Mechanical properties of Solids

Deforming force. If a force is applied on a body which is neither

free to move nor free to rotate, the molecules of the body are forced
to undergo a change in their relative positions. As a result, the body
may undergo a change in length, volume or shape. A force which
changes the size or shape of a body is called deforming force.

Elasticity. If a body regains its original size and shape after the
removal of deforming force, it is said to be elastic body and this
property is called elasticity. For example, if we stretch a rubber band
and release it, it snaps back to its original length.

Perfectly elastic body. If a body regains its original size and shape
completely and immediately after the removal of deforming force, it
is said to be a perfectly elastic body. The nearest approach to a
perfectly elastic body is quartz fibre.

Plasticity. If a body does not regain its original size and shape even
after the removal of deforming force, it is said to be a plastic body
and this property is called plasticity. For example, if we stretch a
piece of chewing-gum and release it, it will not regain its original
size and shape.

Perfectly plastic body. If a body does not show any tendency to

regain its original size and shape even after the removal of
deforming force, it is said to be a perfectly plastic body. Putty and
paraffin wax are nearly perfectly plastic bodies.

Note: No body is perfectly elastic or perfectly plastic. All the bodies

found in nature lie between these two limits. When the elastic
behaviour of a body decreases, its plastic behaviour increases.
Elastic behaviour in terms of interatomic forces

In a solid, atoms and molecules are arranged in such a way that

each molecule is acted upon by the forces due to the neighbouring
molecules. These forces are known as inter molecular forces.

(i) As the intermolecular distance r decreases, the force of attraction

between the molecules increases.

(ii) When the distance decreases to r1, the force of attraction is

maximum.
(iii) As the distance further decreases, the attractive force goes on
decreasing and when the distance decreases to ro, the force
becomes zero. When the distance decreases below ro, the molecules
begin to repel and the repulsive force increases rapidly.

Stress in Materials
If a body is subjected to any deforming force and then removed, a
restoring force is developed in the body. The restoring force will be
equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to the applied
deforming force.

Stress is the internal restoring force acting on a body per unit area.

Let F be the force applied normally to the cross-section and A be the

area of the cross-section of the body. Now, the magnitude of stress
acting on a body will be directly proportional to the restoring force
applied and inversely proportional to the area of the cross-section.
i.e.,
Stress = Force/ Area

The SI unit of stress is Nm-2 or pascal (Pa)

Types of Stress
Stress can be further classified as given below:

Here tensile stress or compressive stress can also be termed

Longitudinal Stress, whereas Compressive stress is also known as
hydraulic stress.
Strain in Materials
Strain is simply the ratio of change in configuration (change in
length, volume or shape) of an object because of some external
stress to its original configuration of the body. And strain can be
further classified into three categories

1. Longitudinal strain: The change in the length ΔL to the

original length L of the body (cylinder in this case) is known as
longitudinal strain.i.e.,

2. Volume strain: The strain produced by compressive stress is

called volume strain and is defined as the ratio of change in
volume (ΔV) to the original volume (V).

3. Shearing strain: If there is no change in volume or length

either there is only a change in the shape of a body. Such a
change in shape is known as shearing strain. In other words, it
can be explained as the strain that is caused because of
tangential stress. It is defined as the angle through which a
plane perpendicular to the fixed surface of the cubical body
gets turned under the effect of tangential force, i.e., it can be
expressed as
Hooke’s Law in Mechanical Properties of Solids
According to Hooke’s law, within the elastic limit, the stress
developed in a body will be directly proportional to the change
produced in the body.

i.e., stress ∝ strain

∴ stress = k × Strain

Here k is the proportionality constant which is known as the modulus

of elasticity

Stress-Strain Curve
According to Hooke’s experiment, the relation between the stress
and the strain for a given material under tensile stress can be found
experimentally.

If we plot a graph of stress vs strain for any metal body, we can see
an ideal curve as shown below
This shows that as stress increases the strain on the material will also
increase, but after a certain point the curve becomes non-uniform
(i.e., between point A and E).

Here, the region between A to B stress and strain are not

proportional. Point B in the curve is known as yield point (also known
as elastic limit) and the corresponding stress is known as yield
strength of the material. Below this point, the body can retain its
original shape and size but if stress goes beyond σy the body will
start deforming permanently and is said to be permanently set.
There are three types of modulus of elasticity:

1. Young’s Modulus of elasticity (Y)

2. Bulk modulus of elasticity (B)
3. Modulus of rigidity or shear modulus of elasticity (η)

1. Young’s Modulus of Elasticity (Y)

It is the ratio of Longitudinal (tensile or compressive) stress (σ) to

the longitudinal strain (ϵ) is defined as Young’s modulus and is
denoted by the symbol Y.
It is valid within the elastic limit.

2. Bulk Modulus of Elasticity (B)

It is the ratio of Hydraulic (compressive) stress (p) to the volumetric

strain (ΔV/V) that is defined as Bulk modulus and is denoted by the
symbol K.
It is valid within the elastic limit .

Here the negative sign shows that the negative sign indicates the
fact that with an increase in pressure, a decrease in volume occurs.
That is, if p is positive and ΔV is negative.
 3. Modulus of rigidity or shear modulus of elasticity (η)

The ratio of tangential stress to the shearing strain θ is defined as

the modulus of rigidity or shear modulus of elasticity and it is
denoted by the symbol η.

Poisson’s Ratio
Simon Poisson pointed out that within the elastic limit, lateral strain
is directly proportional to the longitudinal strain. The ratio of the
lateral strain to the longitudinal strain in a stretched wire is called
Poisson’s ratio.

Here lateral strain is the strain perpendicular to the applied force

and it is given as (ΔR/R)
 ● Here the negative sign shows that as length of wire increases,
the radius of wire will decrease.
● The normal value of σ lies between -1 and +1/2
● Whereas the practical value of σ lies between 0 to +1/2
● And just like strain Poisson’s ratio is also Dimensionless.

Points to Remember
● For a rigid body, the value of Poisson’s ratio is zero. A zero
Poisson’s ratio means that there is no transverse deformation
resulting from an axial strain.
● Most materials have Poisson’s ratio values ranging between 0.0
and 0.5.
● A perfectly incompressible material deformed elastically at
small strains would have a Poisson’s ratio of exactly 0.5.
● Most steels and rigid polymers when used within their design
limits (before yield) exhibit values of about 0.3, increasing to
0.5 for post-yield deformation which occurs largely at constant
volume.
● Rubber has a Poisson ratio of nearly 0.5.
● Cork’s Poisson ratio is close to 0, showing very little lateral
expansion when compressed

Ductile materials. The materials which have large plastic range of

extension are called ductile materials.Such materials undergo an
irreversible increase in length before snapping. So they can be
drawn into thin wires. beyo For example, copper, silver, iron,
aluminium, etc

Brittle materials. The materials which have very small range of

plastic extension are called brittle materials. Such materials break as
soon as the stress is increased beyond the elastic limit. Their
breaking point lies just close to their elastic limit, example, cast
iron, glass, ceramics, etc

Elastomers. The materials which can be elastically stretched to large

values of strain are called elastomers. For example, rubber can be
stretched to several times its e original length but still it can regain
its original length when the applied force is removed.
Some other important formulas