Six Sigma Manual PDF

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Copyright TreQna Six Sigma Nanual
M
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DNA!C
DEFINE
MEASURE
ANALYZE
IMPROVE
CONTROL
Nap project
CTQ Characteristics and standards
Neasurement System Analysis
Baseline process
Screen for vital X's
Defined !mprove Process
NSA on X's
Approve project
Data collection
Performance objective
!dentify drivers of variation
Study interaction between X's
!mproved Process capability
Establish control plan
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Neasure Phase
DEF!NE NEASURE ANALYZE !NPROvE CONTROL
Continuous Gage R8R, Short
Form Gage, Testf Retest Study,
Attribute Gage R8R
- !dentify gage error
Neasurement system analysis
Step M.2
Tools
Activities
Deliverables
Objective
Step M.3 Step M.1
Process Nap, QFD, FNEA,
Pareto
- Sampling Strategy
- Segmentation factors
- !dentify project Y metric
- Establish performance
standards
Data collection CTQ characteristics and
standards
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Objectives of Step N.1 (CTQ Characteristics 8 Standards)
- Narrow project focus to actionable(s)
- Determine specification limits for project Y metric
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!dentifying project Y metric
To select CTQ characteristics following tools can help us:
- Process mapping
- QFD
- FNEA
- Pareto (will be discussed in Analyze)
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Process mapping
Process Napping:
- !s a graphical representation of activities, steps, information, resources and
their interactions.
- Process Nap is also called a flowchart.
- Process Napping is a first step in understanding how and why a process
behaves the way it does.
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Customer
Output
Input
Supplier
Process
A process is a series of logical steps that transform inputs (raw materials) in to customer defined
outputs.
A process may be largely affected by one or more of the following factors:
- personnel who operate the processes;
- materials which are used as inputs (including information);
- machines or equipment being used in the process (in process execution or monitoring f
measurement;
- methods (including criteria and various documentations used along the process);
- work environment
Understanding a process
x
1
, x
2
, x
3
... Y
1
, Y
2
, Y
3
...
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Process Boundary
Process Boundary
Process Controls
Netrics and Neasurements
- Process Boundary defines the process limit. !t helps understand the scope of the process and
its constraints.
- Process controls help ensure the process is consistent in behavior
- Metrics and Measurements are the means to measure conformance with requirements placed
by customers on outputs and processes on inputs.
Components of a process
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Why map process?
Napping a process has many uses:
- Compare actual vs. assumed (designed) flow
- !dentify redundant, duplicate or non value add steps
- !dentify data collection points in the process
- Study interaction and interdependencies between different departments
(highlight hand off points)
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How to map a process?
To map a process:
- Understand the process boundaries and scope
- Observe the process and identify its steps
- Arrange the process steps in a logical order
- !dentify the outputs, the customers, and their key requirements
- !dentify the inputs, the suppliers, and the process's key requirements
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Process mapping - Frequently used symbols
Process step
Process step
Decision box
Decision box
Process
Start f End
Process
Start f End
Off page
connector
Off page
connector
Document
Document
Nulti-document
Nulti-document
Process steps
connector
!nput to a
process
!nput to a
process
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Types of process maps
Three frequently used process maps are:
- Basic Process map: used when the process is small and simple
- Alternate path process map: used for complex andfor large process. Alternate paths replace decision
boxes in the map. The percentage depiction of alternate paths makes this map more informative.
- Cross functional process map: used when the process has many handoffs between different
departments. !t is also known as deployment map.
80%
20%
Human
Resource
Operations
Finance
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Quality Function Deployment
Quality Function Deployment (QFD) is a structured approach to defining
customer needs or requirements and translating them into specific plans to
produce products to meet those needs.
!t helps to understand:
- What customer wants when the customer requirement is not explicit or
is indirect.
- How important it is to the customer
- What the customer does not want
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Objective
- Understand Quality Function Deployment (QFD) as a tool.
- Describe the steps of QFD.
- Analyze output from QFD.
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Definition of QFD
- QFD is a methodology and tool to identify and translate customer needs
and wants into measurable features and requirements - converting the
what's" in to how's"
- QFD links the needs of the customer (end user) with design, development,
manufacturing, and service functions.
- Used to identify Critical to Quality Characteristics (CTQ's)
QFD is also known as the House of Quality"
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9 3 Good service
3 2 Should be reasonably priced
9 + Should taste good
9 3 + Quenches thirst
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Customer Needs
Customer's importance
rating
Customer's Expectations
Neasures that capture
customers requirement
!mpact a CTQ
has on the
customer's
expectations
Overall CTQ impact on customer needs
QFD Natrix
Correlation between
measures
Strong Positive Strong Negative Positive Negative
Elements of QFD matrix:

Rows: The rows of the QFD matrix represent the customer needs (VOC)
Columns: The columns of the QFD matrix represent the CTQs that measure the customers need.
The cross section matrix cells are filled with values 1,3 and 9 depending on the correlation between the customer needs and the CTQs. 1 represents
low correlation, 3 medium correlation, and 9 high correlation. The cell is left blank where no correlation exists.
