CLASS X , BIOLOGY

CH LIFE PROCESSES

Life Processes
Life on the earth exists based on certain functions and processes. There are some processes for obtaining
nutrition, some help in procreating offspring. The processes which maintain body functions and are necessary
for survival are called life processes. The important life processes are nutrition, transportation, metabolism,
reproduction, respiration, and excretion.
Nutrition

Nutrition is the process of taking food by an organism and utilization of food for energy. This is a vital process
which helps living beings to obtain their energy from various sources. Nutrients are the substances which
provide nutrition. Mode of nutrition varies from one species to another. Plants are autotrophs and they have an
autotrophic mode of nutrition. They do photosynthesis to prepare their own food. Animals depend on plants for
food. Hence they have a heterotrophic mode of nutrition. Humans follow the holozoic mode of nutrition.
Transportation

Transportation and transportation system in plants and animals are entirely different. In animals, transportation
is carried out through the circulatory system. This system includes heart, blood, and blood carrying blood
vessels. Plants have particular tissues called vascular tissues for the conduction and transportation of materials
throughout the plant parts. Vascular tissues include xylem and phloem. Xylem conducts water and minerals
from roots to shoot system while phloem transports prepared food from leaves to other plant parts.
Metabolism

The process in which different types of chemical reactions involved in controlling the living state of the cells in
an organism. It is broadly classified into catabolism and anabolism.
Catabolism: The metabolic process in which energy is released.
Anabolism: The metabolic process in which energy is stored for further requirements.
Reproduction

The biological process of reproducing their own offspring the continuity of species, generation after
generation. The basic types of reproduction are the sexual and asexual reproduction.
Sexual Reproduction: The process of reproducing their own offspring by the involvement of the two parent.
Asexual Reproduction: The process of reproducing their own offspring by the involvement of the two parent.
Respiration

Respiration includes the exchange of gases as well as burning of food. Animals have a well defined respiratory
system for respiration. In the process of respiration, glucose is broken down to extract energy. It is a redox
reaction which can take place with or without oxygen and takes place in mitochondria of the cell and releases
energy in the form of ATP. Respiration is mainly of two types- aerobic respiration and anaerobic respiration.
Excretion

Elimination of toxic and waste substances from the body is called excretion. Plants produce waste products in
the form of two gases i.e. oxygen during photosynthesis and carbon dioxide during respiration. They excrete
these gases through a structure called stomata. Animals have an excretory system consisting of a couple of
kidneys, ureter, urinary bladder and urethra. Kidney has a structural unit called nephron where the blood is
filtered. After filtration, pure blood will circulate back to other parts and extracted waste products are passed to
the ureter. Urinary bladder collects urine which is excreted through the urethra.

Photosynthesis
Autotrophic Nutrition
1. It is the mode of nutrition in which organisms synthesise their own
food from simple inorganic substances such as water and carbon dioxide.

2 Green plants are autotrophs. They synthesise food by the process of

photosynthesis.

3 Photosynthesis is a physiological process by which plant cells containing

chlorophyll produce food in the form of carbohydrates using carbon dioxide, water
and light energy. Oxygen is released as a by
product of this process

4.Chlorophyll is the green pigment found in green

plants.

5. Chlorophyll is present in chloroplasts.

Chloroplast is a membrane bound oval cell organelle.
It is enclosed by a double membrane. Its interior contains closely packed
flattened sacs called thylakoids. Chlorophyll is present in the thylakoids.
Thylakoids are arranged in piles called grana lying in a colourless ground
substance called stroma .
6.Cells present in the spongy mesophyll layer and the palisade layer contain
chloroplasts; therefore, they are the site of photosynthesis.
The three steps of photosynthesis are :

(i) Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll.

