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Electronic instrumentation for measuring basic parameters:

Choosing appropriate measuring instruments
The starting point in choosing the most suitable measuring
instruments is the specification of the instrument characteristics required
(accuracy, resolution, sensitivity and dynamic performance). As far as
possible, measurement systems and instruments should be chosen that are
as insensitive as possible to the operating environment.
Generally, the better the characteristics, the higher the cost.
However, in comparing the cost and relative suitability of different
instruments for a particular measurement situation, considerations of
durability, maintainability and constancy of performance are also very
important because the instrument chosen will often have to be capable of
operating for long periods without performance degradation and a
requirement for costly maintenance.
Cost is very strongly correlated with the performance of an
instrument, as measured by its static characteristics. Increasing the
accuracy or resolution of an instrument, for example, can only be done at
a penalty of increasing its manufacturing cost.
Instrument types
Instruments can be subdivided into separate classes according to
several criteria.
Active and passive instruments
Instruments are divided into active or passive ones according to
whether the instrument output is entirely produced by the quantity being
measured or whether the quantity being measured simply modulates the
magnitude of some external power source.
An example of a passive instrument is the pressure-measuring device
shown in Figure 2.1. The pressure of the fluid is translated into a
movement of a pointer against a scale. The energy expended in moving the
pointer is derived entirely from the change in pressure measured: there
are no other energy inputs to the system.

Figure 2.1 Passive pressure gauge

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An example of an active instrument is a float-type petrol tank level

indicator as sketched in Figure 2.2. Here, the change in petrol level moves
a potentiometer arm, and the output signal consists of a proportion of the
external voltage source applied across the two ends of the potentiometer.
The energy in the output signal comes from the external power source: the
primary transducer float system is merely modulating the value of the
voltage from this external power source.

Figure 2.2 Petrol-tank level indicator

In active instruments, the external power source is usually in
electrical form.
One very important difference between active and passive
instruments is the level of measurement resolution that can be obtained.
With the simple pressure gauge shown, the amount of movement made by
the pointer for a particular pressure change is closely defined by the
nature of the instrument. Whilst it is possible to increase measurement
resolution by making the pointer longer, such that the pointer tip moves
through a longer arc. In an active instrument, however, adjustment of the
magnitude of the external energy input allows much greater control over
measurement resolution.
In terms of cost, passive instruments are normally of a more simple
construction than active ones and are therefore cheaper to manufacture.
Therefore, choice between active and passive instruments for a particular
application involves carefully balancing the measurement resolution
requirements against cost.
Analogue and digital instruments
An analogue instrument gives an output that varies continuously as
the quantity being measured changes. The deflection-type of pressure
gauge described earlier in this chapter (Figure 2.1) is a good example of an
analogue instrument.
A digital instrument has an output that varies in discrete steps and so
can only have a finite number of values. The rev counter sketched in
Figure 2.3 is an example of a digital instrument. A cam is attached to the

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revolving body whose motion is being measured, and on each revolution

the cam opens and closes a switch. An electronic counter counts the
switching operations.

Figure 2.3 Rev counter

An instrument whose output is in digital form is particularly
advantageous in such applications, as it can be interfaced directly to the
control computer. Analogue instruments must be interfaced to the
microcomputer by an analogue-to-digital (A/D) converter, which converts
the analogue output signal from the instrument into an equivalent digital
quantity that can be read into the computer.
Smart and non-smart instruments
The advent of the microprocessor has created a new division in
instruments between those that do incorporate a microprocessor (smart)
and those that don’t.
A sensor is a device that converts a physical phenomenon into an
electrical signal. As such, sensors represent part of the interface between
the physical world and the world of electrical devices, such as computers.
The other part of this interface is represented by actuators ‫ ل شغل‬, which
convert electrical signals into physical phenomena.
All of microprocessors need electrical input voltages in order to
receive instructions and information. So, along with the availability of
inexpensive microprocessors has grown an opportunity for the use of
sensors in a wide variety of products. In addition, since the output of the
sensor is an electrical signal, sensors tend to be characterized in the same
way as electronic devices.
A sensor is a device that receives a signal or stimulus ‫ محفز‬and
responds with an electrical signal, while a transducer is a converter of one
type of energy into another. In practice, however, the terms are often used
interchangeably.
Electronic multimeter:
One of the most versatile ‫ م عد اس ع ا‬general-purpose shop
instrument capable of measuring dc and ac voltages as well as current and
resistance is the solid-state electronic multimeter or VOM. Although

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circuit details will vary from one instrument to the next, an electronic
multimeter generally contains the following elements:
a) Balanced-bridge dc amplifier and indicating meter
b) Input attenuator or Range switch, to limit the magnitude of the
input voltage to the desired value
c) Rectifier section, to convert an ac input voltage to a
proportional dc value
d) Internal battery and additional circuitry, to provide the
capability of resistance measurement
The most appropriate ‫ مائم‬instrument for a particular voltage
measurement depends on the performance required in a given situation.
When the switch of the multimeter is placed on the OHMS position,
the unknown resistor is connected in series with an internal battery, and
the meter simply measures the voltage drop across the unknown. Since the
voltage drop across R is directly proportional to its resistance, the meter
scale can be calibrated in terms of resistance.
A sensitive ac voltmeter and a series resistance can make current
measurements. In the usual case, however, an ac current probe is used
which enables the operator to measure an ac current without disturbing
the circuit under test. The current probe simply clips around the wire
carrying the unknown current and in effect makes the wire the one-turn
primary of a transformer formed by a ferrite core and a many-turn
secondary winding the current-probe body. The signal induced in the
secondary winding is amplified and the output voltage of the amplifier is
applied to a suitable ac voltmeter for measurement. The current is then
read directly on the voltmeter, using the same scale as for voltage
measurement.
Digital voltmeters:
The digital voltmeter DVM displays measurements of dc or ac
voltages as discrete numerals instead of a pointer deflection on a
continuous scale as in analog devices. Numerical readout is advantageous
in many applications because it reduces human reading and interpolation
errors, eliminates parallax error, increases reading speed, and often
provides outputs in digital form suitable for further processing or
recording.
Quoting some typical operating and performance characteristics can
best illustrate the DVM’s outstanding qualities.
a) Input range: with automatic range selecting and overload
indication
b) Absolute accuracy: as high as ±0.005% of the reading

