Revision Notes

Class - 11 Physics
Chapter 6 – Work, Energy and Power

1. WORK

In Physics, work refers to ‘mechanical work’. Work is said to be done by a force

on a body when the body is actually displaced through some distance in the
direction of the applied force.

However, when there is no displacement in the direction of the applied force, there
is no work done, i.e., work done is zero, when displacement of the body in the
direction of the force is zero.

Consider a constant force ‘F’ acting on a body to produce a displacement ‘s’ in the
body along the positive x-direction as shown in the following figure:

If  is the angle which F makes with the positive x-direction of the displacement,
then the component of F in the direction of displacement is given by Fcos. Since
the work done by the force is the product of component of force in the direction of
the displacement and the magnitude of the displacement, we can write:
W = (F cos )s

Now, when the displacement is in the direction of force applied, i.e., when  = 0 0 ;

W= (Fcos0)s = F.s

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 Clearly, work done by a force is the dot product of force and displacement.

In terms of rectangular components, F and s may be written as

F = ˆiFx + ˆjFY + kF
ˆ and s = ˆix + ˆjy + kz
Z
ˆ

(
 W = ˆiFx + ˆjFY + kF )(
ˆ . ˆix + ˆjy + kz
Z
ˆ )
 W = xFx + yFy + zFz

Work is a scalar quantity, i.e., it has magnitude only and no direction. However,
work done by a force can be positive, negative or zero.

2. DIMENSIONS AND UNITS OF WORK

As work = force × distance;

 W = (M1L2T−2 )  L

 W = [M1L2T−2 ]

This is the dimensional formula of work.

The units of work are of two kinds: a) Absolute units and b) Gravitational units

a) Absolute units

1. Joule: It is the absolute unit of work in the SI system of units. Work done is
said to be one joule, when a force of one newton actually moves a body
through a distance of one meter in the direction of applied force.
 1joule = 1newton 1metre  cos00 = 1N.m
2. Erg: It is the absolute unit of work in the CGS system of units. Work done is
said to be one erg, when a force of one dyne actually moves a body through
a distance of one cm in the direction of applied force.
 1erg = 1dyne  1cm  cos00 = 1dyne.cm

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 b) Gravitational units

These are also known as practical units of work.

1. Kilogram-meter (kg-m): It is the gravitational unit of work in the SI system

of units. Work done is said to be one kg-m, when a force of 1kgf moves a
body through a distance of 1m in the direction of the applied force.
 1kg − m = 1kgf 1m  cos00 = 9.8N 1m = 9.8joules , i.e.,
 1kg − m = 9.8J
2. Gram-centimeter (g-cm): It is the gravitational unit of work in the CGS
system of units. Work done is said to be one g-cm, when a force of 1gf
moves a body through a distance of 1cm in the direction of the applied force.
 1g − cm = 1gf 1cm  cos00
 1g − cm = 980dyne  1cm  1
 1g − m = 980ergs

3. NATURE OF WORK DONE

Although work done ( W = (Fcos )s ) is a scalar quantity, its value may be
positive, negative, negative or even zero, as detailed below:

a) Positive work is said to be done on a body when  is acute (  90 0 ). Clearly,

cos turns out to be positive and hence, the work done is positive.
For example, when a body falls freely under the action of gravity,
 = 00;cos  = cos00 = +1. Clearly, work done by gravity on a body falling
freely is positive.
b) Negative work is said to be done on a body when  is obtuse (  90 0 ).
Clearly, cos is negative and hence, the work done is negative.
For example, when a body is thrown up, its motion is opposed by gravity.
The angle  between gravitational force and the displacement is 1800 . Since
cos  = cos180 0 = −1; work done by gravity on a body moving upwards is
negative.

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 c) Zero work is said to be done on a body when force applied on it or the
displacement caused or both of them are zero. Here, when angle  between
force and displacement is 9 0 0 ; cos  = cos900 = 0 and hence, the work done
is zero.
For example, when we push hard against a wall, the force we exert on
the wall does no work because displacement is zero in this case. However, in
this process, our muscles are contracting and relaxing alternately and
internal energy is being used up. This is why we do get tired.

