Properties of Matter PDF

Properties of Matter
Prepared by Sisay Shewamare

African Virtual university
Universit Virtuelle Africaine
Universidade Virtual Africana
Physics Module 6
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I. PropertiesofMatter ________________________________________5
II. PrerequisiteCourseorKnowledge _____________________________5
III. Time ____________________________________________________5
IV. Materials_________________________________________________5
V. ModuleRationale __________________________________________5
VI. Content__________________________________________________6
6.1 Overview____________________________________________6
6.2 Outline _____________________________________________6
6.3 Graphicorganizer_____________________________________7
VII. GeneralObjective(s)________________________________________8
VIII. SpecificLearningObjectives__________________________________8
IX Pre-assessment ___________________________________________9
X. KeyConcepts(Glossary)____________________________________15
XI. CompulsoryReadings______________________________________17
XII. CompulsoryResources_____________________________________18
XIII. UsefulLinks _____________________________________________20
XIV. TeachingandLearningActivities______________________________23
XV. SynthesisOfTheModule ___________________________________72
XVI. SummativeEvaluation______________________________________73
XVII.References ______________________________________________78
XVIII.MainAuthoroftheModule_________________________________79
Table of ConTenTs
foreword
This module has four major sections
The frst one is the Introductory section that consists of fve parts vis:
1. Title:
2. Pre-requisiteKnowledge: In this section you are provided with infromation
regarding the specifc pre-requisite knowledge and skills you require to start
the module. Carefully look into the requirements as this will help you to decide
whether you require some revision work or not.
3. TimeRequired: It gives you the total time (in hours) you require to complete
the module. All self tests, activities and evaluations are to be fnished in this
specifed time.
4. MaterialsRequired: Here you will fnd the list of materials you require to
complete the module. Some of the materials are parts of the course package
you will receive in a CD-Rom or access through the internet. Materials re-
commended to conduct some experiments may be obtained from your host
institution (Partner institution of the AVU) or you may acquire, borrow or by
some other means.
5. ModuleRationale: In this section you will get the answer to questions like
Why should I study this module as pre-service teacher trainee? What is its
relevance to my career?
The second is the Contenta section that consists of three parts:
6. Overview:The content of the module is briefy presented. In this section you
will fnd a video fle (Quicktime, .move) where the author of this module is
interviewed about this module. The paragraph overview of the module is
followed by an outline of the content including the approximate time requie-
red to complete each section. A graphic organization of the whole content is
presented next to the outline. All these three will assist you to picture how
content is organized in the module.
7. GeneralObjective(S):Clear, informative, concise and achievable objectives
are provided to give you what knowledge skills and attitudes you are expected
to attain after studying the module.
8. Specifc Learning Objectives (Instructional Objectives): Each of the spe-
cifc objectives, stated in this section, are at the heart of a teaching learning
activity. Units, elements and themes of the module are meant to achieve the
specifc objectives and any kind of assessment is based on the objectives
intended to be achieved. You are urged to pay maximum attention to the
specifc objectives as they are vital to organize your effort in the study of the
module.
The third section is the bulk of the module. It is the section where you will
spend more time and is refered to as the Teaching Learning Activities. The
gist of the nine components is listed below:
9. Pre-assessment: A set of questions, that will quantitatively evaluate your
level of preparedness to the specifc objectives of this module, are presented
in this section. The preassessment questions help you to identify what you
know and what you need to know, so that your level of concern will be raised
and you can judge your level of mastery. Answer key is provided for the set
of questions and some pedagogical comments are provided at the end.
10. KeyConcepts:This section contains short, concise defnitions of terms used
in the module. It helps you with terms with which you might not be familiar
to the module.
11. CompulsoryReadings:A minimum of three compulsory reading materials
are provided. It is mandatory to read the documents.
12. CompulsoryResources: A minimum of two video, audio with an abstract in
text form is provided in this section.
13. Useful Links: A list of atleast ten websites is provided in this section. It will
help you to deal with the content in greater depth..
14. Teaching And Learning Activities: This is the heart of of the module. You
need to follow the learning guidance in this section. Various types of activi-
ties are provided. Go through each activity. At times you my not necessarily
follow the order in which the activities are presented. It is very important to
note:
formative and summative evaluations are carried out thoroughly
all compulsory readings and resources are done
as many as possible useful links are visited
feedback is given to tha author and communication is done
Enjoy your work on this module.
I. Properties of Matter
By Sisay Shewamare, Jimma University Ethiopia
II. Pre-Requisite Course or Knowledge
In order to study this module, you need to complete the modules on Mechanics
I, Mechanics II, and Electricity and Magnetism. This module also assumes you
have taken introductory course in Calculus.
III. Time
The time you require to complete this module is 120hrs. For chapterwise
breakdown see section 6 of the module
IV. Materials
Internet Connection
Compulsory Readings And Compulsory Resources
(As Listed In Sections 11 & 12)
Standard Weights
Wires Made Of Different Substances
Software Package
V. Module Rationale
Science teaching in secondary schools is expected to enable learners to work in
scientifc ways (apply scientifc principles), stimulate their curiosity and deepen
their interest in the natural and physical world.
In this module you will study the behavior of solids when subjected to strains,
and the behavior of fuids in different contexts is studied. You will also unders-
tand the thermal and electrical conductivity (also known as transport properties)
of metals.
The study of mechanical, thermal and electronic properties of materials will not
only help you for advanced studies in solid state Physics and electronics physics,
but also will give you a cutting edge in teaching technological applications of the
Physical Sciences for your future students.
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Fig: Which properties of Tungsten wire make it very convenient for the construction of
a bulb fllament?
VI. Content
6.1 Overwiew
In this module you will study elastic and transport properties of materials like
elasticity, fuid fow, diffusion, osmosis, thermal and electrical conductivities
of a materials
At the beginning, activities leading you through the details of the effects of force
on various types of materials are presented. Then you will come across activities
that will enable you describe the properties of fuids and use these properties
to arrive at principles and laws such as Archimedes principle, Pascals law and
Bernoullis equation.
The module includes properties like viscosity, diffusion, thermal properties
conductivity, expansion), Electrical conductivity of metals, semiconductors and
alloys. These properties are also known as transport properties.

6.2 Outline
Elasticity (30hours)
Load and strees;
strain
Stress Strain relationship:Hookes law
Compressibility, Elasticity and Plasticity
Youngs modulus
Poissons ratio
Fluids (45 hours)
Density
Pressure
Fluid at rest
Measuring pressue
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Pascals Principle
Archimedes Principle
Equilibrium of foating object
Bernoullis equation
The fow of real fuid
Transport properties (45 hours)
Diffusion
Viscosity
Thermal conductivity
Thermal expansion
Electrical conductivity of metals, semiconductors and alloys.
6.3 Graphic Organizer
Properties of
Matter
A. Elasticity
B. Fluids
C. Transport
Properties
Stress.
Strain
Compressibility
Plasticity
Young's Modulus
PosonRatio
Density
Pressue
Fluids at rest
MeasuringPressue
Pascal's Principle
Equilibriumof floatingobjects
EquationofContinuity
Bernoulli's Equation
The flow of real fluids
Viscosity
Diffusion
Thermal Properties
Electrical conductivity
conductivity
Expansion
Metals
Semiconductors
Alloys
Properties of
Matter
VII. General objective(s)
After completing this module you would be able to:
Explain the concept of elastic properties of materials
Describe the transport properties of materials
Appreciate the properties of fuids and apply the concepts to a range of
contexts.
Use thermal conductivity of matteials to solve porblems
Use Elcectrical conductivity of materials to solve problems.
VIII. specifc learning objectives
(Instructional objectives)
Content
Elasticity (35 hours)
Load and strees;
strain
Stress Strain relationship:Hookes
law
Compressibility, Elasticity and
Plasticity
Youngs modulus
Poissons ratio
Learning objectives
After Completing this section you
would be able to:
Determine the effect of force on
materials
Calculate Youngs modulus for a
range of materials
Calculate Poissons ratio for a
given material
Predict material properties
Fluids (45 hours)
Density
Pressure
Fluids at rest
Measuring pressue
Pascals Principle
Equilibrium of foating object
Bernoullis equation
The fow of real fuids
Transport properties (45 hours)
Diffusion
Viscosity
Thermal conductivity
Thermal expansion
Electrical conductivity of
metals, semiconductors and
alloys.
Describe basic properties of fuid
(density,pressure)
Apply the properties of fuids
(Archimedes principle, Pascals
law)
Evaluate fuid motion
(continuity,turbulance real fuids )
Use Bernoullis equation
Analyse particle motion in fuids
Describe relative properties of
solids, liquids and gases
Evaluate the effects of heat on
materials e.g. calculate thermal
expansion
Calculate the effective concen-
tration of mobile electrons in me-
tals, alloys and semiconductors
IX. Pre-assessment
This pre assessment questions comprizes questions from the prerequisite
knowledge as well as question that assess your mastery level of the objectives
stated in this module. If your performance is more than 70% you can proceed to
work on this module.
However if your performance is less than 70% you need to revise some of your
school Physics. The depth of the revision work you need is proportional to how
far your performance is away from the required minimum
Answers to the questions are provided immediately after the questions.
How does air support an aircraft?.
9.1 Questions
1. Figure 1 the weight of the liquid, density , at x is kept constant while the
liquid fows out of the narrow tube at depth h below x. The velocity v of the
liquid from the narrow tube is
a) ;

hg
b)

2gh
c)

2gh
d)

gh
e)) .

