Transducers

Basic Definitions related to measurements/Instrumentation :

Measurement : It is the process which presents the condition or characteristic

of a system in quantitative terms.

Instrument : A device for determining the value or magnitude of a quantity or

variable.

Instrumentation : Instrumentation refers to the art and science of collection of

several instruments and quxiliary equipment and their utilization for conducting
successfully a test or an experiment on a sytem, process or plant.

Block Diagram of a measurement system :

The generalised ' Measurement system' consists of the following

1. Basic Functional Elements, and
2.Auxiliary Functional elements

Basic Functional Elements :

(i)Transducer Element : It senses and converts the desired input to a more convenient and
practical form to be handled by the measurement system.
(ii)Signal Conditioning : It manipulates or processes the output of the transducer in a suitable
form.
(iii)Data presentation element : It gives the information about the measurand or measured
variable in the quantitative form.
Auxiliary Functional elements :
(i) Calibration Element : It is to provide a built in calibration facility
(ii)External power element : It is to facilitate the working of one or more of the elements like
the transducer element, the signal conditioning element, the data processing element or the
feedback element.
(iii)Feedback Element : It is to control the variation of physical quantity that is being
measured. In addition, the feedback element is provided in the null seeking potentiometer or
Wheatstone bridge devices to make them automatic or self balancing.
(iv)Microprocessor Element : It is to facilitate the manipulation of data for the purpose of
simplifying or accelerating the data interpretation. It is always used in conjunction with
analog to digital converter which is incorporated in the signal conditioning element.

Examples of Identification of Functional Elements in Instruments :

(i) Bourdon tube pressure gauge

Fig: (a)Bourdon tube pressure gauge

(b)Functional Elements of the Bourdon tube pressure gauge

A Bourdon tube pressure gauge is shown in fig(a) along with a block diagram in
fig(b) showing its functional elements.

The pressure applied to the hollow oval-shaped bent tube, known as the Bourdon tube,
deforms the cross-section of the tube as well as causes a relative motion, proportional to the
applied pressure, of the free end of the tube with respect to its fixed end.

Thus, this tube acts as a transducer element as it converts the desired input, i.e. presuure into
displacement x at its free end.
This displacement is amplified by the combined lever and the gearing arrangement which
may be referred to as the signal conditioning elements.

Finally, the movement of the pointer attached to the gear on a scale gives an indication of the
pressure and thus the pointer and the scale constitute the data presentation elements of the
Bourdon tube pressure gauge.

(ii)Bourdon pressure gauge with electrical read out

Fig (a)Bourdon tube pressure gauge with digital readout

(b)Functional elements of the digital readout pressure gauge

The use of the linear variable differential transducer (LVDT) for sensing the
movement of the tip of the Bourdon tube shown in Fig(a) improves the performance of the
pressure measuring device.
The main advantage is that the output of the instrument is electrical and is quite
convenient for suitable signal conditioning operations.
Further, to achieve other desirable features like linearity, rapidity of response and a
small volume displacement, a very stiff and short Bourdon tube is used.

The block diagram of this instrument is shown in fig(b).

The first block shown in the figure is of the transducer elements. This is because the
transduced voltage signal due to the applied pressure is provided by the combined effect of
two transducer elements, viz. by the Bourdon tube and the LVDT that may be termed primary
and secondary transducer elements, respectively.

The output of the transducer element is processed by the signal conditioning element
involving the amplification of the signal and also the filtration of spurious signals present in
the transducer signal.
 Finally, the pressure is indicated in terms of a reading on a suitable analog or digital
voltmeter, depending on the form in which the output is desired.

(iii)Electrodynamic displacement measuring device

Fig (a)Electrodynamic type of displacement measuring instrument

(b)Functional elements of the electrodynamic type of displacement measuring instrument

For the measurement of linear displacement, a device incorporating the

electrodynamic principle is shown in Fig(a) along with its block diagram in Fig(b).

In this device, for measuring the displacement x, a coil wound on a hollow cylinder of
non-magnetic material is attached to the moving object.
The movement of the coil with respect to a fixed magnet induces a voltage proportional to the
rate of change of magnetic flux which in turn is proportional to the velocity of the coil.

Thus, the coil and the magnet constitute the transducer element as they produce a
voltage signal V1, proportional to the instantaneous velocity of the object during the course
of displacement x of the object. In the signal conditioning element, the transducer signal is
suitably amplified and then integrated so that the voltage V2 is proportional to the
displacement.

Finally, the output voltage V2 is indicated on a cathode ray oscilloscope(CRO) which forms
the data presentation element of the instrument.

Static Characteristics of Instruments :

1.Accuracy : Accuracy of a measuring system is defined as the closeness of the instrument
output to the true value of the measured quantity.
 Accuracy of the instrument mainly depends on the inherent limitations of the
instrument as well as the shortcomings in the measuring process.

The accuracy of an instrument depends on the various systemetic errors involved in

the measurement process.
The accuracy of the instruments can be specified in either of the following forms:

2.Precision :
Precision is defined as the ability of the instrument to reproduce a certain set of
readings within a given accuracy.
Precision of an instrument is in fact, dependent on repeatability. Repeatability can be
difined as the ability of the instrument to reproduce a group of measurements of the same
measured quantity, made by the same observer, using the same instrument, under the same
conditions.
Precision of the instrument depends on the factors that cause random or accidental
errors.

