Week 4 “Digital Voltmeters & Frequency Meters”

a) Digital Voltmeter Systems

b) Digital Multi-Meters

c) Frequency Meter Systems

d) Time & Ratio Measurements

e) Counter/Timers/Frequency Meter

a) What Is A Digital Voltmeter?

Voltmeter Is An Electrical Measuring Instrument Used To Measure The Potential Difference

Between Two Points. The Voltage To Be Measured May Be Ac Or Dc. Two Types Of
Voltmeters Are Available For The Purpose Of Voltage Measurement I.E. Analog And Digital.
Analog Voltmeters Generally Contain A Dial With A Needle Moving Over It According To The
Measure And Hence Displaying The Value Of The Same. With Time Analog Voltmeters Are
Replaced By Digital Voltmeters Due To The Same Advantages Associated With Digital
Systems.
Although Digital Voltmeters Do Not Fully Replace Analog Voltmeters, Still There Are Many
Places Where Analog Voltmeters Are Preferred Over Digital Voltmeters.

Digital Voltmeters Display The Value Of Ac Or Dc Voltage Being Measured Directly As

Discrete Numerical Instead Of A Pointer Deflection On A Continuous Scale As In Analog
Instruments.
Advantages Of Digital Voltmeters:

 Readout Of Dvms Is Easy As It Eliminates Observational Errors In

Measurement Committed By Operators.
 Error On Account Of Parallax And Approximation Is Entirely Eliminated.
 Reading Can Be Taken Very Fast.
 Output Can Be Fed To Memory Devices For Storage And Future Computations.
 Versatile And Accurate
 Compact And Cheap
 Low Power Requirements
 Portability Increased
b) Digital Multi-Meters

A Digital Multimeter Is A Test Tool Used To Measure Two Or More Electrical Values—
Principally Voltage (Volts), Current (Amps) And Resistance (Ohms). It Is A Standard
Diagnostic Tool For Technicians In The Electrical/Electronic Industries.

Digital Multimeters Long Ago Replaced Needle-Based Analog Meters Due To Their Ability
To Measure With Greater Accuracy, Reliability And Increased Impedance. Fluke Introduced
Its First Digital Multimeter In 1977.

Digital Multimeters Combine The Testing Capabilities Of Single-Task Meters—The

Voltmeter (For Measuring Volts), Ammeter (Amps) And Ohmmeter (Ohms). Often, They
Include Several Additional Specialized Features Or Advanced Options. Technicians With
Specific Needs, Therefore, Can Seek Out A Model Targeted To Meet Their Needs.

The Face Of A Digital Multimeter Typically Includes Four Components:

Display: Where Measurement Readouts Can Be Viewed.

Buttons: For Selecting Various Functions; The Options Vary By Model.

Dial (Or Rotary Switch): For Selecting Primary Measurement Values (Volts, Amps, Ohms).

Input Jacks: Where Test Leads Are Inserted.

What Is A Digital Multimeter?

 Test Leads Are Flexible, Insulated Wires (Red For Positive, Black For Negative) That Plug
Into The Dmm. They Serve As The Conductor From The Item Being Tested To The
Multimeter. The Probe Tips On Each Lead Are Used For Testing Circuits.

The Terms Counts And Digits Are Used To Describe A Digital Multimeter's Resolution—
How Fine A Measurement A Meter Can Make. By Knowing A Multimeter's Resolution, A
Technician Can Determine If It Is Possible To See A Small Change In A Measured Signal.

Example: If A Multimeter Offers A Resolution Of 1 Mv On The 4 V Range, It Is Possible To

See A Change Of 1 Mv (1/1000th Of A Volt) While Reading 1v.

Digital Multimeters Are Typically Grouped By Their Number Of Counts (Up To 20,000)
They Display.

Broadly Speaking, Multimeters Fall Into One Of A Handful Of Categories:

General Purpose (Aka Testers)

Standard

Advanced

Compact

Wireless

What Is A Frequency Meter?