2gh

h
v
x
2. A hot air balloon moving upwards has a total weight of 200N and a volume
of 20m
3
. Assuming the air density of 1.2kgm
-3
, the net upward force on the
balloon in N is then about
a) .24
b) 36
c) 40
d) 176
e) 240
3. When a stone of mass m at the end of a string is whirled in vertical circle at
constant speed
a) The tension (force) in the string stays constant
b) The tension is least when the stone reaches the bottom of the circle
c) The tension in the string is always mg
d) the weight mg is always the centripetal force
e) the tension is greatest when the stone is at the bottom of the circle
4. At the olympic high-diving competition, a diver from the top board curves
her body in order to
a) dive cleanly in to the water
b) spin more
c) increase her energy
d) spin more slowly
e) increase her speed
5. When streached beyound its elastic limit, a metal rod such as steel
a) becomes plastic
b) has no energy
c) obeys Hookes
d) becomes colder
6. Figure 2 shows three mass in a row. The force on the 1kg mass is zero if the
distance x in meters is
a) 2
b) 3
c) 4
d) 5
e) 6 Figure 2

15
x
9kg
1kg
4kg
7. The time constant of the circuit shown in Figure 3 is 4s. The time constant of
the circuit shown in fgure 4 is thus:
a) 8s
b) 4s
c) 2s
d) 1s
e) 0.5s
8. At what temperature are the reading from a Fahrenheit thermometer and
Celisius thermometer the same.
a) -20
b) 40
c) 32
d) -40
e) 72
9. Whichofthefollowingaresemiconductormaterials?
a) galliumarsenide
b) germanium
c) silicon
d) alloftheabove
10. Whyaresemiconductorsvaluableinmodernelectronics?
a) uselowpower
b) reliable
c) fastswitching
d) alloftheabove
11. Which electronic devices are primarily made from semiconductors ?
a) transistors
b) .resistors
c) capacitors
d) none of the above

C
R
Figure 3

R R
C C
Figure 4
12. How does the conductivity in pure semiconductors vary with temperature?
a) conductivity increases as temperature goes down
b) conductivity increases as temperature goes up
c) conductivity does not change with temperature
13. What explains why semiconductors have different electrical properties from
metals?
a) more valence electrons
b) fewer valence electrons
c) band gap structure
d) no differences
14.Both_electrons _and_holes_areconsideredchargecarriers.
15. Adiodecontainsboth_n-type_and__p-type_regions.
9.2 Answer Key
1) C
2) C
3) E
4) B
5) A
6) E
7) B
8) D
9) D
10) D
11) A
12) B
13) C
14) electron hole
15) n-type p-type
9.3 Pedagogical Comment For Learners
The module is presented in such a way that you will fnd yourself in a variety of
activities like reading, going through worked examples, experimenting virtually
and in the real lab, online discussion with study group, solving problems etc.
This is possible partly by the package you receive with this module and via the
internet. Your effort to experience all compulsory materials and as many resour-
ces as possible has no substitute. Infact learning takes place with the learners
effort. Therefore you are advised to work all the problems provided and consult
the references suggested.
The concepts presented are best understood in experimental tests. It is a very
good idea if you keep in touch with the AVU partner University.
The last thing you have to do is evaluate yourself whether you have achieved the
expected learning outcomes mentioned at the begining of the module.
X. Key Concepts (Glossary)
ELASTICIY: Is the property of a material, or a substance, or a body of returning
to its original size and shape after distortion or deformation by a force. (Source
Wikipedia consulted on )
STRESS: Is a force per unit area, measured in newtons per meter squared (

Nm
-2
).
Examples of a stress include a tension, a thrust, and a shearing force.
STRAIN: Is the ratio of the dimensional change produced to the original dimen-
sion. When a stress is applied to a body a strain is produced. The body can be
distoreted or deformed, depending upon its elesticy. It may be a ratio of lengths,
areas, or volumes.
YOUNGS MODULUS: Is the modulus of elastticty of a wire or rod stretched
longitudinally, or of a rod compressed longitudinally. It is measured in

N m
2

Stress =
Force
Area
=
F
A
Strain=
Extension
Length
=
x
l
Youngs Modulus = E =
Stress
Strain
=
Fl
Ax

COMPRESSI BI LI TY: I n t he r modyna mi c s a nd f l ui d me -
chanics, compressibility is a measure of the relative volume change
of fluid or solid as a response to a pressure (or mean stress) change.

=
1
V
V
P
where

V is volume and

P is pressure. The above statement is incomplete,
because for any object or system the magnitude of the compressibility depends
strongly on whether the process is adiabatic or isothermal.
PLASTICITY: Is the property of a material, or a substance, of being permanently
deformed by a force, without breaking.
POISSON RATIO: When a sample of material is stretched in one direction,
it tends to get thinner in the other two directions. Poissons ratio ( , ), named
after Simeon Poisson, is a measure of this tendency. Poissons ratio is the ratio of
the relative contraction strain, or transverse strain (normal to the applied load),
divided by the relative extension strain (in the direction of the applied load). For
a perfectly incompressible material, the Poissons ratio would be exactly 0.5.
Most practical engineering materials have ? between 0.0 and 0.5. Cork is close
to 0.0, most steels are around 0.3, and rubber is almost 0.5. Some materials,
mostly polymer foams, have a negative Poissons ratio; if these auxetic materials
are stretched in one direction, they become thicker in perpendicular directions.
Assuming that material is compressed along y axis
x
yx
y
v

=

where
yx
v
is the resulting Poissons ratio,
x
is transverse strain, and

y
is
axial strain.
PASCALs PRINCIPLE: A change pressure applied to an enclosed fuid is
transmitted undiminished to every point of the fuid and the walls of the contai-
ning vessel.
ARCHIMEDES PRINICIPLE: Any body completely or partially submerged
in a fuid is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the fuid displaced by
the body
BERNOULLIS EQUATION: As a fuid moves through a pipe of varying
cross section and elevation, the pressure will change along the pipe.
VISCOSITY: Is resistance to the internal friction between molecules. Viscosity
can be measured by an instrument called a viscometer. One way to measure
relative viscosity of liquids is to use a 5 ml pipette and a stop watch. Draw up
precisely 5.00 ml of the liquid and begin the stop watch as the liquid leaves the
pipette. The longer it takes to empty the more viscous is the liquid. Some liquids
like water have a low viscosity where other liquids like honey have a high vis-
cosity. Viscosity will be affected by the temperature. At higher temperatures the
viscosity decreases as the molecules take on more kinetic energy allowing them
to move past each other faster
DIFFUSION: Diffusion is the movement of particles from higher chemical
potential to lower chemical potential (chemical potential can in most cases of
diffusion be represented by a change in concentration). An electric charge is an
attribute of matter that produces a force
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY: Thermal expansion of solids:or a body is a
consequence of the change in the average separation between its constituent
atoms or molecules.
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY: Is a measure of a materials ability to
conduct an electric current when an electrical potential difference is appplied
across the conductor. Its movable charges fow, giving rise to an electric current.
The conductivity is defned as the ratio of the current density to the electric
feld strength

