumatoid arthritis), deformity (osteoarthritis, scoliosis), immobility
(after fracture or surgery), injury (burns, stroke), disease (Parkinson's disease), or a
combination of these factors. 

Practical 9
Aim: To Study Biomechanics of thoracic cage & breathing pattern. (Bucket handle,
pump handle)

 The thorax is formed by the thoracic vertebrae, the ribs and the sternum.
  The rib cage is a system of various bones and muscle. Bones involved are
sternum, 12 pairs of Ribs, 12 Thoracic vertebrae.
 It is like a compartment sealed by various structures from each side.
Side of compartment Contents

Posterior-laterally - Thoracic vertebrae

- Ribs
- Intercoastal muscles and membrane

Anteriorly - Coastal cartilages

- Sternum
-Intercoastal muscles and membrane

Superiorly - Upper ribs and clavicle

- Cervical fascia surrounding esophagus and trachea

Inferiorly -Diaphragm muscle

 The sternum consists of manubrium, body and xiphoid process. Its details can
be referred to on page : sternum.
 The ribs  are from T1 to T12 region

Biomechanics (Kinematics)of Thoracic Cage

The motion of the ribs in conjunction with sternum and thoracic vertebrae helps produce
the movements of respiration. These consist of inspiration and expiration.

Thoracic kinematics consists of understanding the changes in intrathoracic volume

during ventilation.

These occur due to complex, synchronized activity of the ribs along with sternum and
primary muscles of respiration. It is determined by:

 Type & angles of articulations

 movement of manubrium sternum
 elasticity of costal cartilage

The kinematics involved in the thorax can be further classified into:

 Changes in vertical diameter

 Changes in anterior-posterior diameter (Pump handle motion)
 Changes in transverse diameter (Bucket handle motion)
Changes in Vertical diameter

 This is mainly due to excursion of Diaphragm muscle.

 During inspiration: Diaphragm contracts -> lowering of the dome of
diaphragm -> increase in vertical diameter of thorax.
 During expiration: Diaphragm relaxes -> dome recoils upward to resting
position -> decrease in vertical diameter of thorax.

Changes in A-P and transverse diameter

 There is a single axis of motion for 1 to 10 ribs through the center of their
costovertebral (CV) and costotransverse (CT) joints. This influences the
motion of these ribs during the process of respiration
 The two main motions occurring in thorax during ventilation can be explained
as below,

(VIDEO)

Changes in Anterior-Posterior Changes in Transverse diameter/Bucket

diameter/Pump handle Movement Handle Movement

Mainly motion Upper ribs Lower ribs

of

common Axis nearly in frontal plane nearly in sagittal plane

of motion
oriented

Thoracic in sagittal plane in frontal plane

motion occurs

During  Upper ribs elevate  Lower ribs elevate

Inspiration  Motion is of anterior part of
the ribs
 It pushes sternum ventrally
and superiorly
 Total motion of sternum and
upper ribs together increases
in anterior-posterior diameter
of thorax
 Motion of sternum resembles
 Motion is more in the lateral
part of ribs due to its more
angled shape and indirect
attachment of the ribs
 Total motion of lower ribs
together increases the
transverse diameter of thorax
 Motion of the lower ribs
resembles bucket handle
 pump handle movement, movement, hence the name.
hence the name.

Muscles involved in respiration

 To bring about the intrathoracic volume changes during respiration, muscles

of respiration  play a crucial role. The muscles can be divided into primary and
accessory depending on type of breathing i.e., quite or forced, in which they
are used.

Primary Muscles

 Diaphragm
 Intercoastal muscles
 Scalene

Accessory Muscles

 Sternocleidomastoid
 Trapezius
 Pectoralis major
 Pectoralis minor
 Subclavius
 Levator costarum
 Serratus posterior superior
 Serratus posterior inferior
 Abdominal muscles
 Transverse thoracis

Practical 10
Aim: To Study Biomechanics of abnormal breathing pattern. (Pregnancy, scoliosis,
COPD etc).

Breathing Pattern Disorders (BPD) or Dysfunctional Breathing are abnormal

respiratory patterns, specifically related to over-breathing. They range from simple upper
chest breathing to, at the extreme end of the scale, hyperventilation (HVS).
There are multiple types of normal and abnormal respiration.

They include apnea, eupnea, orthopnea, dyspnea, hyperpnea, hyperventilation,

hypoventilation, tachypnea, Kussmaul respiration, Cheyne-Stokes respiration, sighing
respiration, Biot respiration, apneustic breathing, central neurogenic hyperventilation, and
central neurogenic hypoventilation.

Each pattern is clinically important and useful in evaluating patients.

Apnea

Absence of breathing.

