ISOTHERMAL

TRANSFORMATION DIAGRAMS,

Submitted by-
N.Shasank (07326)
Aditya Sahu(07327)
Gaurav Sankhian(07328)
Rajat Diwan(07329)
Amit Chauhan(07330)
Rajat Thakur(07331)
Prashant Sharma(07332)
Akshaydeep Singh(07129)
• MARTENSITE
It is formed when austenitized iron–carbon
alloys are rapidly cooled (or quenched) to a
relatively low temperature. Martensite is a
nonequilibrium single-phase structure that
results from a diffusion less transformation
of austenite. It may be thought of as a
transformation product that is competitive
with pearlite and bainite. The martensitic
transformation occurs when the quenching
rate is rapid enough to prevent carbon
diffusion. Any diffusion whatsoever will
result in the formation of ferrite and
cementite phases. The needle shaped
grains are the martensite
phase, and
the white regions are
austenite that failed to
transform during the
rapid quench.
 ISOTHERMAL
TRANSFORMATION DIAGRAM
DEFINITION-
For an iron–carbon alloy of Eutectoid composition or for other compositions in which the
temperature of the alloys held constant throughout the duration of the reaction such
conditions of constant temperature are referred to on isothermal transformation diagrams, or
time–temperature – transformation (T–T–T) diagrams.

PEARLITE-
• The microstructure for this eutectoid steel that is slowly cooled through the eutectoid
temperature consists of alternating layers or lamellae of the two phases( and Fe3C) that form
simultaneously during the transformation. In this case, the relative layer thickness is
approximately 8 to 1.
• This microstructure is called pearlite because it has the appearance of mother of pearl when
viewed under the microscope at low magnifications.
• At temperatures just below the eutectoid, relatively thick layers of both the -ferrite and Fe3C
phases are produced; this microstructure is called coarse pearlite. With decreasing
temperature, the carbon diffusion rate decreases, and the layers become progressively thinner.
The thin layered structure produced in the vicinity of 540°C is termed fine pearlite.
●BAINITE

It is the micro constituent that is the product

of austenitic transformation. It’s
microstructure consists of ferrite and
cementite phases and thus diffusional
processes are involved in it’s formation. It
forms as needles and plates depending upon
temperature of transformation, which are only
visible under electron microscopy. It is
composed of needles of ferrite separated by
elongated particles of Fe3C phase. Time
temperature transformation of bainite
transformation may also be represented on
isothermal transformation diagram.
The isothermal
transformation diagram for
an iron-carbon alloy of
eutectoid composition that
has been extended to lower
temperatures is shown in
adjoining diagram. All three
curves are C-shaped and
have a “nose” at point N
because the rate of
transformation is maximum
at that point. As given
pearlite forms above the
nose i.e. over the
temperature ranges of about
540-727°c,whereas bainite
is the transformation
product between abot 215-
540⁰c.
Also it is notable that
pearlitic and bainitic
transformations are really
competitive with each other
and if some portion of an
alloy has transformed to
BAINITIC TRANSFORMATION-
It requires the diffusion of carbon. For it we
define upper bainite and lower bainite. Upper
bainite forms between about 550-350 degrees
Celsius and has feathery shaped ferrite. The
feathery appearance arises from clusters of fine
clusters of fine parallel ferrite laths. Whereas
lower bainite forms below 350 degrees Celsius,
ferrite is a plate like unit, inside which transition
carbides such as Fe2.4c have precipitated at an
angle of 55 degrees to the axis of ferrite plate.
Sometimes ,two temperatures Bs and Bf are used
to denote the start and finish of bainitic
transformation. No bainite forms above Bs. The
amount of bainite formed increases with
decreasing temperature below Bs.
At Bf ,the austenite transforms to 100% bainite, if held
long enough isothermally.. Ferrite nucleation is
believed to be the first step in banite formation in
contrast to cementite nucleation in pearlite. The ferrite
plates may form by shear mechanism As the diffusion
rate of carbon is slow, the distance over which it occurs
is small, which explains submicroscopic size of crystal
in banite.