J = E ,
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XI. Compulsory Readings
Reading #1 Mechanical Properties
Completereference : http://dmoz.org/Science/Physics/Fluid_Mechanics_and_
Dynamics/
Abstract : The links on the above mentioned page lead you to html materials on
topics of Bernoullis Principle Animation, Calculations and Equations of Fluid
Mechanics, Classical Fluid Mechanics Problem Solutions - Solutions to Classical
Fluid Flow & Momentum Transfer Problems, Fluid dynamics course material,
Fluid Mechanics, and many more that are directly relevant to this module.
Rationale: The Open Directory Project is the largest, most comprehensive
human-edited directory of the Web. It is constructed and maintained by a vast,
global community of volunteer editors.
Date consulted: October, 2006
Reading #2 Gases Liquids and Solids
Completereference http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elasticity_%28physics%29
Abstract : The topics discussed in this document include Contents Modeling
elasticity, Transitions to inelasticity
Rationale: This is one chapter of a free text book maintained by www.lightand-
matter.com It is available in pdf and html formats. The pdf fles can be downloa-
ded chapter by chapter d potential; introduction to special relativity; Maxwells
equations, in both differential and integral form; and properties of dielectrics and
magnetic materials
Date consulted: September, 2006
Reading #3 Solid Mechanics
Completereference :http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Solid_Mechanics#Stress
Abstract : Topics in this reading material follows the continuum mechanics
approach, where the material properties to be the same even when we consider
infnitesimal areas and volumes. The alternative approach is to build up material
properties from basic equations relating atomic forces and interactions, and ex-
tending it to larger sets of such entities (e.g., molecular dynamics).
Rationale: This is part of a book on solid mechanics and it is a good reading
material for this module.
Date consulted: Nov, 2006
XII. Compulsory Resources
Resource #1
EffectofTempratureandVolumeonthenumberofCollisions
Source;Lon-CAPA
URL: http://lectureonline.cl.msu.edu/~mmp/kap10/cd283.htm.
Date Consulted: Nov 2006
Description: This Java applet helps you understand the effect of temperature
and volume on the number of collisions of the gas molecules with the walls. In
the applet, you can change the temperature and volume with the sliders on the
left side. You can also adjust the time for which the simulation runs. The applet
counts all collisions and displays the result after the run. By varying tempera-
ture and volume and keeping track of the number of collisions, you can get a
good feeling of what the main result of kinetic theory will be.
Resource #2
Virtual Experiment on the Ideal Gas Law
Source;Uoregon University
URL: http://jersey.uoregon.edu/vlab/Piston/index.html
Date Consulted: Nov 2006
Description: This Java applet helps you to do a series of virtual experiments,
you will control the action of a piston in a pressure chamber which is flled
with an ideal gas. The gas is defned by four states: Temperature; Volume or
density; Pressure and Molecular Weight
There are 3 possible experiments to do. In the third experiment, labelled Ideal
Gas Law, you can select from the Red, Blue or Yellow gas containers. Each
gas in those containers has a different molecular weight and hence each will
respond differently under changing pressure conditions..
Resource #3
Computer Calculation of Phase Diagrams
Source: video.google.com
CompleteReference: http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=13979881767
80135580&q=Thermodynamics&hl=en
Rationale: Thermodynamic models of solutions can be used together with
data to calculate phase diagrams. These diagrams reveal, for a given set of all
parameters (such as temperature, pressure, magnetic feld), the phases which
are thermodynamically stable and in equilibrium, their volume fractions and
their chemical compositions.
This lecture covers the pragmatic methods implemented in commercial softwa-
re for the estimation of multicomponent, multiphase equilibria.
The content should be generally useful to scientists. This is the ffth of seven
lectures on the thermodynamics of phase transformations
XIII. Useful links
Useful Link #1
Title: Buoyant Force in Liquids
URL: http://www.walter-fendt.de/ph11e/buoyforce.htm
ScreenCapture:
Description: This Java applet shows a simple experiment concerning the
buoyancy in a liquid: A solid body hanging from a spring balance is dipped into
a liquid (by dragging the mouse!). In this case the measured force, which is equal
to the difference of weight and buoyant force, is reduced. You can change (within
certain limits) the preselected values of base area, height and densities by using
the appropriate text felds.
Rationale: This virtual experiment conforms with activity 2 of the module.
Useful Link #2
Title: Water Pressure and depth.
URL: http://www.mste.uiuc.edu/murphy/PicnicCooler/default.html
ScreenCapture:
Description: This applet was written by Lisa Denise Murphy at the University of
Illinois. Early drafts were written in 1999. The current version was last revised in
January of 2000. Permission is given for students and teachers to use this applet,
provided acknowledgement is made of the source.
Rationale: This virtual activity is of use for activity 2
Useful Link #3
Title:Solid Mechanics
URL: http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Solid_Mechanics
ScreenCapture:
Description: This is a book on solid mechanics. .
Rationale: The contents of activity 1 and activity 3 are entertained in greater
detail
Useful Link #4
Title:Viscosity
URL: http://www.spacegrant.hawaii.edu/class_acts/ViscosityTe.html
ScreenCapture:
Description: This is advanced description of viscosity for more curious rea-
ders.
Useful Link #5
Title: Thermal Conductivity
URL: http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/thermo/thercond.html
ScreenCapture:
Description: An excellent presentation with many relevant liniks.
Rationale: supplements activity 2
XIV. Teaching and learning activities
Activity 1: Elasticity of Materials
You will require 30 hours to complete this activity. In this activity you are guided
with a series of readings, Multimedia clips, worked examples and self assessment
questions and problems. You are strongly advised to go through the activities
and consult all the compulsory materials and as many as possible among useful
links and references.
Specific Teaching and Learning Objectives
Analyse the effects of force on materials
Defne different types of coeffcient of elasticity
Summary of the Learning Activity
In this activity, you will defne the concepts of load, strees and strain. You will
also derive the mathematical equations for the stress and strain. In addition you
will be able to solve different problems. The simplest cases of deformations are
those
i) in which a wire, fxed at its upper end, is pulled down by a weight at lower
end, bringing about a change in its length.
ii) in which an equal compression is applied in all directions, so that there
is a change of volume but no change in shape.
iii) in which a system of forces may be applied to a body such that, although
there is no motion of the body as a whole, there is relative displacement
of its contiguous layers, causing a change in shape or form of the body
with no change in its volume. In all these cases the body is said to be
Strained or deformed
Key Concepts
Load: The term load, in the present context, implies the combination of external
forces (for example the weight of the body itself, together with those connected
with it; centrifuge forces in the case of rotating wheels and pulleys; forces due
to friction or forces due to unequal expansion and contraction on changes of
temperature etc.) acting on a body and its effect is to change the form or the
dimensions of the body.
Stress: The restoring or recovering force per unit area set inside the body is
called strees.
Strain: The change produced in the dimensions of a body under a system of
forces or couples in equilibrium, is called strain, and is measured by the change
per unit length (linear strain), per unit volume, (volume strain), or the angular
deformation, (shear strain, or simply shear) according as the change takes place
in length, volume or shape of the body.
Linear Elasticity: (also known as elasticity of length )Is a property possessed by
bodies that increase in length when a tensile force is applied to the. The applied
force causes equal and an opposite force called restoring or recovering force set
insite the body.
PoissonRatio:The Poissons ratio is related to elastic moduli K, the bulk mo-
dulus; n as the shear modulus; and Y, Youngs modulus, by the following. The
elastic moduli are measures of stiffness. They are ratios of stress to strain. Stress
is force per unit area, with the direction of both the force and the area specifed.
restoring or recovering force per unit area set inside the body is called strees.
Compressibility:The Bulk Modulus is sometimes referred to as compressibility;
so that, compressibility of a body is equal to

1
k
where

k is its Bulk modulus.

it must thus be quite clear that whereas Bulk modulus is stress per unit strain,
compressibility represents strain per unit stress restoring or recovering force per
unit area set inside the body is called strees.
List of Relevant Readings
Reference
Nelkon & Parker (1995), Advanced Level Physics, 7th ed, CBS Pu-
blishers & Ditributer, 11, Daryaganji New Delhi (110002) India. ISBN
81-239-0400-2.
Rationale: This reading assumes high school physics background of
the reader it suits this module
Reference
Flower B.H., Mendoz E (1970), Properties of Matter. John Wiley &
Son Ltd, ISBN 0471 26498 9R McCliment (1984). Phusics, Harcourt
Brace Jovanovich, Publishers, San Diogo .
Rationale: This reading provide easy sources of information. The
contents have been treated in lucid manner with adequate mathematical
support.
Reference
Grant Mathur D.S. (1985), Elements of Properties of Matter, Shaym
Lal Charitable Trust, Ram Nagar, New Delhi 110055. 284-360

List of Relevant Resources
Reference:http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/permot3.html
Reference:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Youngs_modulus
Summary: Youngs Modulus (E) (also known as the Young Modulus,
modulusofelasticity, elastic modulus or tensile modulus) is a measure
of the satiffness of a given material. It is defned as the ratio, for small
strains, of the rate of change of stress with strain
Reference: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elasticity_of_substitution
Summary:An important property of many structural materials is their
ability to regain their original shape after a load is removed. These
materials are called elastic.

List of Relevant Useful Links
Title:Elasticity
URL: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Youngs_modulus
Abstract:- properties and mathematical equation is found
Title: work done in strain
URL: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Youngs_modulus
Abstract: equation of work done
Introduction to the Activity
All bodies can, more or less, be deformed by suitably applied force. The simplest
cases of deformation that you can do are the following
1. In which a wire, fxed at its upper end, is pulled down by a weight at lower
end, bringing about a change in its length
(a)
Figure 1
System of forces and deformations defning elastic modulus of linear tension
2. In which an equal compression is applied in all directions, so that there is a
change of volume but no change in shape.
Figure 2
System of forces and deformations defning elastic modulus of a change in volume
3. A system of forces may be applied to a body such that, although there is no
motion of the body as a whole, there is relative displacement of its contiguous
layers, causing a change in shape or form of the body with no change in its
volume
Figure 3
System of forces and deformations defning elastic modulus due to tangential forces
producing an angle of shear

F (Loa d attached)
L
L
A(c r oss-section)

V
F
F F
F
V
(b)

(c)
F
B
A D
L
L

B
C
Detailed Description of the Activity
(Main Theoretical Elements)
* Insure clear learning guidance and variety of learning activities are provided
throughout the acitvity.
Elasticity
In all the above cases the body is said to be strained or deformed. When the
deforming forces are removed the body tends to recover its original condition.
For example, the wire, in the Figure 1, tends to come back to its original length
when the force due to the suspended weight is removed from it, or, a compressed
volume of air or gas throws back the piston when it recovers its original volume.
This property of a material bodyto regain its original condition, on the removal of
the deforming forces, is called elasticity. Bodies, which can recover, completely
their original condition, on the removal of the deforming forces, are said to be
perfectly elastic. On the other hand, bodies, which do not show any tendency to
recover their original condition are said to be plastic.
Linear elasticity,
Linear elasticity also known as elasticity of length, is a property possessed by
bodies that increase in length or breadth or width when a tensile force is applied
to them normally in those directions.
Youngs Modulus
When the deforming force is applied as shown in the Figure 1 to the body only
along in particular direction, the change per unit length in that direction is called
longitudinal, linear or elongation strain,

l
L
and the force applied per unit area
of crosssection is called longitudinal or linear stress

F
a
. Youngs modulus
Y =

F .L
a.l
. For uniform change Y =

L
a
.
dF
dl
. For non uniform change Where a is the

cross sectional area of the rod, L is the length of the rod, F is the Load.
Stress:Isthetensileforceperunitareaandisdenotedby.
Youngs modulus,

E =

=
F
A
e
l
=
FL
eA
foraunifornchange.
For non uniform change

E =
L
A
dF
dl
where A is the cross-sectional area of
therod,l is the length of the rod and, F, is the load.