(ii) Conversion of light energy to chemical energy and splitting of
water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen.
(iii) Reduction of carbon dioxide to carbohydrates
Step (i) and (ii) are included in LIGHT REACTION WHICH TAKES
PLACE IN THYLAKOIDS OF GRANA .Where ATP and NADPH are
produced by photolysis of water.
Step (iii) It is DARK REACTION where ATP and NADPH are used to
prepare glucose by reduction of carbon di oxide . It takes place in Stroma
of the chloroplast . It is also called Calvin cycle.

Equation:

RawMaterialsforPhotosynthesis:

Sunlight

ChlorophylSunlight absorbed by chlorophyll

CO2enters through Stomata and Oxygen(O2) is released as byproduct through

stomata on leaf.

q Waterwater +dissolved minerals like Nitrogen phosphorous etc are taken up by

the roots from the soil.

SiteofPhotosynthesis:

Chloroplast in the leaf.Chloroplast contain chlorophyll.(greenpigment)

Light reaction And Dark reaction
Photosynthesis is the process of conversion of light energy into chemical energy which can be utilized by the
living organisms. Photosynthesis comprises of two phases. First phase is the photochemical phase or light
dependent process. This phase is commonly known as the light reaction. The second phase is the
biosynthetic phase or dark reaction of photosynthesis. This phase is a light-independent process. The whole
process of photosynthesis takes place within the chloroplast.

Light reaction

Light Reaction and Dark Reaction

Light reaction is a light dependent process which includes a series of events such as light absorption,
hydrolysis, the release of oxygen, formation of ATP and NADPH. The light reaction of photosynthesis initiates
only when it is supplied with light energy.

Photosystem is the arrangement of pigments including chlorophyll within thylakoids. There are two
photosystems in plants, Photosystem I (PS I) and Photosystem II (PS II). Photosystem I absorbs light at a
wavelength of 700 nm whereas Photosystem II absorbs light at a wavelength of 680 nm.

Light reaction occurs in the thylakoids of the chloroplast. When the light hits, chlorophyll a get excited to
higher energy state followed by a series of reactions, this energy is converted into energy molecules ATP and
NADPH by using PS I and PS II. Also, hydrolysis occurs and releases oxygen.

Dark reaction
Dark reaction is also called carbon-fixing reaction. It is a light-independent process in which sugar molecules
are formed from the carbon dioxide and water molecules. This reaction occurs in the stroma of the chloroplast
where they utilize the products of the light reaction. Plants capture the carbon dioxide from the atmosphere
through stomata and proceed to Calvin cycle. In Calvin cycle, the ATP and NADPH formed during light
reaction drives the reaction and convert 6 molecules of carbon dioxide into one sugar molecule i.e. glucose.
Heterotrophic Nutrition
Every non-autotrophic organism which depends on others for their food is called heterotrophs. Heterotrophs
include every animal and non-photosynthetic plant which are unable to prepare organic molecules on their
own. Heterotrophic nutrition can be classified into three types, based on the ways in which organisms obtain
their food:

Saprophytic Nutrition:

Saprophytic Nutrition
Saprophytes (animals which follow saprophytic nutrition) feed on dead and decayed organisms for energy.
They consume dead and decayed remains of animals and plants. In this way, they help clean the environment.
Some examples of saprophytes are fungi and certain types of bacteria. These are also responsible for the staling
of bread, cakes etc.Saprophytes release certain enzymes to act on the complex organic matter and break it into
simpler substances which can be easily consumed by them.
Parasitic Nutrition:

Organisms which feed on other organisms by deriving out nutrients from other animals (hosts) are called
parasites. Parasites extract the nutrients from the host and are harmful to their health, sometimes they even kill
the host. Both animals and plants may serve as host.

Parasitic Nutrition
In the case of a parasite, the host is never in benefit. Few examples of parasites are louse on a human head,
Cuscuta plant, and tapeworms.
Holozoic Nutrition:

Human follows the holozoic mode of nutrition. Holozoic nutrition means the feeding of solid and liquid food
by animals. This involves the steps of ingestion, digestion, absorption, assimilation, and excretion. Ingestion is
the intake of food, which is broken down into simpler organic matters by a process called digestion. After
extraction of useful components, every other unwanted and indigested particle is excreted out. Other holozoic
organisms are animals like cat, deer, dog etc. and also amoeba.

