Definition of Active Transducer:-

The transducer whose output is obtained in the form of voltage or current without any additional
auxiliary source is known as the active transducer. It works on the principle of conversion of
energy from one form to another. The active transducer is also known as the self-generating
transducer because they self-develop their electrical output signal. The energy requires for
generating the output signals are obtained from the physical quantity which is to be measured.

Definition of Passive Transducer:-

In passive transducer, the output is obtained by changing the physical properties (resistance,
inductance, and capacitance) of the material. In other words, the passive transducer takes
power from the external energy source for transduction. The word transduction means
conversion of energy from one form to another.

Key Differences between Active and Passive Transducer:-

The transducer which gives the electrical output (in the form of voltage and current) without any
external energy source is known as the active transducer. The transducer whose physical
properties varies because of the input or measurand signal is known as the passive transducer.

The active transducer does not require any additional source while the passive transducer
requires the additional energy source.

Active transducer draws energy from the measurand source and gives the electrical output
while in passive transducer the transduction can be done by changing the physical property of
the material.

The design of active transducer is simple as compared to the passive transducer.

The resolution of an active transducer is low while that of the passive transducer is high.

Note: The term resolution means the variation occurs in the input of the transducer causes the
change in their output.

The active transducer produces the output signal of very low amplitude. Thus, their output
signal needs to be amplified. Whereas, the amplification is not required in the output signal of
the passive transducer.

In the active transducer, the output electrical signal is obtained from the measurand signal.
Whereas in passive transducer the output signal is obtained by taking power from the external
energy source.
Principle of Transducer:-

A transducer is an electronic device that can convert the energy from one form to another form.

There are mainly two types of Transducer according to the requirement of the power source.

The transducer which does not require any external power source for its operation is called
Active Transducer.

Active transducer work on the principle of energy conversion that means it just convert the input
signal(any physical quantity) into the electrical signal.

Desirable Semiconductor Properties for Sensors:-

When semiconductors are incorporated into solid-state sensors, the fundamental properties,
such as energy band structure, must be considered to ensure that the type of material is best
suited for that particular sensor.

Semiconductors in Gas Sensors:-

As compared to other sensing technologies, metal oxide semiconductor gas sensors offer
several advantages including greater robustness, longer lifespans, relatively low cost, high
material sensitivity and fast response times. According to the band theory, metal oxide
semiconductor films used as gas sensors function by allowing the target gas to interact with
the surface of the film directly. This interaction results in a change in the charge carrier
concentration of the material, which ultimately changes the conductivity, or resistivity, of the
metal oxide film. Some of the most commonly used metal oxide semiconductor gas sensors
include those that monitor carbon monoxide (CO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2), as well as
ammonia (NH3) and carbon dioxide (CO2) levels for environmental monitoring purposes.

Semiconductors in Smartphone Sensors:-

There are more than ten different types of sensors that can be found in the average modern
smartphone, which include touch, acceleration, magnetic reading, and proximity sensors.
Samsung, for example, has created a novel complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS)
image sensor that can create vibrant and exceptionally clear images, regardless of the external
environment. Backed by their ISOCELL Bright Tetracell technology, Samsung smartphone
cameras automatically improve the light sensitivity of during imaging, especially when present
in low-light conditions.

Circuit Design Procedure

Input Signal determination

Before any signal conditioning, the first step is to determine input signal itself.

In this application note, simple RTD (resistive Temperature Detector) sensor in Wheatstone
bridge configuration will be used as our input signal. Detailed calculation methods are provided
in the datasheet for PTS1206 in appendix. The purpose of this circuit is to measure temperature
in range from 0 to 70°C, and our input will be VDC difference between Node A and Node B.
Resistor value of RTD varies from 100Ω to 127Ω which represents 0 to 70°C temperature range.
By DC analysis, Voltage difference varies from 0V to 91.94mV, in steps of 3.74mV per 1Ω
increase. Restrictions applied when using Wheatstone bridge configuration to measure RTD is
that we need constant voltage and very precise resistors. If there is change in supply voltage of
3V, the readings from node A and node B will also change, not knowing if the voltage change
has occurred due to temperature change or increase/decrease of battery source. In addition, the
change of resistance of RTD per degree is no more than few mΩ, resistors that makes up
Wheatstone bridge must be in a very low tolerance range in order to get an accurate
measurement. TPS61222 is an LDO(Low Dropout Regulator) that can output constant 3V for
voltage input in range of 2.7V to 3.3V.