Bulk modulus.
Here, the force is applied normally and uniformly as shown in the Figure 2 to
the whole surface of the body; so that, while there is a change of volume, there
is no change of shape The force applied per unit area, (or pressure), gives the

Stress =
F
A
and the change per unit volume, the strain=

v
V
their ratio giving
the Bulk Modulus for the body. k

=
F
a
v
V
=
F .V
a.v
= P
V
v
ModulusofRigidity.
In this case, while there is a change in the shape of the body, there is no change in
this volume as shown in the Figure 4 Tangential force F is applied in the direction
shown point B shifts to B, D to D, i.e. the lines joining the two faces turn through
an angle .the face ABCD is then said to be sheared through an angle this angle
(in radians), through which a line originally perpendicular to the fxed face is
turned, gives the strain or the shear strain, or the angle of shear, as it is often called
as can be seen, =

BB '
AB
=

l
L
, where

l is the displacement BB
and L, the length

of the side AB or the height of the cube. In otherwords, =relative displacement
of plane ABDC distance from the fxed plane ABCD. Tangential stress is equal
to the force F divided by the area of the face BDdb( area=a),i.e. equal to

F
a
. The

ratio of the tangintial stress to the shear strain gives the coeffcient of rigidity of
the material of the body denoted by n=

F
a
=
F
a
l
L
=
F .L
a.l
If the shearing strain
is not proportional to the shear stress applied, we have n=

dF
a
d
Work done in a strain
In order to deform a body, work must be done by the applied force. The energy
so spent is strored up in the body and is called the energy of strain. When the
applied forces are removed the stress disappears and the energy of strain appears
as heat.
Let us consider the work done during the three cases of strain.
Elongationstrain-(stretchofawire)
Then work done
W=

F .dl
Now, Youngs modulus for the material of the wire, i.e.

E =
F .L
a.l
where L- is the original length

l - the increase in length
a- cross sectional area
F- the force applied
Then the force applied

F =
E .a.l
L

A C
Figure 4 Module regidity
The work done during the stretch from 0 up to

l

w=
E .a
L
ldl
0
l
=

E .a
L
ldl
0
l
=

E .a
L
l
2
2
=

1
2
E .a.l
L
.l But

F =
E .a.l
L
Hence

w=
1
2
Fl
=

1
2
(stretching force x stretch)
Work done per unit volume =

1
2
F .
l
L.a
=

1
2
F
a
.
l
L
=

1
2
stress x strain
VolumeStrain
Let be the stress applied. Then, over an area a the force applied is .a, and
therefore, work done for a small movement dx, in the direction of , is equal to
.a.dx. Now, a.dx is equal to dv, the small change produced in volume. Thus,
work done for a change dv is equal to dv.
And, therefore total work done for the whole change in volume, from 0 to V, is
given by

W = dV
0
V

K = .
V
v
; so that

= K .
V
v
Where V is the original volume and
K is the Bulk modulus
and

w=
k.v
V
dv
0
v
=

k
V
VdV
0
v
=

1
2
k.v
V
.v
=

1
2
v
=

1
2
stress x change in volume

1
2
v
V
=

1
2
stress x strain
ShearingStrain
Consider a cube of edge L,(Fig.(1)), with its lower foce DC fxed, and let F be
the tangential force applied to its upper face in the plane of AB, so that the face
ABCD is distorted into the position ABCD or sheared through an angle .
Let the displacement AA be equal to BB=

l . Then, work done during a small
displacement d

l is equal to F.d

l . And, therefore work done for the whole of the
displacement, from 0 to

l is given by

w= F .dl
0
l
Now

n =
F
a.
,

F = n.a. and

a = L
2
,
also

=
l
L
where L is the length of each edge of the cube so that

F = n.L
2
.
l
L
=

n.L.l
Work done during the whole stretch from 0 to

l , i.e

w= n.L.l .dl
0
l
=

1
2
n.L.l
2
=

1
2
F .l =

1
2
tangential force x displacement

1
2
F .l
L
3
=

1
2
F
L
2
l
L
=

1
2
F
a
.
=

1
2
stress x strain.
Thus, we see that in any kind of strain, work done per unit volume is equal to

1
2
stress x strain
Dimensions.
The strain of a wire has no dimenssion
The dimenssion of stress=

ML
1
T
2
The SI unit of modulus of elasticity is the Pascal
Task: 1.1 Experiment on stretching of steel wire by different loads
Objectives
The learners will be able to demonstrat different types of deformation
The learners will be able to calculate of the ratio of linear stress to linear
strain
The learners will be able to draw the relation between the stress versus
the strain
Problem
The following problem is helping to fnd the strength of the material as well as
it helps to answer the objectives
Hypothesis
Formulate an hypothesis about the relation ship between the load and the cross
sectional area of the steel wire (stress), the length of the steel to the extension of
the steel (strain), calculate the Youngs modulus.
Equipment
Two long thin steel wires
Rigid support
Different weight
One the wires carries a vernier scale
Procedure
1) Arrange the steel wires, the load, the vernier scale as shown
2) Put different loads at the place of w
Figure 5
Experimental arrangement for stretching of steel wire by different loads

Tensile force on Q
w
v
Q P
B
M
P and Q are steel wires
V vernier scale
A
3. P,Q are two long thin steel wires suspended beside each other from a rigid
support B
4. The wire P is kept taut by a weight A attached to its end and carries a scale
M graduated in millimeters
5. The wire Q carries a vernier scale v alongside the scale M
6. V measures the small extension e, or change in length of Q, when the load
w is increased, and this in turn increases the force F in the wire.
Questions
1. What do you observe
2. Calculate the stress
3. Calculate the strain
4. Plot the graph of the stress versus strain
Task: 1.2 Experiment to exercise mathematical equations
Objectives
The learners will be able to derive the mathematical equations for solving pro-
blems on coeffcient of elasticity
Problem
Derive the mathematical quation on elasticity for the following constants.
i)Youngs modulus (E)
ii)Bulk modulus(k)
iii)Bulk regidity(n)
Advise
If you have derived the mathematical equations that is very nice. If not please
check what is done in derivation
Formative evaluation 1
Figure 6
Graph of stress against strain
Problem1
In this activity you are expected to show on for the graph of stress vs strain the
following
a) elastic range b) elastic limit c) plastic range
Answer
a) red b) broken line c) red region
Problem2
Mention factors affecting Elasticity

strain
stress
Answer
Effect of hammering-rolling and a annealingEffect of impuritiesEffect of change
of temperature
Problems3
Show that
a) A small and uniform strain on volume V is equivalent to three linear strain
each of magnitude v/3, in any three perpendicular?
Answer
Imagine a unit cube to be compressed equally and uniformly on all sides, so that
length of each edge decreases by a length

l and its volume by a small amount v.
Then, clearly volume strain in the cube =

v
V
=

v, and linear strain a long each
edge of the cube

l
L
=

l
Since length of each edge of the cube now becomes

L l
( )
the new volume of
the cube becomes

L l
( )
3
Decrease in volume of the cube, i.e

v = V L l
( )
3
After calculating and negelecting the higher order of you can fnd

v =

3l
Then

l =
v
3
Formative evaluation
Show that
The bulk modulus for a gas
i) at constant temperature (i.e. under isothermal conditions) is equal to its
pressure
ii) when temperature is not constant, (i.e. when the conditions are adiabatic)
it is equal to times its pressure, where

=
C
p
C
v
Answer
Let p be the pressure and V, the volume of a gas , and let it be compressed by in-
creasing the pressure (p+dp), so that the volume is reduced by dv, and becomes (V-dv)
then stress =

dF
dA
= pressure applied =dp
volume strain =

changeinvolume
originalvolume
bulk modulus for the gas, i.e.

K =
dP
dV
V
i) If the gas is compressed isothermally, its temperature remains constant, the-
refore

PV = const

P =
const
V

dp =
const
V
2
dV

Vdp =
const
V
= BulkModulus = K

const
V
= K

const
V
= p
Then

K = pbulk constant equal to the pressure
Answer
ii) if the gas compressed adiabatically

pV

= const ,

=
C
p
C
v

p = CV

Differentiating p with respect to V gives

dp = V
1
dVconst

V
dp
dV
=

V

const
Where

V
dp
dV
= kBulk ,

const = pV

k =

V

pV

k = pBulk constant
African Virtual University 39
Activity 2: Fluids
You will require 45 hours to complete this activity. In this activity you are
guided with a series of readings, Multimedia clips, worked examples and self
assessment questions. You are strongly advised to go through the activities and
consult all the compulsory materials and as many as possible among useful links
and references.
Describe basic properties of fuid (density,pressure)
Apply the properties of fuids (archimedes principle)
Explain fuid motion (continuity, turbulance, real fuid)
Use Bernnoullis Equation
In this activity the learners will describe the pressure in fuids at rest, explain the
effects of the buoyant force on a submerged object and the distribution of fuid
in a closed conteiner.
The pressure P, in a fuid is the force per unit area that the fuid exerts on any
surface. The pressure in a fuid varies with depth(h) according to the expression
gh p p
a
+ = where P
a
is atmospheric pressure (1.01x10
5
N/m
2
) and is the
density of the fuid,
You will state also Pascals law and Archimedess principle.
Fluid dynamics (fuid in motion) can be understood by assuming that the fuid is
non viscous and incompressible and that the fuid motion is a steady fow with no
turbulence.Using these assumptions,the fow rate through the pipe is a constant
That is A
1
V
1
=A
2
V
2
.The sum of, kinetic energy per unit volume, and potential
energy per unit volume has the same value at all points along a streamline. That
is,
2
1
constant Bernoulli's equation
2
p v gy + + =