Eupnea

Normal breathing

Orthopnea

Only able to breathe comfortable in upright position (such as sitting in chair), unable to
breath laying down.

Dyspnea

Subjective sensation related by patient as to breathing difficulty

Paroxysmal nocturnal dyspnea - attacks of severe shortness of breath that wakes a person
from sleep, such that they have to sit up to catch their breath - common in patient's with
congestive heart failure.
Hyperpnea

Hyperpnea: Increased depth of breathing.

Increased volume with or without and increased frequency (RR), normal blood gases present.

Hyperventilation

Hyperventilation. Increased rate (A) or depth (B), or combination of both.

"Over" ventilation - ventilation in excess of the body's need for CO2 elimination. Results in a
decreased PaCO2, and a respiratory alkalosis.

Hypoventilation

Hypoventilation.  Decreased rate (A) or depth (B), or some combination of both.

"Under" ventilation - ventilation that is less than needed for CO2 elimination, and inadequate
to maintain normal PaCO2. Results in respiratory acidosis.

Can be a slow rate with normal tidal volumes such that the total minute ventilation is inadequate.

Can be a normal rate but with such low tidal volumes that air exchange is only in the dead space and not effective.

Tachypnea

Increased frequency without blood gas abnormality

Kussmaul's Respiration

Kussmaul's respiration. Increased rate and depth of breathing over a prolonged period of
time. In response to metabolic acidosis, the body's attempt to blow off CO2 to buffer a fixed
acid such as ketones. Ketoacidosis is seen in diabetics.

Cheyne-Stokes respirations (CSR)

Gradual increase in volume and frequency, followed by a gradual decrease in volume and
frequency, with apnea periods of 10 - 30 seconds between cycle. Described as a crescendo
 - decrescendo pattern. Characterized by cyclic waxing and waning ventilation with apnea
gradually giving way to hyperpneic breathing.

Seen with low cardiac output states (CHF) with compromised cerebral perfusion

Creates lag of CSF CO2 behind arterial PaCO2 and results in characteristic cycle.

Delayed sensitivity to CO2 changes- during apnea the CO2 increase above the threshold
for stimulus but the brain is slow to respond, then it over shoots by hyperventilating
and the signal to reduce ventilation is slow to be recognized.

Biot's respiration

Similar to CSR but VT is constant except during apneic periods. Short episodes of rapid, deep
inspirations followed by 10 - 30 second apneic period.

Seen with patients with elevated ICP as seen in meningitis

Apneustic breathing

Indicates damage to pons

Central neurogenic hyperventilation

Persistent hyperventilation

May be caused by head trauma, severe brain hypoxia, or lack of cerebral perfusion

Mid brain and upper pons damage

Central neurogenic hypoventilation

Medulla respiratory centers are not responding to appropriate stimuli.

Associated with head trauma, cerebral hypoxia, and narcotic suppression

ABNORMAL BREATHING PATTERNS IN FOLLOWING CONDITIONS:

PREGNANCY

During healthy pregnancy, pulmonary function, ventilatory pattern and gas exchange are
affected through both biochemical and mechanical pathways, as summarised in figure 1.

Figure 1

Flow diagram summarising the most important effects of biochemical (left) and mechanical
(right) pregnancy-induced factors on pulmonary function, ventilatory pattern and gas
exchange. PO2: oxygen tension; PCO2: carbon dioxide tension; FRC: functional residual
capacity; ERV: expiratory reserve volume; TLC: total lung capacity; IC: inspiratory capacity;
VC: vital capacity; ↑: increased; ↓: decreased; ≈: no change.

SCOLIOSIS

Scoliosis is a sideways curvature of the spine that most often is diagnosed in adolescents.
While scoliosis can occur in people with conditions such as cerebral palsy and muscular
dystrophy, the cause of most childhood scoliosis is unknown. Most cases of scoliosis are
mild, but some curves worsen as children grow.

Scoliosis results in a restrictive lung disease with a multifactorial decrease in lung volumes,
displaces the intrathoracic organs, impedes on the movement of ribs and affects the
mechanics of the respiratory muscles.
COPD (CHRONIC OBSTRUCTIVE PULMONARY DISEASE)

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a chronic inflammatory lung disease that
causes obstructed airflow from the lungs. Symptoms include breathing difficulty, cough,
mucus (sputum) production and wheezing.

Patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) demonstrate hypercapnia, that
is associated with shallow breathing and inspiratory muscle weakness. The rapid and
shallow breathing appears to be linked to both a marked increase in the pressure required for
breathing relative to inspiratory muscle strength and to the severity of the breathlessness.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN OBSTRUCTIVE AND RESTRICTIVE LUNG DISORDERS