The column next to needs contains the relative importance given to needs by customer.
The roof of the house is used to depict correlation between various measures
When the matrix is complete, to prioritize the CTQs or requirement:
Multiply the strength of each relationship (1 for weak, 3 for moderate and 9 for strong) by the priority number (1 to 5) for each corresponding
customer expectation.
Add the results and enter the sum for each requirement at the bottom of the matrix. This is the output of the QFD exercise.
It is not necessary to complete every cell of the QFD matrix. Typically, a QFD matrix would have 30-50% of the cells filled.
Caution: An empty row indicates that the need is not captured by any measure. An empty column indicates that the measure does not fulfill any need
and is redundant.
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Analyzing QFD matrix
- Look for blank rows and columns- blank row means that we don't have
any measure to satisfy customer requirement and a blank column means
that we have a measure that does cater to any customer requirement.
- !dentify processesfmeasures which have high impact on customer CTQ's
- Resolve negative correlations between measuresf processes
QFD can be used in iteration to translate customer needs to process CTQs.
For instance - customer needs can be translated to functional requirements using a QFD. A second
level of QFD drill down can translate these requirements to product characteristics. A third level QFD
can then translate the characteristics to process output measures.
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FNEA objective
- Understand and use FNEA tool
- Learn steps involved in making of FNEA
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Failure Nodes and Effects Analysis
FNEA is a structured tool to:
- !dentify failure modes for a process
- Estimate its effect and the risk associated with it
- !dentify and prioritize probable causes of failure
- Evaluate and develop control plan to contain the risk
FMEA can be used at different phases for different purpose.
Measure CTQs identification
Improve Risk analysis on solution
Control To develop process control plan
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Types of FNEA
- System FNEA: Used to analyze potential failure modes in systems during
the design or concept stage.
- Design FNEA: Used to analyze potential failure modes in products before
they are released to production.
- Process FNEA: Used to analyze assembly line, manufacturing,
transactional or other such processes.
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When is FNEA useful?
- Evaluate and control potential risk associated with product, systems in
there design phase
- Evaluate potential risk when existing systems, processes or products are
changed
- Proactive tool to evaluate and contain risk associated with any process or
change in the process.
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Preparing FNEA
- !dentify process and map the process.
- !dentify input and output of the process
- Understand the effect of inputs (process variables) on output of the
process
- Rank inputs according to importance
- List ways in which inputs can vary and the associated failure modes and
effects on outputs
- Assign severity, occurrence and detection to each of the items and
calculate risk priority number
- Prioritize causes with high RPN and develop control plan to minimize risk
FMEA:
Is a team exercise
Living document and should be updated regularly to evaluate risk and make control plans
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Definition of terms
Failure Mode
- Way in which a process can fail to meet expectation
- Any fluctuation which can cause break down in process
- Any fluctuation in process variable which can result in defect or non conformance
Potential Cause
- A deficiency leading to a Failure Node
- Any source of variation in inputs or process variables
Potential Effect
- The impact on customer if the failure mode in not contained or avoided
- Customer could be internal or external. The impact could be on the business or
employees also (which is internal customer)
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!dentifying causes
Causes can be identified using:
- Brainstorming
- Cause and effect diagram
- Ask the question - What can cause process to fail or what can cause a
failure to impact the customer?"
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Rating and Calculating RPN
Severity
- How severe is the impact of failure mode on customer?
Occurrence
- How frequent the cause leading to failure mode can occur?
Detection
- What is the possibility of detecting the failure mode if it occurs?
Risk Priority Number
- RPN signifies the amount of risk associated with failure mode
- RPN = Severance * Occurrence * Detection
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Rating Scale
Nany scales are available for rating severity, occurrence and detection. For
simplicity one can use the following scale:
Low- e.g. not detectable High- e.g. almost assured
failure
High- e.g. affecting
customer
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Medium Medium- Medium 3
High- e.g.. always
detectable
Low e.g. remote
likelihood
Low- e.g. does not affect
customer
1
Detection Occurrence Severity Rating
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Failure Modes and Effects analysis {FMEA)
Date Prepared By:
Process Step
Potential
failure mode
Potential
failure effect
S
E
V.
Potential
Causes
O
C
C
Current
Controls
D
E
T
R
P
N
Recommendations
S
E
V.
O
C
C
D
E
T
R
P
N
How does it look?
List process steps or
product parts
List Failure Modes
for each process step
Rate the Severity of
the Effect to the
customer
Rate how often a
particular cause or
Failure Mode occurs
List the causes for
each Failure Mode
List the Effects of each
Failure Mode
Rate the detection
based on current
controls
Calculate RPN and give
recommendations for reducing
RPN. Calculate new RPN post
implementation of actions
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Performance Standard
Purpose
- To define the customer boundary f specification on a CTQ
- To determine a measurable definition of defect
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Performance Standard
A Performance Standard defines
- The customer want
- Clearly whether a process is performing well or not
E.g. loan approval within 2+ hours, first call resolution
A Performance Standard is also said to translate the voice of Customer" to the
voice of Process"
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Determining performance standard
Characteristics
Translate the customer requirement (vOC) into a measurable CTQ that has:
- An operational definition
- Target and Specification Limits
- Defect Definition
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Operational Definition
A precise description that tells
- What a CTQ is?