Key Concepts
Pascals Principle: A change pressure applied to an enclosed fuid is transmitted
undiminished to every point of the fuid and the walls of the containing vessel
Archimeds Principle: Any body completely or partially submerged in a fuid is
buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the fuid displaced by the body.:
Stream Line: Is the path taken by a fuid particle under steady fow is called a
stream. line
Bernoullis Equation: This equation gives an expresssion that deals with the
sum of the pressure, kinetic energy per unit volume, and potential energy per unit
volume has the same value at all points along a streamline
The knowledge of the existence of electrostatic charge goes back at least as far
as the
Detailed Description of the Activity (Main Theoretical Elements)
States of matter
Matter is normally classifed as being in one of its states, solid, liquid or ga-
seous. Often, this classifcation is extended to include a fourth state referred to
as plasma.
The fourth state of matter can occur when matter is heated to very high tempe-
ratures. Under this condition, one or more electrons surrounding each atom are
freed from the nucleus. The resulting substance is a collection of free electrically
charged particles: the negatively charged electrons and the positively charged
ions. Such an ionized gas with equal amounts of positive and negative charges
is called plasma.
Density and Pressure
The density of a substance is defned as its mass per unit volume.
m
v
=

Specifc gravity of a substance is defned as the ratio of its density to the
density of water at 4
o
c, which is 1x10
3
kg/m
3
If F is the magnitude of the normal force on the piston and A is the area
of the piston, then the pressure, P, of the liquid at the level to which
the device has been submerged is defined as the ratio of force to area.
0
lim
A
F
P
A
F dF
P
A dA

=
= =

The unit of pressure in the SI system is Pascal (P
a
)

2
N
1Pa 1
m
=
Variation of pressure with depth
Consider a fuid at rest in a container shown in the Figure 2.1 below
Figure 1
Variation of pressure with depth in a fuid the volume element is at rest, and the force
on it.
We frst note that all points at the same depth have the same pressure.
Consider the fuid contained with in an imaginary cylinder of cross-sectional
area A and height dy. The upward force on the bottom of the cylinder is PA and
the down ward force on the top is (P+dP) A. The weight of the cylinder, whose
volume is dv, is given by

dW = gdV = gAdy , where is the density of
the fuid. Since the cylinder is in equilibrium, the force must add to zero, and
so we get

F
y
= PA P + dP
( )
A gAdy

dP
dy
= g

From this result, we see that an increase in elevation (positive by) corresponds to
a decrease is pressure (negative dp). If p
1
and p
2
are the pressure at the elevations
y
1
and y
2
above the reference level, and If the density is uniform, then integrating

dP
P
1
P
2
= gdy
y
1
y
2
P
2 -
P
1 =
-

g( y
2
y
1
)
If the vessel is open at the top, then the Pressure at the depth h can be obtai-
ned.
Taking atmospheric pressure to be P
a
= P
2,
and noting that the depth h = Y
2

Y
1,
We fnd that:

P = P
a
+ gh
The absolute pressure P at a depth h below the surface of a liquid open to the
atmosphere is greater than atmospheric pressure by an amount

gh.
Figure 2
The Pressure P at a depth h below the surface of a liquid open to the atmosphere
is given by

P = P
a
+ gh
This result also verifes
(i) The pressure is the same at all points having the same elevation.
(ii) The pressure is not affected by the shape of the vessel.
Pascals principle
A change pressure applied to an enclosed fuid is transmitted undiminished to
every point of the fuid and the walls of the containing vessel.
Figure 3
A hydraulic press

P
1
= P
2
F
1
A
1
=
F
2
A
2

y
1
p
1
=p
h
y
2
a
P P =
2

Pressure Measurements
One simple device for measuring pressure is the open-tube monometer shown
below.
Figure 4
The open tube manometer
One end of a U shaped tube containing a liquid is open to the atmosphere, and
the other end is connected to a system of unknown pressure P. The pressure at
point B equals

P = P
a
+ gh where is the density of fuid. But the pressure
at B equals the pressure at A.
P
A
= P
B

P = P
a
+ gh The pressure P is called the absolute pressure while
PP
a
is called the gauge pressure.
Buoyant Forces and Archimedes Principle
Archimedes Principle can be stated as follows:
Any body completely or partially submerged in a fuid is buoyed up by a force
equal to the weight of the fuid displaced by the body.
In other words the magnitude of the buoyant force is equal to the weight of the
fuid displaced by the object.
B = W =

f
Vg = mg where V is the volume of cube and

f
is density of fuid,
m mass of water, W is the weight of fuid displaced.

W
B
Case 1: A totally submerged object
when an object is totally submerged in a fuid of density

f
, the upward buoyant
force is given by B =

f
V
0
g, Where V
0
is the volume of the object. If the object
has a density

0
, its weight is equal to W = mg=

0
V
0
g , and the net force on it is
B W = (

f

0
)

V
0
g . Hence the density of the object is less than the density
of the fuid, the unsupported object will accelerate upward. If the density of the
object is greater than the density of the fuid, the unsupported object will sink.

Case II: A foating object
Consider an object in static equilibrium foating on a fuid; that is one which is
partially submerged. In this case, the upward buoyant force is balanced by the
downward weight of the object. If v
f
is the volume of the fuid displaced by the
object, then the buoyant force has a magnitude given by

B =
f
Vg . Since the wei-
ght of the object is W = mg =

0
V
0
g, and W = B, we see that

f
Vg =

0
V
0
g , or

f
=
V
V
0
Fluid Dynamics
When fuid is in motion, its fow can be one of two main types of fow.
(i) steady fow which a fow where each particle of the fuid fows a smooth
path, and the paths of different particles do not cross each other.
(ii) a non-steady or turbulent which is an irregular fow characterized by small
whirl pool-like region.
Stream Lines
The path taken by a fuid particle under steady fow
is called a stream line. A particle at P fows one of
thesestreamlines, and its velocity V is tangent to the
streamline at each point along its path.

. P
V
The Equation Of Continuity
Consider a fuid fowing through a pipe of non uniform cross sectional
area.
The particles in the fuid move along the streamlines in steady fow. At all points
the velocity of the particles is tangent to the stream line along which it moves.
In a small time interval t, the fuid at the bottom end of the pipe moves a dis-
tance x
1
= v
1
t. If A
1
is the cross-sectional area in this region, then the mass
contained in the shaded region is m
1
=

1
A
1
x
1
=

1
A
1
v
1
t. Similarly, the
fuid moves through the upper end of the pipe in the time t has a mass m
2
=

2
A
2
v
2
t. However, since mass is conserved and because the fow is steady, the
mass that crosses A
1
in a time t must equal the mass that crosses A
2
in the time
t. Therefore m
1
=m
1,
or

1
A
1
V
1
=
2
A
2
V
2
This is equation of continuity

A
1
V
1
= A
2
V
2

The product of the area and the fuid speed at all points along the pipe is a
constant.
Bernoullis Equation
As a fuid moves through a pipe of varying cross section and elevation, the pres-
sure will change along the pipe.
We shall assume that the fuid is incompressible and nonviscous and that it fows
in an irrotational and steady manner.

A
2
A
1
1
x

2
x
V
2
V
1

V
2
P
2
A
2
P
1
A
1

1
x

2
x
V
1
y
2
y
1
Consider the fow through a non-uniform pipe in a time t. Therefore the force on
the lower end of the fuid is P
1
A
1
where P
1
is the pressure at point 1. The work
done by this force is W
1
=F
1
x
1
=P
1
A
1
x
1
= P
1
V, where V is the volume of the
lower shaded region. In similar manner, the work done on the fuid at the upper
end in the time t is given W
2
=F
2
x
2
=-P
2
A
2
x
2
= -P
2
V. This work is negative
since the fuid force opposes the displacement. Thus the network done by these
forces in the time t is w = (P
1
-P
2
) V part of this work goes into changing the
kinetic energy of the fuid, and part into changing the gravitational potential
energy. If m is the mass passing through the pipe in the time t, then the change
in its kinetic energy is

k =
1
2
m
( )
v
2
2
1
2
m
( )
v
1
2

The change in its potential energy is

u = mgy
2
mgy
1
We can apply the work energy theorem in the form w=k+u to its volume of fuid to give
( P
1
- P
2
) V =

1
2
m
( )
v
2
2
1
2
m
( )
v
1
2
+

mgy
2
mgy
1

If we divide each term by V, and recall that

=
m
V
the above expression
reduces to
(P
1
-P
2
) =

1
2
v
2
2
1
2
v
1
2
+

gy
2
gy
1

Rearranging terms we get
P
1+

1
2
v
1
2
+

gy
1
= P
2
+

1
2
v
2
2
+

gy
2

This is Bernoullis equation as applied to a non-viscous, incompressible fuid in
steady fow. It is often expended as
P+

1
2
v
2
+

gy constant
Bernoullis equation says that the sum of the pressure, (p), the kinetic energy per
unit volume (

1
2
2
), and potential energy per unit volume (

gy ) has the same
value at all points along a stream line.
When the fuid at rest v
1
=v
2
=0 and the above equation becomes