Lower bainite in
martensite matrix
diagram of AISI steel
that has been
0
 Isothermal transformation diagrams

• For an iron–carbon alloy of eutectoid composition or for other compositions in

which the temperature of the alloys held constant throughout the duration
of the reaction such Conditions of constant temperature are referred to
isothermal transformation diagrams, or time–temperature – transformation (T–
T–T) diagrams.

v PEARLITE
in iron-iron carbide eutectoid reaction -

• 0n cooling, austenite, having an intermediate carbon concentration, transforms to a

ferrite phase and cementite

• The microstructure for this eutectoid steel that is slowly cooled through the
eutectoid temperature consists of alternating layers or lamellae of the two phases(
ferrite and cementite) that form a microstructure called pearlite because it has the
Photomicrograph of
austenite Photomicrograph
of pearlite

Formation of pearlite
Effect of Temperature on austenite-to-pearlite
transformation

Temperature plays an important role in

the rate of the austenite - to- pearlite
transformation.

The temperature dependence for an

iron – carbon alloy of eutectoid
composition is indicated in [Figure ]
which plots S-shaped curves of the
percentage transformation versus the
logarithm of time at three different
temperatures.

For an iron–carbon alloy of eutectoid composition (0.76 wt% C), isothermal fraction
reacted versus the logarithm of time for the
austenite to pearlite transformation.
 Upper portion gives the percentage
transformation versus the logarithm of time at a
particular temperature.

the time and temperature dependence of this

transformation is in the bottom portion
Here, the. vertical and horizontal axes are,
respectively, temperature and the logarithm of
time.
Two solid curves are plotted; one represents the
time required at each temperature for the
initiation or start of the transformation; the other
is for the transformation
conclusion.
The dashed curve corresponds to 50%of
transformation completion.
N0w here in this particular case the S-shaped
curve [for 675C (1247F)], in the upper portion of
above Figure illustrates how the data transfer is
made to the bottom 0ne.

• Demonstration of how an isothermal transformation diagram (bottom) is generated

from percent transformation versus-logarithm of time measurements (top).
 Characteristics -
v The austenite-to pearlite transformation will occur only if an alloy is
supercooled to below the eutectoid as indicated by the curves, the time
necessary for the transformation to begin and then end depends on temperature.

v The start and finish curves are nearly parallel, and they approach the eutectoid
line asymptotically.

v To the left of thetransformation start curve, only austenite (which is unstable)

will be present,whereas to the right of the finish curve, only pearlite will exist.

v In between, the austenite is in the process of transforming to pearlite, and thus

both microconstituents will be present.
 Demerits -
§ This particular plot is valid only for an iron–
carbon alloy of eutectoid composition; for other
compositions, the curves will have different
configurations.

§ At temperatures just below the eutectoid

(corresponding to just a slight degree of undercooling)
very long times (on theorder of 105 s) are required for
the 50% transformation, and therefore the reaction
rate is very slow.
 Demerits -
v This rate–temperature behavior is in
apparent contradiction of Equation which
stipulates that rate increases with
increasing temperature
v By convention, the rate of a
transformation r is taken as the reciprocal
of time required for the transformation to
proceed halfway to completion t0.5

Plot of fraction reacted versus

the logarithm of time typical of
many solid state transformations
in which temperature is held
constant.
 MARTENSITE-TRANSFORMATION
(ISOTHERMAL TRANSFORMATION
DIAGRAM)

§Martensite is formed when austenitized iron–carbon alloys are rapidly cooled (or quenched) to a
relatively low temperature(in the vicinity of the ambient).

•Martensite is a nonequilibrium single-phase structure that results from a diffusion less

transformation of austenite.

•The martensitic transformation occurs when the quenching rate is rapid enough to prevent
carbon diffusion. Any diffusion whatsoever will result in the formation of ferrite and cementite
phases.