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c) Stability: short-term, 0.002% of the reading for a 24-hr period;

long-term, o.oo8% of the reading for a 6-month period
d) Resolution: 1 part in 106 (1µV can be read on the 1-V input
range)
e) Input characteristics: input resistance typically 10 MΩ; input
capacitance typically 40 pF
f) Calibration: internal calibration standard allows calibration
independent of the measuring circuit; derived from stabilized reference
source
g) Output signals: print command allows output to printer; BCD
(binary-coded-decimal) output for digital processing or recording
Digital voltmeter can be classified according to the following broad
categories:
a) Ramp-type DVM
b) Integrating DVM
c) Continuous-balance DVM
d) Successive-approximation DVM
The operating principle of the ramp-type DVM is based on the
measurement of the time it takes for a linear ramp voltage to rise from 0 V
to the level of the input voltage, or to decrease from the level of the input
voltage to zero. This time interval is measured with an electronic-time-
interval counter, and the count is displayed as a number of digits on
electronic indicating tubes.
The next waveform diagram illustrates conversion from a voltage to
a time interval.

At the start of the measurement cycle, a ramp voltage ‫ جھد ل ع ي‬is

initiated; this voltage can be positive - going or negative - going. The
negative-going ramp, shown is continuously compared with the unknown
input voltage. At the instant ‫ في ل ح ل ي‬that the ramp voltage equals the
unknown voltage, a coincidence circuit, or comparator, generates a pulse,
which opens a gate. The ramp voltage continues to decrease with time

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until it finally reaches 0 V (or ground potential) and a second comparator

generates an output pulse, which closes the gate.

Figure 2.4 conversion from a voltage to a time interval

An oscillator generate clock pulses which are allowed to pass through
the gate to a number of decade counting units (DCUs), which totalize the
number of pulses, passed through the gate. The decimal number,
displayed by the indicator associated with the DCUs, is a measure of the
magnitude of the input voltage.
The sample rate multivibrator (MV) determines the rate at which the
measurement cycles are initiated. The oscillation of this multivibrator can
usually be adjusted by a front-panel control, marked rate, from a few
cycle per second to as high as 1,000 or more.
True RMS-Responding Voltmeter:

Figure 2.5 RMS Voltmeter

Complex waveforms are most accurately measured with an RMS-
Responding voltmeter. This instrument produces a meter indication by
sensing waveform-heating power, which is proportional to the square of
the RMS value of the voltage. This heating power can be measured by

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feeding an amplified version of the input waveform to the heater element

of a thermo coupled whose output voltage is then proportional to E2rms.
Small Current Measurements
For the measurement of current of less than 50 µA full scale, an
amplifier, must employed. The resistance of a very sensitive meter, such as
a 50-µA meter for a VOM, is on the order of a few hundred ohms as an
example, 50 µA through a 200Ω meter represents, 0.5 µw. This represent
the power required for the meter for full-scale deflection and does not
represent the power dissipated in the series resistor, and thus the total
power required by the example meter would be greater than 0.5 µw and
would depend on the voltage range. This does not sound like much power,
but many electronic circuits cannot tolerate this much power being
drained from them.
As shown, an amplifier is required to increase the current sensitivity
below 50 µA, the voltage below 10 mV, and the power required below 0.5
µw.
Amplified dc meter:

Figure 2.6
A simple amplified voltmeter is shown. This meter decreases the
amount of power drawn from a circuit under test by increasing the input
impedance using an amplifier with unity gain; the input impedance of this
meter is 10 MΩ, which would require 0.025 µw, of power for a 0.5 V
deflection, an increase in sensitivity of 100 times.

Figure 2.7

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In this figure the input voltage is amplified and applied to a meter. If

the amplifier has a gain of 10, the sensivity of the measurement is
increased by a like amount. To amplify nano-amp to drive a milliamp
meter requires a gain of 106.
Chopper-stabilized amplifier:
One technique for amplifying dc currents and relatively low-
frequency ac current is the chopper-stabilized amplifier.

Figure 2.8 Chopper-Stabilized Amplifier

The techniques, as shown is to convert the input signal to an ac signal
and, after high gain amplification, reconstruct the dc from the amplified
ac signal. The input signal is converted to an ac signal by chopping, which
simply involves switching the input of an amplifier between the input and
ground with an electronic switch, which is similar to a relay. The output of
the chopper is an ac signal with a peak value equal to the input dc voltage.
The amplified signal is chopped in a similar fashion as the input and
in synchronism with the input chopper. Gain of more than 106 can be
achieved in this fashion.

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