- And how to measure it?
Why do we need to have operational definitions?
- !t removes ambiguity in understanding between team members
- !t clearly defines a standard" way to measure a CTQ
- Ensure that CTQ representation is correct and independent of different
times and operators
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Target, Specification limit and Defect
One can understand Target as a reference point to shoot at", however
Specification Limits {SL) define the acceptable tolerance in deviation
from target.
Target and SL are defined using vOC.
E.g. vOC - average call handle time should be 180 seconds but it should
not exceed 270 seconds"
Would translate into :
Target: 180 seconds
Upper SL: 270 seconds (situation where LSL is not required!)
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Target
Specification
Limit
Defect
Defect
Anything that results in customer dissatisfaction. Nonconformance to the
CTQ.
Target, Specification limit and Defect
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CTQ Characteristics and Standard - Takeaways
- !dentify CTQ Characteristics
- Using processing mapping, QFD, FNEA as a tool
- Understanding process
- Types of process maps
- Napping process
- QFD Objectives
- How to prepare QFD matrix
- Diagnosing QFD matrix
- Understanding FNEA
- How to calculate RPN
- What is performance standard
- Understanding characteristics of performance standard
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Neasure Phase
Attribute Gage R8R
(NSA)
Step M.2
Tools
Activities
Deliverables
Objective
Step M.3 Step M.1
Pareto
- Sampling Strategy
standards
standards
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NSA objective
- Understand the terms:
- Precision
- Accuracy
- Resolution
- Stability
- Linearity
- Repeatability
- Reproducibility
- Evaluated the measurement system and established variation induced by it
in process data.
- Project team's consensus on measurement system
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Neasurement System Analysis
- !n this step of Neasure we will conduct
- Gage R8R
- Attribute Gage
- Test Re-test
- Destructive Gage
- Define calibration standards
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Neasurement System and Process variation
Process variation consists of the true variation of process and the variation
due to measurement system.
Total variation = True Process variation + Neasurement System variation
!n this step we try to reduce the variation induced by measurement system. !f
the measurement system is not studied and calibrated:
- Analysis of data may give misleading results
- The variation problem may get fixed by fixing measurement system and
the project may not be required
- One might disturb the process operations without realizing that the cause
of variation is measurement system
Gage study tells us:
Amount of measurement error
Source of measurement error
Once the measurement error is quantified using gage study the next step is to minimize to the level
when it becomes acceptable. The gage study is repeated until the level of acceptance is achieved.
Until the problem of measurement variation is fixed the data can not be used for analysis and project
purpose.
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Process variation
Process True variation producing
parts different lengths for parts
!nput Output Process
variation !nduced by
measurement system
True
Process
Variation
Perceived total
Variation
As we have always say that our knowledge about a problem is limited by the data available, it
becomes critical to study variation induced by measurement system because the data is as good as
the measurement system.
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Sources of variation
Observed
Process
Variation
Actual Process
Variation
Measurement
Variation
Long Term
Process
Variation
Short Term
Process
Variation
Sample
Variation
Gage Variation
Operator
Variation
(Repeatability)
Accuracy (Bias)
Precision
(Reproducibility)
Stability Linearity
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Neasurement variation
- Accuracy f Bias - Difference between the standard and observation.
Example - A weighing scale measuring greater than 0" in free state
- Repeatability - variation in measurements of the same unit measured by the same
operator using the same equipment.
Example - Observed difference in the length of a pencil measured by the same operator using the same
measuring scale
- Reproducibility - variation in measurements of the same unit measured by different
operators using the same equipment.
Example - Observed difference in the length of a pencil measured by different operators using the
same measuring scale.
- Stability - variation in measurement of the same unit measured by the same
operator using the same equipment over time
Example - Observed difference in the length of a pencil measured by different operators using the
same measuring scale on different days.
- Linearity - Consistency of accuracy across the entire range of measurement system.
Example - Observed difference in the length of a pencil when measured using different ends of the
same measuring scale.
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Neasurement Gage Requirements
Three important aspect of gage which should make it adequate:
Resolution: Resolution as defined is the smallest unit in which the gage can
measure. !deally the gage should be able to resolve the tolerance into
approximately ten levels.
Precision: The variation caused due to gage (noise) should be less than the
process variation otherwise it will be difficult to detect process variation.
Accuracy: Ninimal or no difference between an observed reading average
and a standard.
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Understanding Precision and Accuracy
Precise and accurate
==
At target and precise
Accurate but not precise
At target but not precise
Precise but not accurate
Target Precise but away from target
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Elements of Neasurement System variability
Nethod
Naterial
Neasurement
Nachine
Environment
People
Fishbone may be used as a tool to identify Sources of variation in the
measurement system
Some other terms associated with gage:
Repeatability Variation when one operator repeatedly measures the same unit with the same
measuring equipment.