Holozoic Nutrition
Based on feeding habits heterotrophs are classified as herbivores, carnivores, and omnivores.
Life Process : nutrition in Animals Topics covered in this page are

1. Nutrition in AnimalsDifferent types of Animal as per food habits

2. Different steps in the process of nutrition of animals
3. Nutrition in Amoeba
4. Nutrition in Paramecium
5. Nutrition in Human beings(Complex Multicellular animal)
6. Different steps in the process of nutrition of human beings

Nutrition in Animals
 Animals are heterotrophs and hence they depend on other organisms (plants and other animals) for
their food.
 All the animals can be divided into three groups on the basis of their food habits. These are:
1. Herbivores
2. Carnivores
3. Omnivores

Herbivores: Those animals which eat only plants are called herbivores. Examples are Goat, Cow,
and Deer etc.

Carnivores: Those animals which eat only other animals as food are called carnivores. Examples
are Lion, Tiger, and Lizard etc.

Omnivores: Those animals which eat both, plants and animals are called omnivores. Examples are
Man, Dog and Crow etc.
  It is the energy of sun which provides food for plants, and animals.

Different steps in the process of nutrition in animals

There are five steps in the process of nutrition in animals.

1. Ingestion: The process of taking food into the body is called ingestion.
2. Digestion: the process in which the food containing large, insoluble molecules is broken down into
small, water soluble molecules is called digestion.
3. Absorption: The process in which the digested food passes through the intestinal wall into blood
stream is called absorption.
4. Assimilation: The process in which the absorbed food is taken in by the body cells and used for
energy, growth and repair is called assimilation.
5. Egestion: The process in which the undigested food is removed from the body is called egestion.

Nutrition in Simple Animals:

Amoeba and paramecium are two very simple unicellular animals. In unicellular animals, all the processes of
nutrition are performed by the single cell.

Nutrition in Amoeba:
 Amoeba eats tiny plants and animals as food which floats in water in which it lives.
 The mode of nutrition in Amoeba is holozoic.
 The process of obtaining food by Amoeba is called phagocytosis.

Steps involved in the nutrition of Amoeba:

Ingestion:
 Amoeba ingests food by forming temporary finger-like projections called pseudopodia around it.
 The food is engulfed with a little surrounding water to form a food vacuole (‘temporary stomach’) inside
the Amoeba.

Digestion:
 In Amoeba, food is digested in the food vacuole by digestive enzymes which break down the food into
small and soluble molecules by chemical reactions.

Absorption:
 The digested simple and soluble substances pass out of food vacuole into the surrounding
environment.

Assimilation:
 The absorbed food materials are used to obtain energy through respiration and make the parts of
Amoeba cell which leads to the growth of Amoeba.

Egestion:
 The remaining undigested material is moved to the surface of the cell and thrown out of the body of
Amoeba.

Nutrition in Paramecium:
 Paramecium is also a tiny unicellular animal which lives in water.

Ingestion:
 Paramecium uses its hair like structures called cilia to sweep the food particles from water and put
them into mouth.
 Ingestion is followed by other steps such as digestion, absorption, assimilation and egestion. (as
written in Amoeba)
Nutrition in Human Beings (Complex Multicellular Animal):
 The various organs of the human digestive system in sequence are: Mouth, Oesophagus (Food pipe),
Stomach, Small intestine and Large intestine.
 The glands which are associated with the human digestive system are: Salivary glands, Liver and
Pancreas.

The various steps of nutrition in human beings are as follows:

Ingestion:

 In human beings, food is ingested through the mouth. The food is put into the mouth with the help of
hands.

Digestion:

 The digestion of food begins in the mouth itself.