4. WORK DONE BY A VARIABLE FORCE

a) Graphical Method:
A constant force is rare. It is the variable force which is encountered more
commonly.
To evaluate the work done by a variable force, let us consider a force acting
along a fixed direction, say x–axis, but having a variable magnitude.
We have to compute work done in moving the body from A to B under the
action of this variable force.
To facilitate this, we assume that the entire displacement from A to B is
made up of a large number of infinitesimal displacements.
One such displacement shown in the following figure from P to Q.

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 Since the displacement PQ = dx is infinitesimally small, we consider that all
along this displacement, force is constant in magnitude as well in the same
direction.
Now, a small amount of work done in moving the body from P to Q is given
by,
dW = F  dx = (PS)(PQ) = area of strip PQRS
Therefore, the total work done in moving the body from A to B is given by
 W = dW
 W = F dx
Here, when the displacement is allowed to approach zero, then the number
of terms in the sum increases without a limit. And the sum approaches a
definite value equal to the area under the curve CD.

Thus, we may rewrite that

 W = lim F(dx)
dx→x

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 Using integral calculus, we may write it as
XB
W=
XA  A(dx)
Where,
xA = OA and xB = OB
XB
W=
XA  area of strip PQRS
Which is nothing but the total area under the curve between F and x-axis
from x = xA to x = xB .
W=Area of ABCDA
Clearly, the work done by a variable force is numerically equal to the area
under the force curve and the displacement axis.

b) Mathematical Treatment (of work done by a variable force)

Suppose we have to evaluate the work done in moving a body from a point
A ( SA ) to point B ( SB ) under the action of a varying force as shown in the
following figure. Here, SA and SB are the distance of the points A and B
with respect to some reference point.

At any stage, let the body be at P, where force on the body is F .

Under the action of this force, let the body undergo an infinitesimally small
displacement ds
During such a small displacement, if we assume that the force remains
constant, then small amount of work done in moving the body from P to Q is
given by,
dW = F.ds

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 Now, when the displacement is zero, the total work done in moving the body
from A to B can be obtained by integrating the above expression between
SA and SB as follows:
SB
W=
SA  F.ds

5. CONSERVATIVE & NON-CONSERVATIVE FORCES

a) Conservative force

A force is said to be conservative when the work done by or against the

force in moving a body is dependent only on the initial and final positions of
the body, and not on the nature of path followed between the initial and the
final positions.

This suggests that the work done by or against a conservative force in

moving a body over any path between fixed initial and final positions would
be the same.

For instance, gravitational force is a conservative force.

Properties of Conservative forces:

• Work done by or against a conservative force in moving a body from

one position to the other depends only on the initial position and final
position of the body.
• Work done by or against a conservative force does not depend upon
the nature of the path followed by the body in going from initial
position to the final position.
• Work done by or against a conservative force in moving a body
through any round trip (i.e., closed path, where final position
coincides with the initial position of the body) is always zero.

b) Non-conservative Forces

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 A force is said to be non-conservative when the work done by or against the
force in moving a body from one position to another, is dependent on the
path followed between these two positions.
For instance, frictional forces are non-conservative forces.

6. POWER

Power of a person or machine refers to the time rate at which work is done by it.

Mathematically,

work done
Power = Rate of doing work =
time taken
Thus, power of a body measures how fast it can do the work.

dW
P =
dt

Now, it is known that dW=F.ds ;

F.ds
P=
dt

ds
But = v , which is the instantaneous velocity.
dt

 P = F.v

Dimensions of power is given by

W M1L2T −
P= = 1
= [M1L2T −3 ]
t T

Units of power

The absolute unit of power in SI system of units is watt, which is denoted by W.

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 W
P =
t
1joule
1watt = 1W = 1Js-1
1 sec
Clearly, power of a body is said to be one watt, when it can do one joule of work in
one second. A bigger unit if power is horsepower (hp), given by
1hp = 746W

7. ENERGY

Energy of a body refers to the capacity or ability of the body to do work.

8. KINETIC ENERGY

The kinetic energy of a body refers to the energy possessed by the body by virtue
of its motion.

Here are some examples:

a) A bullet fired from a gun can pierces through a target on account of kinetic
energy of the bullet.
b) Wind mills work on the kinetic energy of air. For instance, sailing ships use
the kinetic energy of wind.
c) Water mills work on the kinetic energy of water. For instance, fast flowing
streams are utilized to grind corn.
d) A nail is driven into a wooden block on account of kinetic energy of the
hammer striking the nail.