ReproducibilityVariation when two or more people measure the same unit with the same measuring
equipment.
StabilityVariation obtained when the same person measures the same unit with the same equipment
over a large gap of time.
LinearityThe consistency of the accuracy of gage across the entire range of the measurement
system.
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Neasurement System Analysis (NSA)
- Attribute Gage: Done when discrete data is involved
- Gage ANOVA: with continuous data and the most exhaustive gage study.
Requires resource commitment and time. Continuous data can also be run
through short form gage and test-retest.
- Destructive Gage: Done when the event is destructive in nature and can
not be repeated.
Some other terms associated with gage:
Repeatability Variation when one operator repeatedly measures the same unit with the same
measuring equipment.
ReproducibilityVariation when two or more people measure the same unit with the same measuring
equipment.
StabilityVariation obtained when the same person measures the same unit with the same equipment
over a large gap of time.
LinearityThe consistency of the accuracy of gage across the entire range of the measurement
system.
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!mproving the Neasurement System
NOT Precise and NOT Accurate
Precise but NOT Accurate
Precise and Accurate
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Attribute GAGE
- Check gage for:
- Repeatability
- Reproducibility
- Accuracy
- !mprove gage if required
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Attribute Gage standards
!deally an attribute gage is treated as adequate if:
- Repeatability: 90 of repeated measures by an operator match
- Reproducibility: 90 of repeated measures across all operators match
- Accuracy: 90 of all individual measures by across all operators match
with the standard
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Attribute Gage standards
- Repeatability test is more sensitive if there are greater no. of repeated
measurements of the same unit. For instance, it is better to measure 10
units 9 times, than to measure 30 units 3 times.
- Reproducibility test is more sensitive if the same unit is measured by
more operators. Or instance, it is better to have 10 units measured by
operators than to have 30 units measured by 3 operators.
- Accuracy is calculated by taking each measurement as a data point.
Therefore, whether we have 30 units measured 3 times by 3 operators or
10 units measured 3 times by 9 operators or 10 units measured 9 times by
3 operators, there are 270 data points to calculate accuracy.
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Determining The Sample Size
- Consider the desired resolution to determine the sample size
- Greater the desired resolution, higher is the sample size requirement.
- !f the desired resolution is 0.5, will a sample size of 100 be enough?
A desired resolution of 0.5% means that the gage needs to distinguish a difference of half percentage
point. If the sample size is hundred, the gage is good to distinguish a difference of one percentage
point only (1/100), which may not solve the purpose.
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Attribute gage sheet
Repeatability: times each
operator matches on all three
measures for the same unit. Total
90 opportunity exist in the example.
Accuracy times each individual
measure matches with the standard.
Since there are total 270 measures,
there are 270 opportunities
Reproducibility: times all
operators match on all repeated
measures for the same unit. Total
30 opportunities exist in the
example
TRUE First Operator Second Operator Third Operator
Sample Answer Trial1 Trial2 Trial3 Trial1 Trial2 Trial3 Trial1 Trial2 Trial3
1 N N N N N N N Y N N
2 Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
3 Y Y Y N Y Y Y Y Y Y
4 N N N N Y Y Y N N N
5 N N N N N N N N N N
6 Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N
7 Y N Y N Y N Y Y Y Y
S N N N N Y N Y N N N
10 N N N N N N N Y N Y
12 Y N N N Y Y Y Y Y Y
15 N N N N N N N Y Y Y
1S N N N N N N N N N N
20 Y N N N Y Y Y Y Y Y
24 N N N N N N N Y Y Y
2S N N N N N N N N N N
30 Y N Y N Y Y Y Y Y Y
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Test Re-test study
When to use it?
To check for precision of gage or measurement system. Test re-test is used
when same operator does the measurements. !t is good practice to use it
before opting for complex gage ANOvA.
Remember that if a gage is good on precision, the problem of accuracy can be
solved by calibration (correction).
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Test Re-test standard
Precision: !deally precision should be less than 10 of tolerance i.e.
Standard deviation < 10 of tolerance
Tolerance is defined by the customer. E.g. +10 seconds of specifications
would translate into tolerance of 20 seconds.
Accuracy: Can be only measured when one knows the standard value.
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Test re-test gage
Let us take an example where we have readings for diameter of a ball. The
tolerance given is 16 mm (+8mm) and the standard diameter of ball is 98mm .