•Martensitic transformation does not involve diffusion, it occurs almost instantaneously; the
martensite grains nucleate and grow at a very rapid rate—the velocity of sound within the
austenite matrix. Thus the martensitic transformation rate, for all practical purposes, is time
independent.
 §Martensitic transformation is diffusion less and instantaneous.
The beginning of this transformation is represented by a
horizontal line designated M(start) .(Two other horizontal and
dashed lines, labeled M(50%) and M(90%), indicate
percentages of the austenite-to-martensite transformation.

§The temperatures at which these lines are located vary with

alloy composition but, nevertheless, must be relatively low
because carbon diffusion must be virtually nonexistent.

§The horizontal and linear character of these lines indicates that

the martensitic transformation is independent of time; it is a
function only of the temperature to which the alloy is quenched
or rapidly cooled. A transformation of this type is termed an
athermal transformation.

§Consider an alloy of eutectoid composition that is very rapidly

cooled from a temperature above 727ºC (1341ºF) to, say, 165ºC
(330ºF). From the isothermal transformation diagram it may be
noted that 50% of the austenite will immediately transform to
martensite; and as long as this temperature is maintained, there
will be no further transformation.

The complete isothermal

transformation diagram for an
iron–carbon alloy of eutectoid
composition:
 §The presence of alloying elements other than
carbon (e.g., Cr, Ni, Mo, and W) may cause
significant changes in the positions and shapes of the
curves in the isothermal transformation diagrams.

§All common alloying element except cobalt shift the

nose of C-curve to right, thus making it easier to
quench the steel. They increase the harden ability of
steel.

§ Shifting to longer times the nose of the austenite-

to-pearlite transformation

§ The formation of a separate bainite nose. The

shorten time at bainite nose determine the harden
ability of steel.

Isothermal transformation diagram

for an
alloy steel
An iron–carbon alloy of eutectoid An alloy steel
composition:

§ The nose of the austenite-to-pearlite transformation is shifted to longer times.

§ Separate bainite nose is formed. These alterations may be observed by comparing Figures ,
which are isothermal transformation diagrams for carbon and alloy steels, respectively.
SPHEROIDITE
TRANSFORMATION-
If a steel alloy having either peritectic or
bainitic microstructures is heated to and
left at a temperature below eutectoid
temperature for sufficiently long period
of time –for e.g. at about 700⁰c for 18-
24h,it results in another microstructure
i.e. spheroidite, Instead of alternating
ferrite and cementite lamellae or
microstructures observed for bainite, the
Fe3C phase appears as sphere like
particles embedded in a continuous a-
phase matrix. This transformation has
occurred by further diffusion with no
change in the compositions or relative
amounts of ferrite and cementite phases.
The driving force for this transformation
QUENCHING
 QUENCHING