Formula for Kinetic Energy

Kinetic Energy of a body can be obtained either from

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 a) the amount of work done in stopping the moving body, or from
b) the amount of work done in giving the present velocity to the body from the
state of rest.

Let us first consider the second method:

Suppose that,

m = mass of a body at rest (i.e., u = 0).

F = Force applied on the body

a = acceleration produced in the body in the direction of force applied.

v = velocity acquired by the body in moving through a distance ‘s’, as shown in the
following diagram.

Now, consider the equation of motion: v−u =2as;

 v2 − 0 = 2as

v2
a=
2s

It is known that

F=ma
 v2 
 F = m 
 2s 

Clearly, work done on the body, (W = Force × distance)

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 v2
 W = m s
2s

1
 W = mv2
2
This work done on the body is a measure of kinetic energy (K.E.) acquired by the
body,

1
 K.E Of the body = W = mv2
2
Alternative method

The formula for kinetic energy of a body can also be obtained by the method of
calculus as follows:

Let m = mass of a body, which is initially at rest (i.e., u = 0)

F = Force applied on the body,

ds = small displacement produced in the body in the direction of the force applied.
A small amount of work done by the force is given by,

dW = F.ds = Fds cos 00 = Fds

If ‘a’ is the acceleration produced by the force, then from

dv
F = ma = m and from
dt

 dv   ds 
dW =  m  ds = m  dv ;
 dt   dt 

 ds 
 dW = mvdv  = v
 dt 

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 Thus, the total work done by the force in increasing the velocity of the body from
zero to v is given by
v
1
W =  mvdv = mv2
0
2

Thus, kinetic energy of a body is half the product of mass of the body and square
of velocity of the body.

9. RELATION BETWEEN KINETIC ENERGY AND LINEAR

MOMENTUM

If m is the mass of a body and v is the velocity of the body;

Linear momentum of the body is given by p = mv and K.E. of the body is given by
1 1
KE = mv2 = (m2v)
2 2m
p
 KE =
2m
This is an important relation. It shows that a body cannot have kinetic energy
without having linear momentum. The reverse is also true.

Further, if linear momentum (p) is constant, then,

1

m
This is shown in in figure (a).

On the other hand, if kinetic energy (KE) is constant, then,

p2 m or p  m

This is shown in figure (b).

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 Also, if mass (m) is constant, the,

p2  KE or p  KE

This is shown in figure (c).

10. WORK ENERGY THEOREM OR WORK ENERGY PRINCIPLE

According to this principle, work done by net force in displacing a body is the
same as the change in kinetic energy of the body.

Thus, when a force does some work on a body, the kinetic energy of the body
increases by the same amount. Conversely, when an opposing (retarding) force is
applied on a body, its kinetic energy decreases. The decrease in kinetic energy of
the body is equal to the work done by the body against the retarding force. Thus,
according to work energy principle, work and kinetic energy are equivalent
quantities.

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 Proof: To prove the work-energy theorem, we confine ourselves to motion in one
dimension.

Suppose that m = mass of a body, u = initial velocity of the body, F = force applied
on the body along it direction of motion, a = acceleration produced in the body, v =
final velocity of the body after t second.

Small amount of work done by the applied force on the body is given by
dW = F(ds) , when ds is the small distance moved by the body in the direction of
the force applied.

Now,

 dv   ds   ds 
F = ma = m  ds = m  dv = mvdv = v 
 dt   dt   dt 
Total work done by the applied force on the body in increasing its velocity from u
to v is given by
v
v
 v2 
W =  mvdv = m  
u  2 u

1 1 1
 W = m(v − u) = mv − mu
2 2 2
1 2 1
But mv = Kf = final KE of the body and mu2 = Ki = initial KE of the body
2 2
W= Kf − Ki = increases in KE of body

i.e., work done on the body is equal to the increase in KE of the body.

11. POTENTIAL ENERGY

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 The potential energy of a body refers to the energy possessed by the body by virtue
of its position or configuration in some field.

Thus, potential energy is the energy that can be associated with the configuration
(or arrangement) of a system of objects that exert forces on one another.
Obviously, if configuration of the system changes, then its potential energy
changes.