104, 95, 101, 99, 95, 97, 96, 105, 101,
106, 94, 100, 98, 103, 98, 96, 100, 98,
95, 103
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Test re-test gage
Nake Run chart to find out if the data is stable
Observation
C
1
20 18 16 1+ 12 10 8 6 + 2
107.5
105.0
102.5
100.0
97.5
95.0
Number of runs about median:
0.17906
13
Expected number of runs: 11.00000
Longest run about median: 3
Approx P-value for Clustering: 0.8209+
Approx P-value for Nixtures:
Number of runs up or down:
0.0+762
16
Expected number of runs: 13.00000
Longest run up or down: 2
Approx P-value for Trends: 0.95238
Approx P-value for Oscillation:
Run Chart of C1
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Test re-test gage
Run Descriptive test to calculate mean and standard deviation
Nean=99.2, S=3.6
S=3.6 > 10 of 16 = 1.6
The inaccuracy or bias can be calculated as 99.2-98=1.2
106 10+ 102 100 98 96 9+
Nedian
Nean
101 100 99 98 97 96
A nderson-Darling Normality Test
v ariance 13.116
Skewness 0.367278
Kurtosis -0.95932+
N 20
Ninimum 9+.000
A -Squared
1st Q uartile 96.000
Nedian 98.500
3rd Q uartile 102.500
Naximum 106.000
95 C onfidence !nterv al for Nean
97.505
0.36
100.895
95 C onfidence !nterv al for Nedian
96.235 101.000
95 C onfidence !nterv al for StDev
2.75+ 5.290
P-v alue 0.+25
Nean 99.200
StDev 3.622
95% Confidence Inter vals
Summary for C1
Therefore, the measurement device has inadequate precision.
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Nore about Neasurement variation- Ev and Av
Total variation (R8R) in a measurement system is further classified as:
-Equipment variation:
The variation within operator, within equipment or gage, within the method. This
variation comes from the parts of measurement system or process. This is also
termed as Repeatability variation.
-Appraiser variation:
The variation introduced between different operators, different parts, and different
methods. This is also termed as Reproducibility variation.
Total variation (R8R) = Ev + Av
The mathematical equation used for representing the relationship between total variation, EV and AV
is
(Std. Dev (R&R))
2
= (Std. Dev (Repeatability))
2
+ (Std. Dev. (Reproducibility))
2
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Nore about Neasurement variation- Gage R8R 8 SL
What is the challenge with having high R8R error ?
Following scenario explains why..
Centre circle is the true data point and the limits on left and right show the measurement variation
The gage variation might cause
this data to pass on lower
specification limit
this data to fail on the upper
specification limit
this data to fail on the lower
specification limit
this data to pass on upper
specification limit
LSL USL
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Gage ANOvA Study
Gage ANOvA study:
- Quantify amount of measurement variability
- !dentify amount of measurement variation from different sources
Data Used: Continuous
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Gage ANOvA Study - Data Format
The data should be arranged in columns as in the following example. The
recommended numbers of operators, parts and trials are 3, 10 and 3
respectively. Which would give one 90 data points. (3*10*3=90)
Operator Part Trial Response
1 1 1 20.0
2 1 1 19.1
3 1 1 19.5
+ 1 1 18.2
1 1 2 21.2
2 1 2 20.0
3 1 2 19.0
+ 1 2 22.0
1 2 1 17.0
2 2 1 19.5
3 2 1 19.6
+ 2 1 18.0
1 2 2 19.5
2 2 2 20.1
3 2 2 21.0
+ 2 2 18.9
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Gage ANOvA Study - Nenu
Choose Stat> Quality Tools> Gage Study> Gage R8R Study (Crossed).
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Gage ANOvA Study - !nput Window
Operator Part Trial Response
1 1 1 20.0
2 1 1 19.1
3 1 1 19.5
+ 1 1 18.2
1 1 2 21.2
2 1 2 20.0
3 1 2 19.0
+ 1 2 22.0
1 2 1 17.0
2 2 1 19.5
3 2 1 19.6
+ 2 1 18.0
1 2 2 19.5
2 2 2 20.1
3 2 2 21.0
+ 2 2 18.9
Select method of analysis as
ANOvA
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Gage ANOvA Study - Session Output
Gage R&R Study - ANOVA Method
Two-Way ANOVA Table With Interaction
Source DF SS MS F P
Part 9 18343.8 2038.20 31.5583 0.000
Operator 2 530.8 265.40 4.1093 0.034
Part * Operator 18 1162.5 64.59 3.9663 0.000
Repeatability 30 488.5 16.28
Total 59 20525.7
Gage R&R
%Contribution
Source VarComp (of VarComp)
Total Gage R&R 50.475 13.30
Repeatability 16.283 4.29
Reproducibility 34.192 9.01
Operator 10.041 2.65
Operator*Part 24.151 6.37
Part-To-Part 328.936 86.70
Total Variation 379.411 100.00
Study Var %Study Var
Source StdDev (SD) (6 * SD) (%SV)
Total Gage R&R 7.1046 42.627 36.47
Repeatability 4.0353 24.212 20.72
Reproducibility 5.8474 35.084 30.02
Operator 3.1687 19.012 16.27
Operator*Part 4.9144 29.486 25.23
Part-To-Part 18.1366 108.820 93.11
Total Variation 19.4785 116.871 100.00
Number of Distinct Categories = 3
P-value < 0.05 says significant variation. In the
example Parts, operator and the interaction all
are significant factors
Look for percentage contribution for Total Gage
R&R, which is addition of Repeatability and
Reproducibility percentage contribution. In the
example it is 13.3% which is more than
acceptable 10%
Percentage contribution:
It represents the percentage of variation contributed by gage in the process.