 The teeth cut the food into small pieces, chew and grind it. (Physical digestion)
 The salivary glands in our mouth produce saliva (watery liquid) which contains an enzyme salivary
amylase which digests the starch (carbohydrate) present in the food into sugar. (Chemical digestion)
 Our tongue helps in mixing this saliva with food.
 The digestion of food remains incomplete in mouth.

Oesophagus:

 The slightly digested food in the mouth is swallowed by the tongue and goes down the food pipe called
oesophagus.
 When the slightly digested food enters the food pipe, the walls of food pipe start contraction and
expansion movements called as peristaltic movement.
 This peristaltic movement of food pipe pushes the slightly digested into the stomach.

Stomach:

 The stomach is a J-shaped organ present on the left side of the abdomen.
 The stomach walls contain s three tubular glands in it walls which secrete gastric juice.
 The gastric juice contains three substances: Hydrochloric acid, the enzyme pepsin and mucus.
 The hydrochloric creates an acidic medium which facilitates the action of the enzyme pepsin i.e.
digestion of protein.
 The mucus helps to protect the stomach wall from its own secretions of hydrochloric acid.
 The partially digested food then goes from the stomach into the small intestine.

Small intestine:

 From the stomach, the partially digested food enters the small intestine.
 The small intestine is the largest part (about 6.5m) of the alimentary canal.
 The small intestine is very narrow and arranged in the form of a coil in our belly.
 The small intestine in human beings is the site of complete digestion of food (like
carbohydrates, proteins and fats)
 The small intestine receives the secretion of two glands: Liver and Pancreas.
 Liver secretes bile (greenish yellow liquid made in the liver and stored in gall bladder).
 Bile performs two functions:
1. Makes the acidic food coming from the stomach alkaline so that pancreatic enzymes can act on it.
2. Bile salts break the fats present in the food into small globules making it easy for the enzymes to act and
digest them.
 The pancreas secretes pancreatic juice which contains enzymes like pancreatic amylase for breaking
down starch, trypsin for digesting proteins and lipase for breaking down emulsified fats.
 The walls of the small intestine contain glands which secretes intestinal juice. The enzymes present in
it finally convert the proteins into amino acids, complex carbohydrates into glucose and fats into fatty
acids and glycerol.
 In this way the process of digestion converts the large and insoluble food molecules into small water
soluble molecules.
Absorption:

 The small intestine is the main region for the absorption of digested food.
 The inner surface of the small intestine has numerous finger-like projections called villi which increase
the surface area for rapid absorption of digested food.
 The digested food which is absorbed through the walls of the small intestine goes into our blood.

Assimilation:

 The blood carries digested and dissolved food to all the parts of the body where it becomes
assimilated as part of the cells and is utilised for obtaining energy, building up new tissues and the
repair of old tissues.

Egestion:

 The unabsorbed food is sent into the large intestine where more villi absorb water from this material.
 The rest of the material is removed from the body via the anus.
 The exit of this waste material is regulated by the anal sphincter.

Role Of The Digestive Glands In Digestion

Food is an important source for human beings to derive nutritional energy. Carbohydrates, proteins, and fats
are the major components of food. Human beings cannot utilize these major components in their complex form
or in the natural form. So, the digestive system in the human beings helps to convert these complex
biomolecules into the simpler substances. The alimentary canal and digestive glands are the parts of the
digestive system. Let us take an overview of the digestive glands like salivary gland, liver and pancreas and
their role in digestion.

The alimentary canal is associated with the digestive glands in the human digestive system. Three major glands
play an important role in the digestion. These are as follows:
1. Salivary gland.
2. Liver.
3. Pancreas
Salivary gland

The salivary glands are one of the important exocrine glands. The main function of the salivary gland is to
produce saliva. Saliva has many functions in the digestion process as follows:
1. It is used to lubricate the mouth.
2. It helps to swallow the food.
3. It helps to protect the teeth from bacterial infections.
4. It aids in the food digestion.
Salivary glands consist of the following three pairs.