§ Heat treatment process involving rapid cooling from

above the critical temperature
§ Useful to harden steel by formation of martensite.
§ Rapid cooling may be done by water, air ,oil and dil.
sodium hydroxide solution.
§ Cooling rate depends upon type of quenching
medium, temp. of quenching medium, surface
condition of the part and size and mass of the part
 Hardening by Quenching
• Hardenability: Ability of an alloy to be hardened by
martensite formation.
• Maximum cooling may be attained by cooling the material at a
rate equal to, or greater than, the critical cooling rate.
• Hypoeutectoid steels are heated above the Ac3 temperature to
ensure full austenitization and to avoid the soft ferrite in the
final microstructure. For hypereutectoid steels this is not
necessary as the undissolved cementite on heating to just
above Ac1 is itself very hard.
• A predominantly martensitic microstructure throughout the
cross section depends mainly on three factors: (1) the
composition of the alloy, (2) the type and character of the
quenching medium, and (3) the size and shape of the
specimen.
 The iron- iron carbide equilibrium
diagram
• A1: Eutectoid temp. for
alloys to the left of
eutectoid.
• A31: Eutectoid temp.
for alloys to the right of
eutectoid.
• A3: The curve
separating austenite and
austenite and ferrite.
 The Jominy End-Quench Test
• A standard procedure that is widely
utilized to determine hardenability
• With this procedure, except for alloy
composition, all factors that may
influence the depth to which a piece
hardens (i.e., specimen size and
shape, and quenching treatment) are
maintained constant.
• A specimen (25.4 mm (1.0 in.) in
diameter and 100 mm (4 in.) long)
austenised at prescribed temperature
and conditions is mounted in shown
position.
• The lower end is quenched by a jet of
water of specified flow rate and
temperature.
 Continued…..
• After the piece has cooled to
room temperature, shallow flats
0.4 mm (0.015 in.) deep are
ground along the specimen length
and Rockwell hardness
measurements are made for the
first 50 mm (2 in.) along each flat.
• for the first 12.8 mm ( in.),
hardness readings are taken at 1.6
mm ( in.) intervals, and for the
remaining 38.4 mm (1 in.), every
3.2 mm ( in.).
• A hardenability curve is produced
when hardness is plotted as a
function of position from the
quenched end.
 Hardenability Curves
• A typical hardenability curve is
represented in given figure.
• The quenched end is cooled most
rapidly and exhibits the maximum
hardness; 100% martensite is the
product at this position for most
steels.
• Cooling rate decreases with
distance from the quenched end,
and the hardness also decreases.
• With diminishing cooling rate
more time is allowed for carbon
diffusion and the formation of a
greater proportion of the softer
pearlite.
 Quench Cracks
• Cracks formed on the surface of steel when thick
cross-sections are quenched drastically.
• This reduces drastically the fatigue life of machine
components.
• Origin due to a steep temperature gradient is
produced from the surface to the centre of the steel
resulting in
1.Thermal contraction of steel
2.Volume expansion due to transformation.
SURFACE HARDENING

a) CARBURIZING
b) CYANIDING
c) FLAME HARDENING
d) NITRIDING
e) INDUCTION HARDENING
 CARBURIZING
One of the oldest and cheapest methods to have a hard
wear resistant surface i.e. case.
NEED:
The water and the air present in the atmosphere cause
decarburization as:
Fe₍c₎ + H₂O → Fe + CO + H₂
Fe₍c₎ + O₂ →Fe + CO₂
The surface, depleted of carbon, will not transform to
martensite on subsequent hardening, and the steel will be
left with a soft skin. For some tool applications, the
stresses to which the part is subjected are maximum at
the surface, so decarburization is harmful.
So, reverse process i.e. carburization is done.
 CARBURIZING
A low-carbon steel, usually about 0.20 percent carbon or lower, is
placed in an atmosphere that contains substantial amounts of CO
and usual temperature is 1700⁰F. The following reaction takes place:
Fe + 2CO → Fe₍c₎ + CO₂
Fe₍c₎ represents carbon dissolved in austenite.
Now a layer of carbon is formed on the surface. We know the core is
of lower carbon content, so in order to reach equilibrium C-atoms
will begin to diffuse inward. And the rate of diffusion depends on
the diffusion coefficient and the carbon-concentration gradient.
Under known and standard operating conditions, with the surface at
a fixed carbon concentration, the form of the carbon gradient may be
predicted, with reasonable accuracy, as a function of elapsed time.
After diffusion has taken place for the required amount of time
depending upon the case depth required, the part is removed from
the furnace and cooled.
 1. Pack Carburizing
• In this method the articles to be carburized are packed in metal
boxes or pots surrounded by a suitable compound, rich in carbon.
The boxes are sealed with clay to exclude air and are then placed in
oven, where they are heated to 900-920⁰C, depending upon the
composition of the steel. The carbon from the compound soaks into
the surface of the hot steel to depth which depends upon the time
that the box is left in the furnace. The internal remains unaffected
while a thin case of high carbon content is formed on the surface.

• The steel is then removed from the box and reheated to a

temperature just above critical temperature, followed by quenching
in water, brine or oil. This refines the core.