Recommended percentage contribution from Total Gage R&R should ideally be less than 10%. However one should
consult with BB/MBB if the value is between 10-15%, where one might accept the gage error and gets go ahead with the
project. Project should be evaluated by the mentor and acceptance would depend on the process, business and the project
champion.
If tolerance is beyond 15% it is recommended that the gage be corrected before repeating the gage study.
No. of Distinct Categories:
This number represents the number of distinct groups in the data. For example if you have 20 part being evaluated and the
number of distinct categories are 2. This means that the most of the parts are not different enough, and the data can be
divided into two groups. In such a case the precision of the gage is not enough for the process. Minimum number of distinct
categories should be at least 5.
6+
DMAIC
64
Gage ANOvA Study - Graph Output
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
Part-to-Part Repr od Repeat Gage R8R
100
50
0
Contribut ion
St udy var
S
a
m
p
l
e

R
a
n
g
e
16
8
0
_
R=+.7
UCL=15.36
LCL=0
1 2 3
S
a
m
p
l
e

M
e
a
n
100
75
50
_
_
X=80.85
UCL=89.69
LCL=72.01
1 2 3
Part
10 9 8 7 6 5 + 3 2 1
100
75
50
Operator
3 2 1
100
75
50
Part
A
v
e
r
a
g
e
10 9 8 7 6 5 + 3 2 1
100
75
50
Operat or
1
2
3
Gage name:
Date of study :
Reported by :
Tolerance:
Nisc:
Components of Variation
R Chart by Operator
Xbar Chart by Operator
Weight by Part
Weight by Operator
Operator * Part Interaction
Gage R&R {ANOVA) for Weight
In By part graph, there are large differences
between different parts.
Components of variation graph shows percent
contribution by category
In by operator graph, there isn't much difference
between operators
X bar graph by operator shows most of the
points out of control, which says most of the
variation is due to parts
65
DMAIC
65
Destructive Testing
Destructive testing is unique in the sense that the measured characteristic is
different after the measurement process. Few examples of destructive
events are:
- Call quality evaluation in in-bound (unless it is done on recorded call)
- Crash testing
- Tensile strength of material
- Call quality evaluation for call centre (unless it is done on recorded call)
This is a unique case since operator could measure a part multiple times in the
earlier case where we used Gage ANOvA (Crossed).
66
DMAIC
66
Destructive Testing and Gage
Assumptions and restrictions:
- !n such a setup the event happens once and can not be repeated. However
if the event is recorded than the measurement can be done multiple times.
E.g. call quality check done on recorded calls in call centers.
- Each operator measures unique batch.
- One must be able to assume that all parts in one batch are identical. The
reason it is necessary is otherwise the part to part variation will mask the
measurement variation.
- This means that none of the part is measured by multiple operators
67
DMAIC
67
Destructive Testing - Neasurement setup
Should one use Crossed gage or Nested gage in destructive testing?
The only way one can answer this question is by looking at the measurement
set up.
- !f all operators measure unique parts use Gage R8R (Nested)
- !f all operators measure all parts than use Gage R8R (Crossed)
68
DMAIC
68
Gage R8R Nested
Gage R8R (Nested) is done the same way as Gage R8R (Crossed). The data
would look like:
Choose to Stat > Quality Tools > Gage Study > Gage R8R Nested
to do the test. The input and output interpretation is similar to crossed gage
discussed before.
Operator Part Measurement
1 1
1 2
1 3
2 4
2 5
2 6
3 7
3 8
3 9
Each operator has
unique parts
Parts in each batch
are assumed as
identical. E.g. parts
1, 2 and 3 are
identical
69
DMAIC
69
Neasurement System Analysis -Takeaways
-Understand Accuracy and Precision and their components.
-Understand sources of variation
- Perceived vs. True process variation
- Equipment vs. appraiser variation
-Why gage error is a challenge
-Gage standards
-Types of gage studies:
- Attribute gage
- Test retest
- Gage R8R - Crossed and Nested
70
DMAIC
70
Neasure Phase
Attribute Gage R8R
(NSA)
Step M.2
Tools
Activities
Deliverables
Objective
Step M.3 Step M.1
Pareto
- Sampling Strategy
standards
standards
71
DMAIC
71
Data Collection Plan
Following are the steps involved in data collection plan
1.
Data Collection
Goals
2.
Data definition and
procedures
3.
validate
measurement
system
4.
Collect data and
monitor
-Why collect data?
-What data to collect?
-Establish operational
definitions
-Establish data
collection procedures
-Pilot operational
definitions and
procedures and refine
-Establish sampling
strategy
-Conduct NSA and
validate measurement
system
-Collect data
-Nonitor for data
consistency and make
final adjustments
72
DMAIC
72
Till now we have established:
- Netric for the project - What is it that we are trying to measure? E.g. !f the
metric is idle time in inbound call centre. One might have to collect data
items like - ACD time, Hold Time, ACW time etc..