A Frequency Meter Is An Electronic Instrument That Measures Frequencies Of Light And Sound
Waves. Frequency Is Defined As Being The Amount Of Times A Particular Sound Or Light
Waveform Occurs Within A Given Period Of Time, And The Frequency Meter Counts These
Occurrences And Their Duration. A Frequency Meter Can Detect And Display The Frequencies
Of Sounds And Light Waves Below And Above The Detection Ability Of The Human Eyes And
Ears For A Full Spectrum Of Each.
The Input Signal A Frequency Meter Receives Usually Comes From One Of Several Kinds Of
Input/Output Interfaces. These Can Be Rs232 Serial Data Ports, Universal Serial Bus (Usb)
Ports, Ethernet Data Link Connections, Or General Purpose Interface Bus (Gpib) Test
Equipment Connections. Besides Notifying Of Frequencies, A Frequency Meter Can Send Alerts
When Frequencies Have Been Exceeded. A Menu Interface Can Receive Settings For What
Frequencies Are Allowable And Program The Frequency Meter To Either Sound An Alarm Or
Shut Down Operation When Frequencies Are Exceeded For A Duration Beyond A Set Period Of
Time.

There Is An Internal Oscillator, Called The Timebase, That Provides The Time Signals. If The
Signal Being Received Is Already In Electronic Form, A Simple Interface Hookup Will Give
The Reading. If The Input Is Not Electronic, A Transducer In The Frequency Meter Will Need
To Convert The Signal And Perhaps Amplify Or Filter It To Then Achieve An Accurate Read.
Frequency Meters, For Very High Frequency Reads Of Microwave Signals And Beyond,
Require An Internal Prescaler To Lower The Frequency To A Level Where Normal Circuitry
Can Read It.
The Timebase Within A Frequency Meter Is Usually A Quartz Crystal Oscillator Containing A
Chamber That Is Temperature-Controlled And Sealed For High Accuracy Measurements. Global
Positioning Satellite (Gps) Frequency Receivers May Also Contain A Timebase With A
Rubidium Oscillator. Also, Embedded Systems, Such As A Central Processing Unit (Cpu), Can
Be Programmed To Become Frequency Meters Of Their Own Operations When Given External
Frequency References For Self-Calibration.

Digital Frequency Meters Are Often Used As Test Equipment Or Test Equipment Adjuncts In
Electronics Industries. Physics And Engineering Endeavors Related To Acoustics, Optics And
Radio Waves Use Them As Traditional Measurement Devices. Nuclear Pulse Counting From
Nuclear Decay Was Among The First Uses Of Frequency Meters During World War Ii, And
They Are Still In Use For That Purpose As Radiation Counters. They Can Also Be Used To
Reduce Noise On Cellphones, Cameras And Wireless Networks, And To Detect Leaks In
Microwave Ovens.

What Is A Frequency Counter

Frequency Counters Are Test Instruments Used In Many Applications Associated With Radio
Frequency Engineering To Measure The Frequency Of Signals Very Accurately.

These Frequency Counters And Counter Timers Are Widely Used Within A Variety Of Areas Of
Electronics Test To Measure The Frequency Of Repetitive Signals, And Also For Measuring The
Time Between Edges On Digital Signals.

Whilst The Actual Requirements And Applications For Rf Frequency Counters And Timers Are
Different, They Use The Same Basic Circuitry, With Some Simple Internal Reconfiguration And
As A Result Sometimes Rf Frequency Counters Are Also Able To Act As Timers. Typically The
Very High Rf Frequency Counters Will Not Incorporate The Timer Capability.

These Test Instruments Are Widely Available, And Can Often Be Bought For Very Competitive
Prices. However, Remember That Cost Is Not Everything, And A Low Cost Item Of Test
Equipment May Give Poor Performance.
Introduction Of The Digital Frequency Couner

Prior To The Introduction Of The Digital Frequency Counter, The Measurement Of Frequencies
Was Significantly More Involved, And Must Less Accurate. The Rf Test Equipment Used Was
Far More Rudimentary.

A Number Of Approaches Were Used. The Most Simple Was Called An Absorption Wavemeter.
This Piece Of Test Equipment Was Just A Tuned Circuit Onto Which Was Connected A Diode
Rectifier And A Meter. Essentially This Detected The High Power Transmissions And Gave A
Broad Indication Of Their Frequency As The Meter Deflected.

If More Accurate Frequency Measurements Were Required, A Unit Called A Heterodyne

Frequency Meter Or Wavemeter Was Used.