Two important types of potential energy are:

a) Gravitational potential energy

b) Elastic potential energy.

11.1 Gravitational Potential Energy

Gravitational potential energy of a body refers to the energy possessed by the body
by virtue of its position above the surface of the earth.

To calculate gravitational potential energy, suppose

m = mass of a body

g = acceleration due to gravity on the surface of earth.

h = height through which the body is raised, as shown in the following figure.

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 If we assume that height ‘h’ is not too large and the value of ‘g’ is practically
constant over this height, then the force applied just to overcome gravitational
attraction is given by,
F = mg

As the distance moved is in the direction of the force applied, work can be
expressed as:

Work done = force × distance

 W = F  h = mgh

Notice that we have taken the upward direction to be positive. Therefore, work
done by applied force = + mgh . However, work done by gravitational force = −mgh

This work gets stored as potential energy. The gravitational potential energy of a
body, as a function of height (h) is denoted by V(h), and it is negative of work
done by the gravitational force in raising the body to that height.
 Gravitational PE = V(h) = mgh

11.2 Potential Energy of a spring

Potential energy of a spring refers to the energy associated with the state of
compression or expansion of an elastic spring.

To compute it, consider an elastic spring OA of negligible mass. The end O of the
spring is fixed to a rigid support and a body of mass ‘m’ is attached to the free end
A. Let the spring be oriented along the x–axis and the body of mass ‘m’ lie on a
perfectly frictionless horizontal table.

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 The position of the body A, when spring is unstretched is chosen as the origin.
Now, when the spring is compressed or elongated, it tends to recover to its original
length, on account of elasticity. The force trying to bring the spring back to its
original configuration is termed restoring force or spring force.

For a small stretch or compression, spring obeys Hook’s law, i.e., for a spring,

Restoring Force  stretch or compression

−Fx or −F=kx
where k is a constant of the spring called the spring constant.

1
It is established that for a spring, k  . i.e., smaller the length of the spring,
l
greater would be the force constant and vice-versa.

The negative sign in equation indicates that the restoring force is always directed
towards the equilibrium position.

Now, consider that the body be displaced further through an infinitesimally small
distance dx, against the restoring force.

A small amount of work done in increasing the length of the spring by dx is given
by,

dW=−Fdx =kxdx
Thus, the total work done in giving displacement x to the body can be obtained by
integrating from x = 0 to x = x , i.e.,
x =x
1
W=  kxdx = 2 kx
2

x =0

This work done is stored in the spring at the point B.

1
 PE at B = W = kx2
2

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 The variation of potential energy with distance x is as shown in the following
figure.

12. MECHANICAL ENERGY AND ITS CONSERVATION

The mechanical energy (E) of a body refers to the sum of kinetic energy (K) and
potential energy (V) of the body

i.e., E=K+V

Obviously, mechanical energy of a body is a scalar quantity measured in joules.

We can show that the total mechanical energy of a system is conserved if the force,
doing work on the system is conservative.

This is known as the principle of conservation of total mechanical energy.

For simplicity, we assume the motion to be one dimensional only. Suppose a body
undergoes a small displacement ‘x’ under the action of a conservative force F.
According to work energy theorem, change in kinetic energy is equal to the work
done.
 K = F(x)x

Now, as the force is conservative, the potential energy function V(x) is defined as
−V = F(x) x or V = − F(x) x

Adding both the above expressions, we get,

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  K + V = 0 or (K + V) = 0 ,

which means that

(K + V) = E = cons tan t

12.1 Illustration of the law of conservation of mechanical energy

To illustrate the law further, let us evaluate kinetic energy, potential energy, and
total energy of a body falling freely under gravity.

Let ‘m’ be the mass of the body held at A, at a height h above the ground, as
shown in the following figure.

As the body is at rest at A, therefore,

At A;

KE of the body is zero.

PE of the body is equal to mg, where g is acceleration due to gravity at A.

 TE of the body = KE + PE = 0 + mgh

EA = mgh ….(1)

Now, let the body be allowed to fall freely under gravity, when it strikes the
ground at C with a velocity ‘v’.