Design and Analysis of Signal Conditioning Circuitfor Capacitive Sensor Interfacing:-

Now a days capacitive sensors are preferred to use in variousapplications like consumer
electronics, biomedical systems,navigational systems, and auto mobile applications due totheir
higher sensitivity, independent nature with temperatureand feasibility of integrating in an IC.
Worldwide researchis going on, in this aspect to improve the performanceand accuracy of the
capacitive sensor system. Multiplecircuit configurations are available in literature having thegoal
to improve the sensitivity and resolution of the signalconditioning circuit. Techniques like
chopper modulationand demodulation [1]–[7], switched-capacitor circuits alongwith correlated
double sampling [8]–[12] and Auto-zeroing[13], [14] techniques are popularly used to remove
thenon-idealities of the circuit components. Switched-Capacitorcircuits consist complex
structures and synchronization is amain issue to consider, due to high KT/C noise
[5]–[10].Where as chopper modulation and demodulation method issimple in structure and
efficient to remove the low frequencynoise and offset by shifting them to higher frequencies.In
this work we have analysed the synchronous choppermodulation and demodulation in the
context of capacitivesensor interfacing circuits for two different configurationsand shown that,
the double switch demodulator configurationeffectively reduces the low frequency noise and
offset betterthan the single switch configuration. Section II describes ageneral capacitive
sensor system, Section III provides thedetailed analysis of the two circuit configurations and
SectionIV presents the simulation results.

2-3 photo
Piezoelectric Transducer:-

A piezoelectric transducer (also known as a piezoelectric sensor) is a device that uses the
piezoelectric effect to measure changes in acceleration, pressure, strain, temperature or force
by converting this energy into an electrical charge.

A transducer can be anything that converts one form of energy to another. The piezoelectric
material is one kind of transducers. When we squeeze this piezoelectric material or apply any
force or pressure, the transducer converts this energy into voltage. This voltage is a function of
the force or pressure applied to it. The electric voltage produced by a piezoelectric transducer
can be easily measured by the voltage measuring instruments. Since this voltage will be a
function of the force or pressure applied to it, we can infer what the force/pressure was by the
voltage reading. In this way, physical quantities like mechanical stress or force can be measured
directly by using a piezoelectric transducer.

A piezoelectric transducer consists of quartz crystal which is made from silicon and oxygen
arranged in crystalline structure (SiO2). Generally, unit cell (basic repeating unit) of all crystal is
symmetrical but in piezoelectric quartz crystal, it is not. Piezoelectric crystals are electrically
neutral.

The atoms inside them may not be symmetrically arranged but their electrical charges are
balanced means positive charges cancel out negative charge. The quartz crystal has the unique
property of generating electrical polarity when mechanical stress applied to it along a certain
plane. Basically, There are two types of stress. One is compressive stress and the other is
tensile stress.

Advanced control defined Typically, advanced control methods involvemore complex

calculations than theconventional PID controller algorithm.Advanced control has the following
features:•Process modelling and parameteridentification (off line or on line);•Prediction of
process behaviour usingprocess model;•Evaluation of performance criterion;subject to process
constraints;•Optimisation of performance criterion;•Matrix calculations (multivariablecontrol);
and•Feedback control.Often, advanced control is a high levelcontrol procedure that takes care
of subprocesses controlling low level unit controlloops such as P1D controllers. In this
case,advanced control strategy aims to fulfilleconomic objectives by providingappropriate set
points for the lower levelAdvanced control methods forindustrial process controlby Pasi Airikka,
Timberjack, FinlandAs a class of control methods, advanced control is rather vague - not
because of the large number of methods that can be included, butbecause of the indistinct
classification criteria.control loops to minimise a givenperformance criterion.Fundamentally,
advanced control does notdiffer from any other control strategy in thesense that it is also based
on feedback control.Yet, it is the intelligence behind advancedcontrol that makes the difference
whencompared to conventional controllers

Cascade Control:-

In single-loop control, the controller’s set point is set by an operator, and its output drives a final
control element. For example: a level controller driving a control valve to keep the level at its set
point.

Photo

In a cascade control arrangement, there are two (or more) controllers of which one controller’s
output drives the set point of another controller. For example: a level controller driving the set
point of a flow controller to keep the level at its set point. The flow controller, in turn, drives a
control valve to match the flow with the set point the level controller is requesting.

The controller driving the set point (the level controller in the example above) is called the
primary, outer, or master controller. The controller receiving the set point (flow controller in the
example) is called the secondary, inner or slave controller.

Cascade control can improve control system performance over single-loop control whenever
either:

(1) Disturbances affect a measurable intermediate or secondary process output that

directly affects the primary process output that we wish to control;

(2) the gain of the secondary process, including the actuator, is nonlinear. In the first case, a
cascade control system can limit the effect of the disturbances entering the secondary variable
on the primary output. In the second case, a cascade control system can limit the effect of
actuator or secondary process gain variations on the control system performance. Such gain
variations usually arise from changes in operating point due to setpoint changes or sustained
disturbances.