1. Parotid glands: These are located on the inside of the cheeks.

2. Submandibular glands: These are located under the lower jaw bone of the mouth.
3. Sublingual glands: These are located in the mouth below the area of the front end of the tongue.
Liver

The liver is one of the digestive glands and plays an important role in the digestive system. It is the largest
gland of the human body. It is located in the abdominal cavity. The liver is connected to the two following
large blood vessels.
1. Hepatic vein – It is used to carry the blood, which is rich in oxygen.
2. Portal vein – It is used to carry the blood, which is rich in digested nutrients.
The liver consists of two hepatic lobules which are made up of hepatic cells. Lobules are the structural and
functional unit of the liver. Each lobule is overlaid by the Glisson’s capsule which is a thin connective tissue.
Hepatic cells secrete the bile and pass into the gallbladder through the hepatic ducts. The hepatic duct from the
liver and cystic duct from the gallbladder forms the common bile duct.

Pancreas

The pancreas is a gland which has two functional units to secrete both endocrine and exocrine enzymes. It is
located between the duodenum limbs. Pancreas consists of two portions as follows:

1. Endocrine portion – It is used to secrete the hormones, insulin, and glucagon which circulate into the bloodstream.
2. Exocrine portion – It is used to secrete the digestive enzymes into the small intestine which are called as pancreatic
juice.
Life Process : Respiration in Plants Topics covered in this page are

1. Respiration
2. Breathing and Respiration
3. How energy released during respiration is stored
4. Types of Respiration
5. Aerobic Respiration
6. Anaerobic Respiration
7. Respiration in plants
8. Net Gaseous exchange in the leaves of the plants

Respiration
The process of releasing energy from food is called respiration.
The process of respiration involves taking in oxygen (of air) into the cells, using it for releasing
energy by burning food, and then eliminating the waste products (carbon dioxide and water) from the
body.
  The process of respiration which releases energy takes place inside the cells of the body. So, it is also
known as cellular respiration.
 Respiration is essential for life because it provide energy for carrying out all the life processes which
are necessary to keep the organism alive.

Breathing and Respiration:

Breathing Respiration

The mechanism by which organisms obtain Respiration includes breathing as well as the
oxygen from the air and release carbon dioxide oxidation of food in the cells of the organism to
is called breathing. release energy.

Respiration includes physical as well as

Breathing is a physical process.
biochemical process of oxidation of food.

The process of breathing involves the lungs of The process of respiration involves the lungs
the organism. and mitochondria of the cells.

How Energy Released during Respiration is Stored:

 The energy produced during respiration is stored in the form of ATP molecules in the cells of
the body and used by the organism as when required.
 ADP (Adenosine Di-Phosphate, low energy content), Inorganic Phosphate (Pi) and ATP (Adenosine
Tri-Phosphate, high energy content) are the substances present inside a cell.
 The energy released during respiration is used to make ATP molecules form ADP and inorganic
phosphate.

 Thus, energy is stored in the form of ATP.

 When the cell needs energy, then ATP can be broken down using water to release energy. Thus:

 The energy equivalent to 30.5KJ/mole is released in this process.

 ATP is known as energy currency of cells.

Types of Respiration:
In most of the cases, the organisms carry out respiration by using oxygen. There are, however some
organisms which carry out respiration without using oxygen. Based on this, we have two types respiration:

1. Aerobic respiration
2. Anaerobic respiration

Aerobic Respiration:
 The respiration which uses oxygen is called aerobic respiration.
 In aerobic respiration, the glucose food is completely broken down into carbon dioxide and water by
oxidation.
  Aerobic respiration produces a considerable amount of energy for use by the organism which gets
stored in the ATP molecules.

 Mitochondria are the sites of aerobic respiration in the cells. Thus, the breakdown of pyruvate to give
carbon dioxide, water and energy takes place in mitochondria.