P
1
P
2
= g y
2
y
1
( )
= gh
Which agrees with Bernoullis equation
Learning Activities
Task 2.1. Calculation of speed in fluid flow
(a) A water hose 2cm in diameter is used to fll a 20 litre bucket. If it takes
1min to fll the bucket, what is the speed v at which the water leaves the
hose?
(b) If the diameter of the hose is reduced to 1cm, what will the speed of the
water be as it leaves the hose, assuming the same fow rate?
Task 2.2. Using Archimedes principle to compare densities
(a) A plastic sphere foats in water with 0.5 of its volume submerged. This
same sphere foats in oil with 0.4 of its volume submerged. Determine
the ratio of densities of the oil and the sphere.
(b) A cube of wood whose one of the sides is 20cm has a density of 0.65x10
3

foats on water.
i. what is the distance from the top of the cube to the water level?
ii. how much lead weight has to be placed on top of the cube so that
its top is just level with the water?
Task 2.3. Using fluid dynamics equations to solve problems
1. Determine the absolute pressure at the bottom of a lake that is 30m
deep.
2. A swimming pool has dimensions 30m X 10m and a fat bottom. When
the pool is flled to a depth of 2m with fresh water, what is the total force
due to the water on the bottom? On each end? On each side?
3. The spring of the pressure gauge has a force constant of 1000N/m, and
the piston has a diameter of 2cm. Find the depth in water for which the
spring is compressed by 0.5cm?
Task 2.4 Using fluid dynamics equations to solve
The open vertical tube in the fgure shown below contains two fuids of densities

1
And

2
, which do not mix. Show that the pressure at the depth h
1
+h
2
is given
by the expression P = P
a
+

1
gh
1
+

2
gh
2
Formative Evaluation 2
1. The rate of fow of water through a horizontal pipe is 2m
3
/min. Determine
the velocity of fow at a point where the diameter of the pipe is
(a) 10cm
(b) 5cm
2. What is the hydrostatic force on the back of Grand Coulee Dam if the water
in the eservoir is 150m deep and width of the dam is 1200m?
3. Calculate the buoyant force on a solid object made of copper and having a
volume of 0.2m
3
if it is submerged in water. What is the result if the object is
made of steel?
4. In air an object weighs 15N. When immersed in water, the same object weighs
12N. When immersed in another liquid, it weights13N. Find
a. The density of the object and
b. The density of the other liquid
Activity 3: Transport Properties
You will require 25 hours to complete this activity. In this activity you are
guided with a series of readings, Multimedia clips, worked examples and self
assessment questions.. You are strongly advices to go through the activities and
consult all the compulsory materials and as many as possible among useful links
and references.
Analyse particle motion in fuids
Describe relative properties of solids, liquids and gasses
Discuss the effects of heat on materials e.g. calculate thermal expan-
sion
Calculate the effective concentration of mobile electrons in metals, alloys
and semiconductors
In this unit you will learn the transport properties of gases (molecules) in a sys-
tem by considering that diffusion, viscocity and heat conduction as a transport
process. In addition you will in detailed describtion of conduction and thermal
expansion of metals using mathematical approach. The transportaion of electron
is discussed in terms of the effective concentration of mobile electrons in metals,
alloys and and semiconductors
Key Concepts
Diffusion: Is the movement of particles from higher chemical potential to lower
chemical potential (chemical potential can in most cases of diffusion be repre-
sented by a change in concentration).An electric charge is an attribute of matter
that produces a force.
Osmosis: If two solutions of different concentration are separated by a semi-
permeable membrane which is permeable to the smaller solvent molecules but
not to the larger solute molecules, then the solvent will tend to diffusion across
the membrane from the less concentrated to the more concentrated solution this
process is called osmosis.
Electron diffusion: resulting in electric
Heat Conduction: The conduction of heat is also a process of diffusion in which
random thermal energy is transferred from a hotter region to a colder one without
bulk movement of the molecules themselves.
Viscous motion: of fuids can be far more complicated than diffusion or heat
conduction and we will be forced to consider only the steady state equation.
Thermal expansion of solids or a body: Is a consequence of the change in the
average separation between its constituent atoms or molecules
Electrical conductivity: Is the ability of different types of matter to conduct an
electric current
Semiconductors: are materials whose conductivity is between that of conductors
(generally metals) and that of nonconductors or insulators.
Alloy: Is a metal composed of more than one element
Key terms
Momentum diffusion
Brownian motion
Diffusion equation
Ficks law of diffusion
Heat fow
Osmosis
Osmotic pressure
Transport phenomena
List of Relevant Readings
Reference:- Viscosity
Abstract: Viscosity is the resistance or the internal friction between molecules.
Viscosity can be measured by an instrument called a viscometer. Some liquids
like water have a low viscosity whereas other liquids like honey have a high
viscosity. Viscosity will be affected by the temperature. At higher temperatures
the viscosity decreases as the molecules take on more kinetic energy allowing
them to move past each other faster
List of Relevant Resources
Reference:- http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-4559185597114887
235&q=electric+charge&hl=en
Summary: This resource is video show on electric charges
Reference: - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_conductivity
Summary:- To analyse the conductivity of materials exposed to alternating
electric feld
Diffusion is the transport of a material or chemical by molecular motion. If mole-
cules of a chemical are present in an apparently motionless fuid, they will exhibit
microscopic erratic motions due to being randomly struck by other molecules in
the fuid. Individual particles or molecules will follow paths sometimes known
as random walks.
In such processes, a chemical initially concentrated in one area will disperse. That
is, there will be a net transport of that chemical from regions of high concentration
to regions of low concentration.
An analogous form of diffusion is called conduction. In this case, heat is the
chemical that is transported by molecular motion. As in chemical diffusion,
heat migrates from regions of high heat to regions of low heat. The mathematics
describing both conduction and diffusion is the same.
Figure 1
Consider two containers of gas A and B separated by a partition. The molecules of both
gases are in constant motion and make numerous collisions with the partition
Detailed Description of The Activity (Main Theoretical Elements)
Gases Liquids and Solids
As a useful, though not complete, classifcation it can be said that matter exists
in three states, as gas, liquid or solids. This statement is justifed by the fact that
there exist many substances which can undergo sharp, easily identifable, repro-
ducible and reversible transitions from one state to the other. Water is the classical
example: its freezing and melting, boiling and condensation have been contem-
plated since the time of the ancient Greek scientists. There are obvious contrast
between the properties of ice, water and steam or water vapour which make their
description as solid, liquid and gas quite unambiguous. Similarly, most metals
are solid, they melt under well defned conditions of temperature and pressure to
form liquids and boil at higher temperatures to produce gases.

If all substances possessed such clear demarcations, it would be easy to defne
the different states of matter. But there are very many substances like glasses or
glues which one normally thinks of as being solid but which do not melt at sharply
defned temperatures; when heated they gradually become plastic, till they become
recognizably liquid. Other solids such as wood or stone are inhomogeneous and
it is diffcult to describe their structure in detail.
Prosperities and structures of gases
Gases have low densities they are highly compressible over wide ranges of
volume, they have no rigidity and low viscosities. The molecules are usually
a large distance apart compared with their diameter and there is no regularity
in their arrangement in space. Given the positions of two or three molecules, it
is not possible to predict where a further one will be found with any precision.
The molecules are distributed at random throughout the whole volume. The low
density can be readily understood in terms of the comparatively small number of
molecules per unit volume. The high compressibility follows from the fact that
the average distance between molecules can be altered over wide limits. The
molecules can move long distances without encountering one another, so there
is little resistance to motion of any kind, which is the basis of the explanation of
the low viscosity.
Properties and structure of liquids
Liquids have much higher densities than gases and their compressibility is low.
They have no rigidity but their viscosity is greater than that of ordinary gases.
The molecules are packed quite closely together and each molecule is bonded to
a number of neighbors but still the pattern as a whole is a disordered one. The
molecules are moving with just the same order of velocity as in a gas at the same
temperature, though the motion is now partly in the form of rapid vibrations and
partly translational.
Properties and structure of solids
Solids have practically the same densities and compressibilities as liquids. In
addition they are rigid; under the action of small forces they do not easily change
their shape.
An important property of those solids which have a well-defned melting point
is that they are close packed, and the arrangement is highly regular. Substances
which do not melt sharply but show a gradual transition to the liquid when heated
are said to be amorphous and show no trace of regularity of external shape.
In crystalline solids, the molecules are arranged in regular three dimensional
patterns or lattices, If the crystal has been carefully prepared, the regular arran-
gement persists over distances of several thousand molecules in any direction
before there is an irregularity, but if it has been subjected to strains or distortions
the regular arrangement may be perfect and uninterrupted only over much shor-
ter average distances. In metals the ions are closely packed together, so that the
distance between the centre of an ion and that of one of its nearest neighbours
is equal to the diameter of one ion, or something close to it. In other crystals,
the packing together of the molecules may be relatively open, but even in light
solids such as ice the distance between the centers of any molecule and its near
neighbors in only twice the diameter of a molecule. In solids, the molecules are
again moving with the same order of magnitude of velocity as in gases or liquids,
but the motion is confned to vibrations about their mean positions.
Transport Processes
So far we have learned the properties of solids, liquids and gases which are in
equilibrium. In this activity we will deal with systems which are nearly but not
quite in equilibrium in which the density (or the temperature or the average mo-
mentum) of the molecules varies from place to place. Under these circumstances
there is a tendency for the non-uniformities to die away through the movement
the transport of molecules down the gradient of concentration (or of their mean
energy down the temperature gradient or their mean momentum down the velo-
city gradient).
Diffusion
Diffusion is the movement of molecules from a region where the concentration is
high to one were it is lower, so as to reduce concentration gradients. This process
can take place in solids, liquids and gases (though this part you will be mostly
concerned with gases). Diffusion is quite independent of any bulk movements
such as winds or convection currents or other kinds of disturbance brought about
by differences of density or pressure or temperature (although in practice these
often mask effects are due to diffusion).
One gas can diffuse through another when both densities are equal. For example,
carbon monoxide and nitrogen both have the same molecular weight, 28, so that
there is no tendency for one or other gas to rise or fall because of density diffe-
rences: yet they diffuse through each other. Diffusion can also take place when a
layer of the denser of two fuids is initially below a layer of the lighter so that the
diffusion has to take place against gravity. Thus, if a layer of nitrogen is below a
layer of hydrogen, a heavy stratum below a light one, then after a time it is possible
to detect some hydrogen at the bottom and some nitrogen at the top, and after a
very long time both layers will be practically uniform in concentration.
Diffusion coeffcients of gases and can be measured with a suitable geome-
trical arrangement of two vessels with different initial concentrations together
with some method of measuring those concentrations such as a chemical method
or mass spectroscopy, for example. If the rates of change of concentration with
time are plotted, the diffusion coeffcient can be deduced; the equations describing
the process are given in diffusion equation.
Figure 2
Concentration as a function of x for different values of time t
The diffusion equation
We will begin by taking a macroscopic view of the phenomenon, that is, we will
write down equations which involve such variables as concentrations or fuxes but
will not specifcally mention individual molecules. We defne the concentration
as the number of molecules n per unit volume. Let us consider the simple case
where n varies with one coordinate only the x-axis. In Figure 1. the concentration
at all points in the plane x is n, at (x+dx) it is (n+dn). Then diffusion takes place
down the concentration gradient, from high to low concentration; we are assuming
that bulk disturbances are absent. We next defne the fux J of particles as the
number of particles on average crossing unit area per second in the direction of
increasing x. Notice that both concentration and fux can be measured in moles
instead of numbers of molecules: this is equivalent to dividing all through our
equations by Avogadros number N.
Figure 3
Coordinates used in the defnition of diffusion