When Should Cascade Control be Used?

Cascade control should always be used if you have a process with relatively slow dynamics (like
level, temperature, composition, humidity) and a liquid or gas flow, or some other relatively-fast
process, has to be manipulated to control the slow process. For example: changing cooling
water flow rate to control condenser pressure (vacuum), or changing steam flow rate to control
heat exchanger outlet temperature. In both cases, flow control loops should be used as inner
loops in cascade arrangements.
Cascade Control Have any Disadvantages?

Cascade control has three disadvantages. One, it requires an additional measurement (usually
flow rate) to work. Two, there is an additional controller that has to be tuned. And three, the
control strategy is more complex – for engineers and operators alike. These disadvantages
have to be weighed up against the benefits of the expected improvement in control to decide if
cascade control should be implemented.

Feed forward (control):-

A feed forward (sometimes written feedforward) is an element or pathway within a control

system that passes a controlling signal from a source in its external environment to a load
elsewhere in its external environment. This is often a command signal from an external operator.

A control system which has only feed-forward behavior responds to its control signal in a pre-
defined way without responding to the way the load reacts; it is in contrast with a system that
also has feedback, which adjusts the input to take account of how it affects the load, and how
the load itself may vary unpredictably; the load is considered to belong to the external
environment of the system.

In a feed-forward system, the control variable adjustment is not error-based. Instead it is based
on knowledge about the process in the form of a mathematical model of the process and
knowledge about, or measurements of, the process disturbances.[1]

Some prerequisites are needed for control scheme to be reliable by pure feed-forward without
feedback: the external command or controlling signal must be available, and the effect of the
output of the system on the load should be known (that usually means that the load must be
predictably unchanging with time). Sometimes pure feed-forward control without feedback is
called 'ballistic', because once a control signal has been sent, it cannot be further adjusted; any
corrective adjustment must be by way of a new control signal. In contrast, 'cruise control'
adjusts the output in response to the load that it encounters, by a feedback mechanism.

Adaptive control:-

Adaptive control is the control method used by a controller which must adapt to a controlled
system with parameters which vary, or are initially uncertain.[1] For example, as an aircraft flies,
its mass will slowly decrease as a result of fuel consumption; a control law is needed that
adapts itself to such changing conditions. Adaptive control is different from robust control in
that it does not need a priori information about the bounds on these uncertain or time-varying
parameters; robust control guarantees that if the changes are within given bounds the control
law need not be changed, while adaptive control is concerned with control law changing itself.
SMITH PREDICTOR:-

PHOTO

State space model:-

State space model (SSM) refers to a class of probabilistic graphical model (Koller and Friedman,
2009) that describes the probabilistic dependence between the latent state variable and the
observed measurement. The state or the measurement can be either continuous or discrete.
The term “state space” originated in 1960s in the area of control engineering (Kalman, 1960).
SSM provides a general framework for analyzing deterministic and stochastic dynamical
systems that are measured or observed through a stochastic process. The SSM framework has
been successfully applied in engineering, statistics, computer science and economics to solve a
broad range of dynamical systems problems. Other terms used to describe SSMs are hidden
Markov models (HMMs) (Rabiner, 1989) and latent process models. The most well studied SSM
is the Kalman filter, which defines an optimal algorithm for inferring linear Gaussian systems.

An important objective of computational neuroscience is to develop statistical techniques to

characterize the dynamic features inherent in neural and behavioral responses of experimental
subjects collected during neurophysiological experiments. In neuroscience experiments,
measurements of neural or behavioral data are often dynamic, noisy and have rich temporal
structures. Examples of such include intracellular or extracellular recordings, neuronal spike
trains, local field potentials, EEG, MEG, fMRI, calcium imaging, and behavioral measures (such
as the reaction time and decision choice). Questions of interest may include how to analyze
spike trains from ensembles of hippocampal place cells to infer the rodent’s position in the
environment or how to identify the sources of dipole using multi-channel MEG recordings.
Regardless of their specific modality and applications, SSM provides a unified and powerful
paradigm to model and analyze these signals in a dynamic fashion in both time and space.

Degrees of freedom analysis for process control:-

Abstract

In defining the control structure of a system it is very important to know how many variables we
can regulate. The degrees of freedom (DOF) analysis of the system allows establishing the
maximum variables that need to be fixed to have a completely determined system. Of all the
DOF some of them will be disturbances (i.e. they are fixed externally) and the rest indicates the
maximum number of variables to control. The procedure developed in this paper is based on,
and extends and generalizes, the one presented by Ponton (Degrees of freedom analysis in
process control.).