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 From v 2 − u 2 = 2as ;

 v2 − 0 = 2(g)h

 v 2 = 2gh ….(2)

Therefore, at C;

1 1 1
KE of the body = mv2 = mv2 = m(2gh) = mgh
2 2 2
PE of the body = mgh = mg ( 0 ) = 0

Total energy of the body is given by,

TE = EC = mgh + 0 = mgh.... (3)

Now, in free fall, let the body crosses any point B with a velocity v1 , where, AB is
equal to ‘x’. Thus, from v 2 − u 2 = 2as ;

 v12 − 0 = 2(g)x …. (4)

 v12 = 2gx

Clearly, at B;

1 1
KE of the body = mv12 = m(2gx) = mgx
2 2
Height of the body at B above the ground = CB = ( h – x )

PE of the body at B = mg ( h – x )

Total energy of the body at B = KE + PE

EB = mgx + mg(h − x) = mgx + mgh − mgx

EB = mgh .... (5)

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 Clearly, from (1), (3), and (5); we find that

EA = EC = EB = mgh

13. DIFFERENT FORMS OF ENERGY

We have learnt some details of potential energy and kinetic energy. It should be
understood that these are not the only two forms of energy. Energy may manifest
itself in several other forms. Some of the examples are:

a) Heat Energy

It is the energy possessed by a body by virtue of random motion of the

molecules of the body.

Heat is also associated with the force of friction. When a block of mass ‘m’
sliding on a rough horizontal surface with speed ‘v’, stops over a distance ‘x’,
work done by the force of kinetic friction ‘f’ over a distance ‘x’ is given by
1
− f (x ) . By the work energy theorem, mv2 = f (x) .We often say that kinetic
2
energy of the block is lost due to frictional force. However, when we examine
the block and the horizontal surface carefully, we detect a slight increase in
their temperatures. Thus, work done by friction is not lost, but is transferred as
heat energy of the system.

b) Internal Energy

It is the total energy possessed by the body by virtue of particular configuration

of its molecules and also their random motion. Thus, internal energy of a body
is the sum of potential energy and kinetic energy of the molecules of the body.

c) Electrical Energy

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 The flow of electric current causes bulbs to glow, fans to rotate and bells to
ring. A definite amount of work has to be done in moving the free charge
carriers in a particular direction through all the electrical appliances.

d) Chemical Energy

Chemical energy arises from the fact that the molecules participating in the
chemical reaction have different binding energies. A chemical reaction is
basically a rearrangement of atoms. For example, coal consists of carbon and a
kilogram of it. When burnt, it releases 3  10 7 J of energy.

e) Nuclear Energy

It is the energy obtainable from an atomic nucleus. Two distinct modes of

obtaining nuclear energy are nuclear fission nuclear fusion.

Nuclear fission involves splitting of a heavy nucleus into two or more lighter
nuclei, whereas nuclear fusion involves fusing of two or more lighter nuclei to
form a heavy nucleus.

14. MASS ENERGY EQUIVALENCE

Einstein made an incredible discovery that energy can be transformed into mass
and mass can be transformed into energy. To put it precise, one energy can be
obtained at the cost of the other energy.

The mass energy equivalence relation as put forth by Einstein is

E = mc2

Where,

m is the mass that disappears;

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 E is the energy that appears;

C is the velocity of light in vacuum.

Mass and energy are not conserved separately, but are conserved as a single entity
called ‘mass-energy’.

15. THE PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

If we account for all forms of energy, the total energy of an isolated system does
not change.

The principle of conservation of energy cannot be proved as such. However, no

violation of this principle has ever been observed.

16. WORK DONE BY A VARIABLE FORCE

When the force is an arbitrary function of position, we require the techniques of

calculus to determine the work done by it. The figure shows F(x) as some function
of the position x. To calculate work done by F from A to B, we find the area under
the graph from XA to XB .

Thus, the work done by a force F(x) from an initial point A to final point B is given
by,

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 XB

WA→B =  F dx
XA
X

17. CONSERVATIVE & NON-CONSERVATIVE FORCES

17.1 Conservative Forces

A force is conservative if the net work done against the force in moving a mass
between two points depends only on the location of two points and not on the path
followed.

17.2 Non-Conservative Forces

Those forces which do not satisfy the above-mentioned criteria are termed non-
conservative forces. Friction and viscous forces are the most common examples of
non-conservative forces.