• The steel is usually given second heat treatment at about 760-780⁰C.

 2. Liquid Carburizing
– When a fairly thin case is required a more economical
process is to carburize the parts in a liquid bath. This
consists of a container filled with molten salt, such as
sodium cyanide, which is heated by electrical
immersion elements or by a gas burner. Salt bath
carburizing reduces distortion of the parts to a
minimum, while equal heating being assured. There is
freedom from sooting and oxidation problems as well
and provides a uniform case depth.
– The only disadvantages are that cyanides are
poisonous and some shapes cannot be handled because
they will float.
 3. Gas Carburizing
• In this case, metal is heated in a furnace into which a
gas rich in such as methane, propane, butane, is
introduced. Here it is necessary to maintain a
continuous flaw of carburizing gas into the furnace and
to extract the spent gas. Initial cost is high and process
in economical only for large output.
• The horizontal rotary type furnace, used for smaller
parts, in which the parts are rotated in stream of gas;
while for large parts the vertical rotary furnace is used,
in which gas is given a rotary motion so that it
circulates around the parts.
 CYNADING
• Here liquid baths of sodium cyanide are used. The active hardening
agents of cyaniding baths i.e. C and N, are not produced directly
from NaCN but first it decomposes to NaNCO i.e. sodium cyanate
which decomposes as follows:
• 2NaCN + O₂→ 2NaNCO
• 4NaNCO → Na₂CO₃ + CO + 2N
• The proportion of N and C in the case depends upon the
composition and temperature of the bath. N content is higher in
baths operating at lower temperature range and C content is higher
for the higher ranges. And C content is lower than produced by
carburizing, ranging from 0.5 – 0.8 percent.
• Exposure is for a shorter time and thin cases are produced up to
0.010 inches.
 CARBONITRING
• In this case steel is heated in a gaseous atmosphere of such
composition that C and N are absorbed simultaneously. The
atmosphere used generally comprises of gases: carrier gas,
enrichment gas and ammonia.
• Carrier gas is usually a mixture of nitrogen, hydrogen and
carbon monoxide. It is supplied to furnace under positive
pressure to prevent air infiltration thus making process
easier to control.
• The enriching gas usually propane or natural gas is the main
source for the carbon.
• The added ammonia breaks up to provide N to the surface of
the steel.
• Cases up to 0.030 in. are produced.
 FLAME HARDENING
• This method does not change the chemical
composition. Selected areas of the surface of steel are
heated into austenite range and then quenched to
form martensite. So only steel capable of being
hardened is used i.e. in the range of 0.30-0.50 percent
carbon.
• Heat may be applied by a single oxyacetylene torch. It
may be done as per following methods:
• 1. stationary
• 2. progressing
• 3. spinning
• 4. progressive-spinning
• In all procedures, provisions must be there for rapid
quenching after the required heating. This may be
accomplished by water sprays etc. After then it needs
 NITRIDING
This is a process for case hardening of alloy steel
in an atmosphere consisting of a mixture in suitable
a proportion of ammonia gas and dissociated
ammonia. The effectiveness of the process depends
on the formation of nitrides in the steel by reaction
of nitrogen with certain alloying elements.
Although at suitable temperature and with the
proper atmosphere all steels are capable of forming
iron nitrides , the best results are obtained in those
steels that contain one or more of major nitride-
forming alloying elements. These are aluminum .
Chromium and molybdenum. The nitrogen must be
supplied in the atomic or nascent form ; molecular
nitrogen will not react.
 NITRIDING OPERATION
In nitridingprocess , nitrogen is introduced to steel by
passing ammonia gas a muffle furnace containing the
steel to be nitrided. The ammonia is purchased in
tank as a liquid and introduced into the furnace as a
gas at slightly greater than atmosphere pressure. With
the nitridingoperation at a temperature of 480 c to
540 c the ammonia gas partially dissociated into
nitrogen and hydrogen gas mixture . The dissociation
of ammonia is shown by following equation:
2NH3 = 2N + 3H2
• The operation of nitriding cycle is usually controlled so that