Accuracy Vs Precision :

3.Resolution (or Discrimination) :

It is defined as the smallest increment in the measured value that can be detected with
certainty by the instrument.

4.Threshold :
It is defined as the minimum value of the input below which no output can be
detected.

Both threshold and resolution can either be specified as absolute quantities in terms of input
units or as percentage of full scale deflection.

Both threshold and resolution are not zero because of various factors like
• friction between moving parts
• play or looseness in joints(more correctly termed as backlash)
• inertia of the moving parts
• length of the scale
• spacings of graduations
• size of the pointer
• parallax effect, etc.

5.Static sensitivity :
 Static sensitivity (also termed as scale factor or gain) of the instrument is determined
from the result of static calibration.
Static sensitivity (also termed as scale factor or gain) of the instrument is defined as
the ratio of the magnitude of response (output signal) to the magnitude of the quantity being
measured(input signal), i.e.

Fig: Static sensitivity of linear and non-linear instruments

6.Linearity :
A linear indicating scale is one of the most desirable features of any instrument.
Therefore, manufactures of instruments always attempt to design their instruments so that the
output is a linear function of the input.
However, linearity is never completely achieved and the deviations from the ideal are
termed as linearity tolerances.
In commercial instruments, the maximum departure from linearity is often specified
in one of the following ways.

Fig : Typical specifications of non-linearity

7.Range and Span :

The range of the instrument is specified by the lower and upper limits in which it is
designed to operate for measuring, indicating or recording the measured variable.
The algebraic difference between the upper and lower range values is termed as span
of the instrument.
 The over-range ( or overload capacity) of the instrument is the maximum value of
measurand that can be applied to the instrument without causing a perceptible change i.e., a
change beyond specified tolerances.
Further, the recovery time of the instrument is the amount of time elapsed after the
removal of the overload conditions before it performs again within the specified tolerances.

8.Hysteresis :
It is defined as the magnitude of error caused in the output for a given value of input,
when this value is approached from opposite directions, i.e. from ascending order and then
descending order.
Hysteresis is caused by backlash, elastic deformations, magnetic characteristics, but is
mainly caused due to frictional effects.

Fig : Typical out-input curves showing hysteresis effects

Hysteresis effects are best eliminated by taking the observations both for ascending
and descending values of input and then taking the arithmetic mean.

9.Dead Band:
It is defined as the largest change of the measurand to which the instrument does not
respond.
For example, in the output-input curve with hysteresis effect due to Coulomb's
friction, the extent of dead band is shown. In such a case, it is approximately twice the
threshold value.

10.Backlash :
It si defined as the maximum distance or angle through which any part of the
mechanical system may be moved in one direction without causing motion of the next part.
The output-input characteristics of an instrument system with backlash error is similar
to hysteresis loop due to Coulomb's friction.
Backlash error can be minimised if the components are made to very close tolerances.

11.Drift :
It is defined as the variation of output for a given input caused due to change in the
sensitivity of the instrument due to certain interfering inputs like temperature changes,
component instabilities, etc.
Measurement Errors :
Measurement errors are classified as
(i)Gross errors
(ii)Systematic errors or cumulative errors
(iii)Random Errors

(i)Gross errors :
Gross errors are largely human errors like
➢ misreading of the instrument; Ex Parallax error
➢ incorrect adjustment of the instrument: Ex balancing a bridge circuit
➢ improper application of the instrument; Ex Loading effect consideration
➢ computational mistakes
Gross errors can be avoided by adopting the following
1. Much care should be taken in reading and recording the data
2. Two, three or even more readings should be taken for the quantity under measurement
as the close agreement between readings assures that no gross error has been
committed
(ii) Systematic errors or cumulative errors :
This type of error is divided into two different categories:
Instrumental errors : These are due to the shortcomings of the instrument.
Examples
• In the d'Arsonval movement friction in bearings of various moving parts may cause
incorrect readings
• Calibration errors, causing the instrument to read high or low along its entire scale
• Failure to set the instrument to zero before making a measurement.
Instrumental errors may be avoided by
o selecting a suitable instrument for the particular measurement application
o applying correction factors after determining the amount of instrumental error
o Calibrating the instrument against a standard
Environmental Errors : These are due to conditions external to the measuring
device, including conditions in the area surrounding the instrument, such as the effects of
change in temperature, humidity, barometric pressure, or of magnetic or electrostatic fields.
Corrective measures to reduce these effects include air conditioning, hermetically
sealing certain components in the instrument, use of magnetic shields, and the like.

Systematic errors can also be subdivided into static or dynamic errors.

Static errors are caused by limitations of the measuring device as well as due to
shortcomings in the measurement process. For example, a static error is introduced in the
micrometer reading when excessive torque is applied on the shaft of the micrometer screw.
Dynamic errors are caused in measurements if the instrument is not responding fast
enough to follow the changes in the measured variable.

(iii)Random Errors
These errors are caused due to random variations in the parameter or the system of
measurement.
Such errors vary in magnitude and may be either positive or negative on the basis of
chance alone.
Since these errors are in either direction, they tend to compensate one another.
Therefore these errors are also called chance or compensating type of errors.
The following are some of the main contributing factors to random error
• Inconsistencies associated with accurate measurement of small quantities
• Presence of certain system defects
• Effect of unrestrained and randomly varying parameters.
 The only way to offset random errors is by increasing the number of readings and
using statistical means to obtain the best approximation of thetrue value of the quantity under
measurement.