concentrati
on
T= 1/2D
T=1/D
t= 1/4D
concentration

X
n+dn n
X+dX
J
X

In general, the fux J may change with position x and may also change with time t.
In other words, J may be a function of x and t so we write it as J (x,t). Of course,
there are circumstances where J may be the same for all x, or where it is constant
with time, but the most general situation is that j depends on both.
It is an experimental fact that, at any instant that fux at any position x is propor-
tional to the concentration gradient there:

J x,t
( )

n
x
or 3.1

J x,t
( )
= D
n
x

where D is called the diffusion coeffcient. This is known as Ficks law.
By itself, Eq. (3.1) is adequate to describe steady-state conditions where currents
and concentrations do not change with time so that the fux can be written J(x).
For example, if a tube of length

l cm with constant cross-sectional area A cm
2
has
molecules continually introduced at one end and extracted at the other end at the
same rate, the concentration gradient becomes -n/

l , where n is the difference of
concentration between the two ends. The number of particles crossing any plane
in the tube per second is then DAn/

l and this does not change with time.
Consider, however, the much more general situation where initially a certain
distribution of concentration is set up and then subsequently the molecules dif-
fuse so as to try to reach a uniform concentration. Concentrations are, therefore,
changing with time and particles must be accumulating in the region between
x
0
and (x
0
+dx) or moving from it. Therefore, the number crossing area A of the
plane x
0
is not equal to that crossing the same area at (x
0
+dx). The fux entering
this volume is
J
x0
= - D

n
x
x = x
0
The fux leaving the slice can be written Jx
0+dx
where

J
x0+dx
= J
x0
+

J
x
dx + ...
and we can neglect higher terms. The rate of movement of molecules from the
slice is equal to the difference between the two values of AJ, and also equal to
the volume of the slice, A dx, times the rate of decrease of n:
-

J
x
Adx=
n
t
Ad
That is

J
x
=
n
t
(3.2)

Combining this with equation (3.1) and eliminating J:

n
t
=

x
D
n
x
= D

2
n
x
2
. (3.3)

if we assume that D is constant independent of the concentration. This is called
the diffusion equation, and since n depends on x and t it could be written n(x,t).
If the process takes place in 3 dimensions, J is a vector whose components are
(Jx,Jy,Jz) and the above equations become

J =iJ
x
+ jJ
y
+kJ
z
=D i
n
x
+ j
n
y
+ k
n
z
= D gradn
n
t
=
J
x
x
+
J
y
+
J
z
=div J
Where i,j and k unit vectors parallel to x,y and z. Eliminating J:

n
t
=div( D gradn) = D
2
n= D

2
n
x
2
+

2
n
y
2
+

2
n
z
2
Thus we have a system of three equations. (3.1) is an experimental law linking

the fux at any point with the concentration gradient there. (3.2) is the continuity
equation expressing the fact that molecules cannot disappear, and (3.3) combines
these two equations. Eq. (3.1) is adequate for steady-state conditions, where
conditions do not vary with time; but for the general case (3.3) may be used.
These are typical of transport equations with the provision that for energy and
momentum diffusion, the coeffcients in the three equations are not all identical
as they are here.
Heat conduction
Heat can be transferred by conduction, convection or radiation. The process of
transferring heat through a body is called thermal conduction. The physical pro-
perty known as thermal conductivity is a measure of how effcient the material
will conduct heat through it. The thermal conductivity of a substance is defned
as the amount of heat transfer per unit area per unit time per unit temperature
gradient through a body. Mathematically, thermal conductivity can be treated in
a very similar way to diffusion leading to very similar types of mathematical
functions. Thermal conductivity is very important when designing for thermal
insulation, thermal isolation, effcient heat transfer and cooling systems
The conduction of heat is also a process of diffusion in which random thermal
energy is transferred from a hotter region to a colder one without bulk movement
of the molecules themselves. In a hot region of a solid body, they have extra
kinetic energy. By a collision process, this energy is shared with and transferred
to neighbouring molecules, so that the heat diffuses through the body though the
molecules themselves do not migrate. The macroscopic equations describing
conduction in one dimension x are, frstly, the experimental law for the heat
fux

Q = k
T
x
..(3.4)

(where Q is the heat fux across unit area, measured in W cm
-2
, k is the thermal
conductivity and T is the temperature) and, secondly, the continuity equation

Q
x
=Cp
T
t
..(3.5)
which expresses the conservation of energy in the form that the heat which is
absorbed by a slice of a body goes into raising its temperature. C is the specifc
heat per unit mass, the density so that

C
is the specifc heat per unit volume.

Combining these two equations to eliminate Q:

T
t
=
k
Cp

2
T
x
2
(3.6)
where

k
C
is called the thermal diffusivity by analogy with Eq. (3.3). E1.

(3.4) by itself is adequate for steady-state conditions, as when for example heat
is fed into one end of a bar and extracted at the other and all temperatures are
constant with time, and T can be calculated as a function of x alone. But when
conditions are not steady, and T varies with time as well as position, Eq. (3.6)
describes the situation.
Viscosity
For completeness, a third simple transport process the diffusion of momentum
by viscous forces will be mentioned here, briefy. Viscous motion of fuids can
be far more complicated than diffusion or heat conduction and we will be forced
to consider only the steady state equation.
Figure 4
Coordinates used in the defnition of viscosity.
Consider a gas or liquid confned between two parallel plates (Fig 4). Let the
lower plate be stationary and the upper plate be moving in the direction shown,
which we will call the x-direction. Molecules of fuid very near the plate will
be dragged along with it and have a drift velocity, U
x
parallel to x, superposed
on their thermal velocity. We will assume that U
x
is much less than the mean
thermal speed or the speed of sound. Molecules of fuid near the stationary
plate will, however, remain more or less with zero drift velocity.
Eventually a regime will be set up in which there is a continuous velocity gradient
across the fuid from bottom to top. In this state, molecules will be continuously
diffusing across the space between the plates and taking their drift momentum
with them. Considering an area of a plane parallel to the xy plane in the fuid,
molecules which diffuse across from above to below will carry more drift mo-
mentum than those which diffuse from underneath to the top. In other words,
the more rapidly moving layer tends to drag a more slowly moving layer with it,
because of this diffusion of momentum.
In macroscopic terms, a shearing stress (force per unit area) is necessary to main-
tain this state of motion. The experimental law is

P
xz
=
U
x
z
..(3.7)
where P
xz
is the force per unit area in the x direction due to a gradient of U
x
in
the z-direction and is called the coeffcient of viscosity. Provided the direction

Moving plate
x
U
Z
Y
X
Stationary plate

of the force is clearly understood, it is not necessary to include a minus sign, as
this depends on the convention for the choice of axes.
We started by considering a fuid in Figure4, but Eq. (3.7) can be applied to solids
because the right-hand side can be written

d
dt
, where is an angle of shear. It

is diffcult to imagine a solid subjected to a shear which goes on increasing with
time, but it is quite common for solids to be sheared to and for in an oscillatory
fashion. Forces are then required to provide the accelerations, but in any case
the viscosity gives rise to the dissipation of energy and the production of heat. It
is usual to refer to this as due to the internal friction of solids.
It is implied in Figure 4. that