- Operational Definitions - We know how to define operational definition. Also
we know that operational definition needs to be piloted so that we can fix
loose ends in the definition.
- Neasurement system validation - Depending on the type of data and
measurement system setup we know what type of gage to use.
73
DMAIC
73
Still to be covered.
- Data Segmentation
- Data Sampling
- Data collection sheet
7+
DMAIC
74
Data Segmentation
What is Data Segmentation?
Segmentation involves dividing data into logical categories for analyzing data.
For instance, while recording the errors made by a data entry process, the
project manager may choose to capture the step at which the error occurred,
the operator who made the error and so on.
Tools Used for Data Segmentation:
-Brainstorming- Nembers of the process and project team
-SNE- Subject matter expert for the process can give valuable inputs
75
DMAIC
75
Data Segmentation
Example:
A project is being done on Call Quality, the possible segmentation factors are
These segmentation factors are logical groups that may point to be significant
x's during the analyze phase.
Call Quality
Vintage of agents
Type of call
Hold time
Time of the call
Day
Agents
76
DMAIC
76
Sampling Objectives
- Understand sampling and why is it required
- Advantages of sampling
- Different sampling techniques
77
DMAIC
77
Population vs. Sample
Population:
- The entire set of data, the universal set.
- Symbol used is N
- The population mean represented by
- Standard deviation is represented by
Sample:
- The part or subset of a population, the universal subset
- signifies the sample mean
- s signifies standard deviation of a sample
X
Sampling tries to answer few critical questions asked while doing a project:
How much data is required?
How and when to collect data?
Sampling also reduces the cost involved in collecting data by reducing the amount of data required.
78
DMAIC
78
Sampling
Sampling is the process of collecting subset or portion of data from population
and predicting population characteristics
Population
N=1000
Sample
N=50
79
DMAIC
79
Why Sample ?
When to sample
- The cost associated with data is very high
- We are measuring a high volume process
When not to sample
When the subset of data may not be able to predict population
characteristics. E.g.. !f each unit of data is unique
Apart from other reasons to do sampling, one of the critical reasons is the time required to collect
population data. Sampling is an efficient way to collect data for any kind of project or analysis.
80
DMAIC
80
Representative Sample
Sample is Representative:
- When the sample has same statistics as of the population
How to guarantee a representative sample:
- Suitable sampling strategy based on the process
- Understand the nature of process
- Understand the characteristics of population
Sample must be representative" of the population, as the data collected otherwise would not deliver
any results and might give misleading inferences about the population.
81
DMAIC
81
Sampling Bias
Bias occurs when systematic differences are introduced into the sample as a
result of the selection process.
- A sample that is biased will not be representative of the population
- A sample that is biased will lead to incorrect conclusions about the
population
A biased sample would have incorrect information about the population and will lead to biased
conclusions. A bias in the sample can not be eliminated with increasing the sample size.
82
DMAIC
82
Sampling Bias Types - !
Convenience sampling:
This is also called as accidental bias. !t occurs we use the data what is
available instead of making as effort to collect data. E.g. interviewing the
first person you met, pick friends and neighbors for survey.
Systematic sampling:
Collecting data at a particular time, or following a pattern in collecting
data which has interference with underlying process. E.g. sampling process
on Sunday when only one person works in the process.
Judgmental sampling:
When the data collector or surveyor collects data using his judgment or
opinion.
83
DMAIC
83
Sampling Bias Types - !!
Bias by Environment:
This type of bias is introduced when the environmental conditions
surrounding process have changed since the sample was collected. E.g.
When the call handle time data was collected it was tax season.
Neasurement Bias:
Neasurement bias could arise if the operational definitions are not correct
or the data collectors have interpreted the operational definition
differently.
Non-Response Bias:
Non-response bias happens when the respondents to a survey tend to
differ systematically from respondents to the survey.
8+
DMAIC
84
Sampling Strategy - Random Sampling
Random Sampling:
Samples picked up from assembly line
without any order or system. Each
item has equal probability of getting
selected in the sample.
Production Line
Sample
This is the most commonly used method of sampling. Use random sampling when information about
stratification is unknown.
Random sampling is a population approach and so care must be taken when the process is cyclical or
if the data can be stratified.
!n random sampling each unit has equal probability of being selected in the sample. Using random
sampling method avoids bias being introduced in the sampling process.
For practical purpose one can number the data coming out of process and generate random list in
excel or on minitab and accordingly sample data.
85
DMAIC
85
Sampling Strategy - Stratified Random Sampling
Stratified Random Sampling
Production Line
Sample 1.1
Sample 1.2
Assembly data stratified in to two categories and
random samples collected for both
Stratified random sampling is used when the population has different groups (strata). !n such
situation it is necessary that both groups are represented in the sample and samples are collected
from each group (it is like doing random sampling for each group).
The size of the sample depends on population size of each the group.