17.3 Conservative Forces and Potential Energy

For every conservative force, there is a corresponding potential energy function. In

each case, the potential energy expression is dependent only on position. For every
conservative force FX , that depends only on the position ‘x’, there is an associated
potential energy function U(x). When conservative force does positive work, the
potential energy of the system decreases. Work done by conservative force is given
as:
F(x) x = −U

−U
 F(x) =
x
which, in the limit, becomes,

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 dU
 F(x) = −
dx
Integrating both sides for a displacement from x =a to x =b, we have,
a
 Ub − Ua = − F(x)dx
b

18. DYNAMICS OF CIRCULAR MOTION

18.1 Force on the Particle

v2
In uniform circular motion, acceleration is of magnitude and is directed
r
mv 2
towards center. Thus, a force of magnitude and directed towards center is
r
needed to keep a particle in circular motion.

This force (acting toward center) is called as the centripetal force. Centripetal force
is not an extra force on a body. Whatever force is responsible for circular motion
becomes the centripetal force.

Examples

When a satellite revolves around the earth, the gravitational attraction of earth
becomes the centripetal force for the circular motion of that satellite;

When an electron revolves around the nucleus in an atom, the electrostatic

attraction of nucleus becomes the centripetal force for the electron’s circular
motion.

In case of a conical pendulum, Tsin(component of tension) becomes the

centripetal force.

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 18.2 Main steps for analyzing forces

Consider an axis along the radius of circle (i.e., in the direction of acceleration) and
another axis perpendicular to the radius. Resolve all the forces into components.

Net force along perpendicular axis is equal to zero.

mv2
Net force along radial axis (towards center) = = m2r .
r

18.3 Main steps for analyzing forces in Non–uniform Circular Motion

Once we resolve all the forces along tangential and radial axes;

Net tangential force = Ft = mat

mv2
Net radial force = = Fr = ma r =
r

Example of non-uniform circular motion

The motion of particle in a vertical circle. If a particle is revolved in a vertical

circle with the help of a string, the forces are: tension (T) towards center and
weight (mg).

In case of a particle moving along the outside surface of a circular track (or
sphere), the forces are: normal reaction (N) away from the center and weight (mg).

18.4 Conical Pendulum

A small block of mass ‘m’ is rotated in a horizontal circle with the help of a string
of length ‘l’ connected to ‘m’. The other end of the string is fixed to a point O
vertically above the center of the circle so that the string is always inclined with the
vertical at an angle. Such an arrangement is referred to as a conical pendulum as
shown in the following diagram.

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 With respect to the force diagram of the block;

Along the vertical:

T cos  = mg …(1)

Net force towards center,

Tsin=ma
 Tsin=m2 r …(2)

From (1) and (2), we have,

gtan  gtan  g
2 = = =
r lsin  lcos 

2 lcos 
 Time period = T = = 2
 g

Note:

• If ‘h’ is the height of point O above the center of the circle, then time period
h
is equal to 2  .
g
• For a conical pendulum,
2lcos  = g

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 g
 (Because cosl )
l

18.5 Motion in a Vertical Circle

For a mass ‘m’ tied to a string of length ‘l’ and rotated in a vertical circle with
center at the other end of the string, let is determine:

(a) the minimum velocity of the mass at the top of the circle so that it is able to
complete the circle.

(b) the minimum velocity at the bottom of the circle.

At all positions, there are two forces acting on the mass: its own weight and the
tension in the string.

Let the radius of the circle be equal to one unit.

(a) At the top

Let vt =velocity at the top;

mv 2t
Net force towards center =
l

mv2t mv2t
T + mg = T= − mg
l l

For the movement in the circle, the string must remain tight i.e., the tension should
be positive at all positions.

As the tension is minimum at the top Ttop  0 ;

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 mv2t
 − mg  0  v t  lg
l

 minimum or critical velocity at the top = = lg

(b) At the bottom

Let v b be the velocity at the bottom. As the particle goes up, its kinetic energy
decreases and gravitational potential energy increases.

loss in KE is equal to gain in GPE

1 1
 mv2b − mv12 = mg(2l)
2 2
 v2b = v2t + 4gl

(vb )min = (v2t )min + 4gl = 5gl

Note:

When a particle moves in a vertical circle, its speed reduces as it goes up and its
speed rises as it comes down. Clearly, it is an example of non-uniform circular
motion.

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