This Is A Form Is Test Equipment That Uses A Crystal Oscillator To Provide A Calibration
Signal - Typically With 1 Mhz And 100 Khz Crystals That Enable The Internal Oscillator To Be
Calibrated Every 100 Khz.

The Wave Meter Can Be Used To Create A Signal That Can Check The Frequency Of A
Receiver. Alternatively When Used With A Transmitter, The Transmitted Signal Will Be Picked
Up By The Wave Meter And Heard As A Heterodyne Within The Wavemeter Headphones.
Again The Accurate Oscillator Used In The Wavemeter Ensures The Frequency Of The Signal Is
Accurately Known.
The First Frequency Counters Introduced Used Nixie Tubes As Indicators, But Were Able To
Provide A Very Much Faster Means Of Frequency Measurement Than Was Previously Possible
With The Heterodyne Frequency Meters.

Digital Frequency Counters Quickly Developed As Technology Improved Increasing The

Maximum Frequency Of Operation, Improving He Triggering, And Providing More Easily
Visible Forms Of Display.

What Is An Rf Frequency Counter: Basics

In Essence A Frequency Counter Is An Electronics Test Instrument That Operates By Counting

The Number Of Times A Signal Passes A Give Voltage Point - Trigger Point - In A Given Time.

Some Frequency Counters Will Have Trigger Points That Can Be Set, But Most Automatically
Set The Trigger - Often Around The Zero Crossing Point.

To Illustrate The Operation, If The Time For Which The Frequency Counter Is Set To Count Is
A Second, I.E. A Gate Time Of A Second, And The Waveform Crosses The Trigger Point A
Hundred Times, There Will Be A Hundred Repetitions Of The Waveform In A Second, I.E. Its
Frequency Is 100 Hertz.

If The Same Waveform Was Used, But The Gate Time Is Reduced To A Tenth Of A Second,
Then Only Ten Repetitions Would Be Seen. The Circuitry Can Easily Accommodate This And
The Circuit Can Deduce That In A Tenth Of A Second Ten Repetitions Are Seen, Then The
Waveform Has A Frequency Of 100 Hz.

Basic Concept Of A Frequency Counter

There Is A Balance Between Getting An Accurate Count And The Length Of Time Of The Gate.
With A Tenth Of A Second Gate Time And A 100hz Signal, Only Ten Crossings Will Be
Counted, Whereas With A Gate Time Of A Second 100 Crossings Will Be Counted. Dependent
Upon Where The Gate Time Falls With Respect To The Incoming Signal, It Can Be Seen That
The Longer Gate Time Will Be More Accurate.
The Issue With The Longer Gate Time Is That The Update Rate Is Not As Fast, But In Many
Situations This May Not Be An Issue.

The Length Of The Gate Time Is Critical. Normally The Signal For The Gate Is Taken From A
Crystal Controlled Oscillator Of Some Form To Ensure An Accurate Time. Often Tcxos
(Temperature Controlled Crystal Oscillators), Or Ocxos (Oven Controlled Crystal Oscillators)
Are Used To Ensure The Best Accuracy.

Another Issue With These Frequency Counters Can Be That Noise On The Signal Will Cause
False Counts To Be Registered. Often Careful Design Of The Input Circuitry Can Help Ensure
That These False Counts Only Rarely Occur.

Rf Frequency Counter Applications

Rf Frequency Counters Are Used In Very Many Applications Where The Frequencies Of Radio
Frequency Or Even Audio Frequency Signals Are To Be Measured. Some Applications May
Include:

 Measuring The Frequency Of A Transmitter Carrier.

 Measuring The Frequency Of An Oscillator In A Circuit.

 Measure The Frequency Of A Signal On A Line

 Any Application Where The Frequency Of A Steady Repetitive Signal Needs To Be

Measured.

To Be Able To Measure The Frequency Of An Rf Signal Using A Frequency Counter There Are
A Few Prerequisites.

 Frequency Must Be Steady, I.E. Not Varying.

 The Signal Should Not Have Modulation Applied As This Will Prevent Proper Counting.

 Signal Must Have Sufficient Amplitude – Typically Signals Over About Half A Volt Are
Suitable.
 Signals Should Not Be So Large That They Overload The Input - Check The Manufacturer’s
Specification If In Doubt.