Anaerobic Respiration:
 The respiration which takes place without oxygen is called anaerobic respiration.
 The microscopic organisms like yeast and some bacteria obtain energy by anaerobic respiration
(which is called fermentation).
 In anaerobic respiration, the microorganisms like yeast break down glucose (food) into ethanol and
carbon dioxide, and release energy.
 Anaerobic respiration produces much less energy which gets stored in the ATP molecules.

 Sometimes, when there is lack of oxygen in our muscle cells, another pathway for the breakdown of
pyruvate is taken. Here the pyruvate is converted into lactic acid (which is also a three-carbon
molecule) with the release of small amount of energy.

Respiration In Plants
 Like animals, plants also need energy. The plants get this energy by the process of respiration. Plants
also use oxygen of air for respiration and release carbon dioxide.
 The respiration in plants differs from the animals in three respects:
Respiration in plants Respiration in animals

All the parts of a plant (like root, stem and

An animal performs respiration as a single unit.
leaves) perform respiration individually.

During respiration in plants, there is a little Respiratory gases are usually transported over
transport of respiratory gases from one part of long distance inside an animal during
the plant to the other. respiration.

The respiration in plants occurs at a slow rate. The respiration in animals occurs at a much
 faster rate.

Plants get Oxygen by Diffusion:

 Plants have a branching shape, so they have quite a large surface area in comparison to their volume.
Therefore, diffusion alone can supply all the cells of the plants with as much oxygen as they need for
respiration.
 Diffusion occurs in the rots, stems and leaves of plants.

Respiration in Roots:
 Air occurs in soil interspaces. Root hairs of the roots are in direct contact with them.
 Oxygen of the soil air diffuses through root hair and reaches all internal cells of the root for respiration.
 Carbon dioxide produced by root cells diffuses in the opposite direction.
 In water-logged conditions, soil air becomes deficient. In the absence of oxygen, metabolic activity of
the root declines and the plant may wither.

Respiration in Stems:
 The stems of herbaceous plants have stomata. The oxygen from air diffuses into the stem of a
herbaceous plant through stomata and reaches all the cells for respiration.
 The carbon dioxide gas produced during respiration diffuses out into the air through the same stomata.
 In woody stems, the bark has lenticels for gaseous exchange.

Respiration in Leaves:
 The leaves of a plant have tiny pores called stomata. The exchange of respiratory gases in the leaves
takes place by the process of diffusion through stomata.

Net gaseous exchange in the leaves of the plant:

1. During day time, when photosynthesis occurs, oxygen is produced. The leaves use some of this
oxygen for respiration and rest of the oxygen diffuses out into air.
 Again, during the day time, carbon dioxide produced by respiration is all used up in photosynthesis by
leaves. Even more carbon dioxide is taken in from air.
 Thus, net gas exchange in leaves during day time is: O2 diffuses out ; CO2 diffuses in.
1. At night time, when no photosynthesis occurs and hence no oxygen is produced, oxygen from air
diffuses into leaves to carry out respiration. And carbon dioxide produced by respiration diffuses out
into air.
 Thus, net gas exchange in leaves at night is: O2 diffuses in; CO2 diffuses out.

Respiration in Animals
 Different animals have different modes of respiration.

Animals Respiratory organ

Unicellular animals like
Cell membrane
Amoeba, Planaria
Earthworm Skin
Aquatic animals like Fish,
Gills
Prawns
Insects like Grasshopper,
Spiracles and tracheae
Cockroach
Land animals like Humans,
Lungs
birds

 All the respiratory organs have three common features:

1. All the respiratory organs have a large surface area to get enough oxygen.
 2. All the respiratory organs have thin walls for easy diffusion and exchange of respiratory gases.
3. All the respiratory organs like skin gills, and lungs have a rich blood supply for transporting
respiratory gases.
 Terrestrial animals can breathe the oxygen in the atmosphere, but animals that live in water
(aquatic animals) need to use the oxygen dissolved in water.
 Since the amount of dissolved oxygen is fairly low compared to the amount of oxygen in the
air, the rate of breathing in aquatic organisms is much faster than that seen in terrestrial
organisms.