E.g. To sample from a assembly line preparing nuts of two sizes A and B respectively. The two
sample sizes for nuts sized A and B would be calculated based on production of size A and size B nuts
respectively.
86
DMAIC
86
Sampling Strategy - Systematic Sampling
Systematic Sampling:
Production Line
Sample
Every fourth item
selected for sample
Random sampling and stratified sampling are done with historical data. When we have real time data
coming in systematic sampling is done.
Unlike random sampling the frequency of collecting data is fixed in systematic sampling.
E.g. selecting every fourth call in the call centre for call barging, selecting 2 application every
alternate hour for quality check.
Care must be taken and process must be studied for any underlying structures.
87
DMAIC
87
Sampling Strategy - Rational Sub grouping
Random Sampling:
Production Line
Sample
Three items selected with a
frequency of one hour. !n this case
sample has subgroup size of three.
1
st
hour 2
nd
hour 3
rd
hour
Rational sub-grouping is a process based sampling strategy. The rational subgroups depend on the
nature and type of process from where the data is being selected.
Rational sub-grouping assists us to understand the shift, which is the difference between the long
term variability and short term variability of the process. We will study this in capability analysis
under Analyze phase.
88
DMAIC
88
Sampling Strategy
Use following pointers for sampling strategy for a given process:
!t is always better to collect small sample spread over longer time period
than one large sample over a shorter time period.
Sample more frequently for unstable process and less frequently for
stable process
Sample more frequently for process with short cycle time and less
frequently for process with long cycle time
To understand the sampling frequency one should understand the objective of data collection
The most important issue to remember when considering sample frequency is the data
collection objective. The sampling frequency is driven by the objective of data collection, e.g.
if the data collected is for monitoring process one might want to sample data daily. However
if the objective is to collect data for the same process to study capability one might want to
collect data for few months by sampling few data points each week or month.
89
DMAIC
89
Sample Size- Continuous Data
Sample represents population characteristics. We can use confidence interval
formula and solve it for n to get sample size:
As standard error is also represented by delta, hence:
Solving for n we get:
The equation for 95 confidence becomes (using Z table):
Standard error
X
CI
n
X *
2 /
Z

n
/2
Z

= == =

2
2
Z
n
=

/

x 1.96
n
2
Where
error or precision required from sample in representing the population
is standard deviation
N is sample size
The value of Z
/2
depends on confidence level we choose, the corresponding value can taken out from Z table.
Finite Population Correction
The central limit theorem and the standard errors of the mean and of the proportion are based on the premise that the samples
selected are chosen with replacement. However, virtually in all scenarios finite population sampling is conducted without replacement
from populations that are of a finite size N.
When sample is more than 5 of population size we use Finite population correction factor which is:
The sample size is than:
N (finite) = n(1 + nfN)
1
=
N
n N
FPC
90
DMAIC
90
Estimate When !t !s Unknown
- Use control limits from an existing X chart
= (UCL - X) f 3 or (X - LCL) f 3
- Collect some data from population and calculate (recommended -
30 data points)
- Get realistic estimate from business (based on past experience)
91
DMAIC
91
Estimate
Take estimate from business. !t may be based on the resolution of
measurement. For instance, if the business can measure cycle time in
days, do not set in minutes or hours
Collect some data from population and calculate using the sample
92
DMAIC
92
Calculating Sample Size for Proportions Data
The formula to calculate sample for proportions data is:
Z is the Z score (normal data) and P represents proportionate defective and a
represents confidence required from sample. Zaf2 is 1.96 for 95 confidence.
This uses the confidence interval formula for attribute (discrete) data:
Again if the sample is more than 5 of population finite population correction
should be used
n
P 1 P
Z P
/2
= P 1 P
Z
n
2
/2
93
DMAIC
93
Estimating P And when Unknown
Estimate P
- Calculate proportionate defective using small sample
- Use historical control charts to estimate
- Use subject matter expertise to estimate
Estimate
- Use subject matter expertise to estimate
- Estimate using formula:
( (( ( ) )) )
n
P 1 P
Z
B B
/2

= == =

9+
DMAIC
94
Data Collection Sheet
What should one capture while collecting data?
- Data - Project metric Y or segmentation factor X
- Data Type - Continuous vs. Discrete
- Data Source - Sourcefs of data. E.g. Application, process step
- Data Range - Possible set of values data can take
- Segmentation Factors - All the factors which come out of brainstorming
- Time Period - For what time period data is collected
- One should also capture if there are any special changes in process during
the time period. Such reasons might produce outliers in the data.
95
DMAIC
95
Nonitor Data Collection
- Question collectors for the understanding of operations definitions.
- verify collected data with source, use sampling or ad hoc QC
- Ensure that the procedures are followed.
96
DMAIC
96
Data Collection - Takeaways
-Segmentation
- What is segmentation?
- Why segment?
-Sampling
- What is sampling?
- Why sample?
- Sampling challenges - Types of Bias
- Types of Sampling
-What does data collection sheets have.

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