the dissociation of the ammonia gas is held to approximately
30% but may be varied from 15% to 95% , depending upon
operation conditions .
• The gas mixture leaving the furnace consists of hydrogen ,
nitrogen and undissociated ammonia. The undissociated
ammonia which is soluble in water , is usually discharged into
water and disposed in this manner.
• The free nitrogen formed by this dissociation is very active,
uniting with the iron and other elements in the steel to form
nitrides . These nitrides are more or less soluble en the form of
a solid solution , or more likely are in a fine state of
dispersion, imparting hardness to the surface of the steel. From
the surface the nitrides defuse slowly and the hardness
increases inwardly untillthe unaffected core is reached . The
depth of penetration depends largely upon the length of time
spent at the nitridingtemperature. Diffusion of these nitrides is
much slower than diffusion of carbon in the carburizing
operation so a much longer time is required to develop similar
penetration.
 MERITS & DEMERITS OF
NITRIDING
• MERITS:-
1. Greater resistance to wear and corrosion.
2. Less warping or distortion of parts treated.
3. Greater surface hardness.
4. Greater fatigue strength under corrosive conditions.
5. Higher endurance limit under bending stresses.
6. Better retention of hardness at elevated temperature .
• DEMERITS:-
2. Medium use is expensive.
4. High furnace cost due to long time of
treatment.
6. Necessity of using special alloy steels.
4. Necessity of using high alloy containers
to resist the nitriding.
INDUCTION HARDENING
Induction hardening depends for its operation on localized
heating produced by currents induced in a metal placed in
rapidly changing magnetic field. The operation resembles a
transformer in which primary or work coil is composed of
several turns of copper tubing that are water cooled, and the
part to be hardened is made the secondary of a high
frequency induction apparatus. Five basic designs of work
coil for use with high frequency units and the heat patterns
developed by each shown in figure. These basic shapes are
(a).a simple solenoid for external heating
(b).a coil to be used internally for heating bores
(c).a “pie-plate” type of coil designed to provide high
currents densities in a narrow band for scanning
applications
(d).a single-turn coil for scanning a rotating surface,
provided with a contoured half-turn that will aid in heating
the fillet
INDUCTION HEATING & HARDENING
MACHINE
Working of induction hardening
process
When high frequency alternating current passes through the work
coil a high frequency magnetic field is setup. This magnetic field
induces high frequency eddy currents and hysteresis currents in
the metal. Heating results from the resistance of metal doe to
passage of these currents. The high frequency induced currents
tends to travel at the surface of metal. This is known as skin effect.
Therefore, it is possible to heat a shallow layer of steel without
heating the interior. However, heat applied to surface tends to flow
towards the center by conduction, and so time of heating is an
important factor in controlling the depth of hardened zone. The
surface layer is heated practically instantaneously to a depth which
is inversely proportional to square root of frequency. The range of
frequencies commonly used is between 10,000 and 500,000 Hz.
Following table shows the effect of frequency on the depth of case
hardness. Greater case hardening depth may be obtained at each
frequency by increasing the time of heating.
TABLE: Effect of freq. on depth of
Induction Hardness
 ADVANTAGES &
• DISADVANTAGES
ADVANTAGES:-
The principle advantages are listed below:-
1. The time required for this heat treatment operation is less
thereby increasing the labour productivity.
2. Deformation due to heat treatment is considerably reduced.
3. The articles which are induction heated have no scale effect.
4. The depth of hardness can be easily controlled by controlling
the current.
5. The depth of hardness can be easily controlled by varying
frequency of supply voltage.
• DISADVANTAGES:-
Among the disadvantages are the cost of equipment, the fact
that small quantities or irregular-shaped parts cannot be
handled economically costs. Typical parts that have been
induction hardened are piston rods ,pump shafts , spur gears
and cams.
PRECIPITATE HARDENING
 Basic Definition
• The strength and hardness of some metal alloys
may be enhanced by the formation of extremely
small uniformly dispersed particles of a second
phase within the original phase matrix; this must
be accomplished by phase transformations that are
induced by appropriate heat treatments,
specifically Precipitation Hardening.
 Other factors
• ‘‘Age hardening’’ is also used to designate this procedure
because the strength develops with time, or as the alloy ages.
• Examples of alloys that are hardened by precipitation
treatments include aluminium–copper, copper–beryllium,
copper–tin, and magnesium-aluminium; some ferrous alloys
are also precipitation hardenable.
• Mostly, precipitation hardening is commonly employed with
high-strength aluminium alloys.
 Mechanism
• Generally, the mechanism is best explained by means of a
phase diagram.
• Though in practice, the precipitation hardenable alloys consist
of 2 or more alloying elements, a binary phase diagram is
used for simplified illustration.
• However, for successful hardening, 2 requisite features are
mandatory – an appreciable solubility of one element in the
other and a limitation on this which decreases with
temperature.
• Age Hardening accomplished in 2 processes – Solution Heat
Treating and Precipitation Heat Treating.
Solution Heat Treating…
• In solution heat treatment, all
solute atoms are dissolved to form
a singlephase solid solution.
• It features heating followed by
rapid cooling/quenching so that
β phase formation is prevented by
diffusion as well.
• It is further comprehended by
very slow rates of diffusion of β
phase.
• Thus, it results in existence of a
non-equilibrium state of α state
supersaturated with β atoms.
Precipitation Heat Treating…
• Precipitation Heat Treating involves
heating the α+β to a temperature
suitable for faster diffusion rates of
β phase followed by gradual
cooling.
• With increase in the conc. of β
phase, the strength of the alloy
increases till a certain time (age),
after which strength decreases
gradually, called as overaging.
• The precipitation temperature and
the ageing time at this temp. are
crucial factors in determining the
extent of precipitation and hence the
strength of the alloy.
Strength vs Time Relation
 Mechanism-An Example
• Studied most extensively on Aluminium-Copper alloys.
• Studied best on alloy system of Al-Cu considering the phase
transformations in 96 wt% Al- 4 wt% Cu alloy.
• With increasing concentration of copper in aluminium, the size
of precipitates of copper in aluminum matrix increases until an
intermetallic compound is formed (CuAl2 ).
• Initially only a substitutional solid phase solution of copper in
aluminum is present.
• As said, the mechanical properties of the alloy depend on the
character of these precipitates.
Cu-Al Phase Diagram
 Mechanism-Contd…
• Initially an α phase is present which is a substitutional solid soln. of Cu in
Al.
• Precipitation gradually starts with formation of copper atom clusters very
small in size and continues with gradual increase in size of precipitate
particles.
• Intermediate metastable states are formed namely, θ”, θ’ and finally an
intermetallic compound θ is formed.
• Strength is maximised at θ” phase with the subsequent stages formed as a
result of overaging.
• The strengthening process is accelerated as the temperature is increased.
• Ideally, temperature and time for the precipitation heat treatment should be
designed to produce a hardness or strength in the vicinity of the maximum.
• Associated with an increase in strength is a reduction in ductility.
Lattice Transformation
Factors
• One more factor that makes
alloys amenable to age
hardening.
• Distortions around the
precipitates cause dislocation
motions which are impeded
thus making the alloy hard and
strong.
• Softening and weakening
during overaging is caused by
resistance to slip in the lattice.
 Miscellaneous
Considerations
• A combination of the heat treatment processes
employed for obtaining optimum strength
characteristics.
• Ideally, alloys are first solution heat treated, quenched
then cold worked and finally precipitation heat
treated. This results in quite minimal loss of strength
due to crystallization.
Characteristics
 THANK YOU
• Submitted by-
• N.Shasank (07326)
• Aditya Sahu(07327)
• Gaurav Sankhian(07328)
• Rajat Diwan(07329)
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