U
x
z
is constant and that U
x
increases proportio

nally with z. This is so if the coeffcient is a constant. For many liquids this
holds, but there are notable exceptions when varies with the velocity gradient
or rate of shear so that the velocity profle is not linear
When we come to write down equations representing the motion of a fuid while
it is not in a steady state but accelerating, we meet a situation which is much more
complicated than the diffusion or heat conduction cases. For one thing, there are
always mass-acceleration terms which have no analogue in the other phenomena.
For another, a kind of regime may be set up where the fow is not streamline as
illustrated in Figure 4 but turbulent, and vortices or eddies are present which add
an element of randomness to the fow pattern. We can, however, usefully adopt a
mathematical representation of the simple situation of Fig 4. We can imagine the
liquid divided into layers, each one sliding over the one underneath it on imaginary
rollers like long axle rods parallel to the y-axis. These rollers are not there in any
real sense, but they can lead one to defne a quantity called the vorticity which is
always present in a fowing fuid even when no macroscopic vortices are present.
(In a simple case like Fig. 4 the vorticity degenerates into the velocity gradient.)
Now in the general case of an accelerating fuid with non-uniform velocity it is
the vorticity which diffuses throughout the fuid, though the equation it obeys is
not of a simple form
Task 3.1 Measurement of the viscosity of gases
In his classic experiments to measure the viscosity of gases at low pressures,
Maxwell used a torsion apparatus in which a number of circular glass discs
were arranged to swing in between fxed ones (Fig 5). He found the damping
coeffcient of the oscillations. If we neglect the energy loss in the torsion wire
itself and assume that the discs would go on swinging for a very long time if all
the gas were removed, we can calculate the damping as follows.
Figure 5
Principle of the apparatus for measurement of viscosity by the damping of torsional
oscillation.
Consider one surface of one plate, and select an annulus ring between radii r and
(r+dr). Then (assuming streamline fow) the force on this annulus ring, whose
area is 2 dr, is
dF=

r
( )
d
(2rdr ) 3.8

Where the linear velocity is r , being the angular velocity, and d is the spacing
between adjacent moving and stationary surfaces. The contribution to the couple
is the couple is the radius times the force:
dG=

2
d
r
3
dr ..3.9
and the total couple is
G=

2
d
r
3
dr =
2d
0
a
a
4

..3.10

Where a is the radius of the disc. If there are n discs, each with two surfaces,
there are 2n such contributions.

Solutions Of The Diffusion Equation: The

t Law
Consider fgure3.3 coordinates used in the defnition of diffusion the length is
along the x-axis and the ends are at x=0 and x =. On the face x=0,N0 molecules
are initially all concentrated in a thin layer and are subsequently allowed to diffuse
into the material. We will denote the number at time t which are within a slice
between x and (x+dx) by n (x,t) A dx. Then the appropriate solution of Eq.(3.3)
shows that the concentration.

n x,t
( )
=
N
0
A Dt
( )
1
2
e
x
2
4 Dt
. 3.11

We can, therefore calculate the mean net distance traveled by a molecule at any time t.

x t
( )
=
A
N
0
xn x,t
( )
dx
0
we fnd

x =
2
Dt
( )
1
2

We fnd the mean net distance traveled is proportional to the square root of the
time. This is perhaps an unexpected result: one is used to traveling twice the
distance when the time is doubled, but for the random process of diffusion this is
not so. Of course, some molecules go much further than this, other less far, and it
is the mean which we have calculated. Stated differently , our results shows that
to diffuse a mean distance. X, the time required is proportional to x
2
. This is an
important characteristic of the diffusion process.
Thermal Expansions of solids and liquids.
Most solids expand as their temperature increases. The thermal expansion of solids
or a body is a consequence of the change in the average separation between its
constituent atoms or molecules. Suppose the linear dimension of the body along
some direction is

l at some temperature. The length increases by an amount

l
for a change in temperature

T

0
l
l

Then

l

T

l =

l

T

l =

l

T
Where is coeffcient of linear expansions of solids?
The linear dimension of the body also change with temperature, it fol-
lows that area and volume of a body also change with temperature.

l

V = V
0
T

=3
is the coeffcient of volume expansion
=

3 for isotopic solid where the coeffcient of linear expansion is the same
in all direction.
For a side of volume

l , ,
+

V =

(l + l )( + ) ( + ) =

(l + 2T )( +T ) ( +T )
=

l (1+T )

(1+T )

(1+T )
=

l (1+T )
3
=

l ( + 3 T )

+ 3(T )
2
+

(T )
3
=

V (1+3T )

+ 3( T )
2
+

(T )
2
Comparing

(T )
3
<<

T

T
2
<<

T
Then we neglect

T
3
and

T
2
V+

V =[ 1+3

T + 3 (

T
2
) + (

T
3
)]

V = [V

3T + 3

(T )
2
+

(T )
3
]

A= V 3T
3 =

V
V T

For a fat plate

A= 2AT
2

A= AT
Electrical conductivity
Electrical conductivity is the ability of different types of matter to conduct an
electric current. The electrical conductivity of a material is defned as the ratio of
the current per unit cross-sectional area to the electric feld producing the current.
Electrical conductivity is an intrinsic property of a substance, dependent on the
temperature and chemical composition, but not on the amount or shape.
Electrical conductivity is the inverse quantity to electrical resistivity. For any
object conducting electricity, one can defne the resistance in ohms as the ratio of
the electrical potential difference applied to the object to current passing through
it in amperes. For a cylindrical sample of known length and cross-sectional area,
the resistivity is obtained by dividing the measured resistance by the length and
then multiplying by the area.
The conductivity () of a material is determined by taking the reciprocal of the
measured electrical resistance (R) to the fow of electricity in a length (L) of
material divided by the cross-sectional area (A).

=
1
R
L
A
.
Conductivity is temperature dependent.

T '
=

T
1+(T T ')
where
T is the electrical conductivity at a common temperature, T
T is the electrical conductivity at a measured temperature, T
is the temperature compensation slope of the material,
T is the measured temperature,
T is the common temperature
Metals generally have very high electrical conductivity. The electrical conducti-
vity of copper at room temperature, for instance, is over 70 million siemens per
meter. On an atomic level this high conductivity refects the unique character
of the metallic bond in which pairs of electrons are shared not between pairs of
atoms, but among all the atoms in the metal, and are thus free to move over large
distances. Many metals undergo a transition at low temperatures to a supercon-
ducting state, in which the resistance disappears entirely and the conductivity
becomes infnite. The superconduction process involves a coupling of electron
motion with the vibration of the atomic nuclei and inner-shell electrons, to allow
net current fow without energy loss.
Electrical conductivity in the liquid state is generally due to the presence of ions.
Substances that give rise to ionic conduction when dissolved are called electroly-
tes. The conductivity of one molar electrolyte is of the order of 0.01 siemens per
meter, far less than that of a metal, but still very much larger than that of typical
insulators. Sodium chloride (common table salt), composed of sodium ions and
chloride ions, is a very poor conductor in the solid state. If it is dissolved in water,
however, it becomes a good ionic conductor. Likewise, if it is melted, it becomes
a good conductor. Substances such as hydrogen chloride or acetic acid are non-
conductors in the pure state but give rise to ions and thus electrical conductivity
when dissolved in water. In modern electrochemistry, substances of the sodium
chloride type, which are actually composed of ions, are termed true electrolytes,
while those that require a solvent for ion formation, like hydrogen chloride, are
termed potential electrolytes.
The unit of electrical conductivity in the International System of Units (SI)
system is the siemens per meter, where the siemens is the reciprocal of the
ohm, the unit of electrical resistance, represented by the Greek capital letter
omega ( ). An older name for the siemens is the mho, which, of course, is
ohm spelled backwards (which was written as an inverted Greek omega).
Semiconductors are materials which have a conductivity between conductors
(generally metals) and nonconductors or insulators (such as most ceramics). Semi-
conductors can be pure elements, such as sillicon or germanium, or compounds
such as gallium arsenide or cadmium selenide. In a process called doping, small
amounts of impurities are added to pure semiconductors causing large changes
in the conductivity of the material.
Metals and alloys
An alloy is a metal composed of more than one element. Engineering alloys
include the cast-irons and steels, aluminum alloys, magnesium alloys, titanium
alloys, nickel alloys, zinc alloys and copper alloys. For example, brass is an alloy
of copper and zinc. This versatile construction material has several characteristics,
or properties, that we consider metallic:
(1) It is strong and can be readily formed into practical shapes.
(2) Its extensive, permanent deformability, or ductility, is an important asset in
permitting small amounts of yielding to sudden and severe loads. Many Ca-
lifornians have been able to observe moderate earthquake activity that leaves
windows (of relatively brittle glass) cracked while steel support framing still
functions normally.
(3) A freshly cut steel surface has a characteristic metallic luster, and
(4) a steel bar shares a fundamental characteristic with other metals: it is a good
conductor of electrical current. Although structural steel is a special common
example of metals for engineering, a little thought produces numerous others
[such as gold, platinum, lead and tin].
Learning Activities
Task 3.1. The mean distance travelled by a molecule at any time t.
Calculate the mean distance travelled by a molecule at any time t

n x,t
( )
=
N
0
A Dt
( )
1
2
e
x
2
4 Dt
diffusion equation
use

e
x
2
dx =
1
2

solution

x =
2
(Dt)
1
2
Task 3.2: Derive the surface and volume expansion coefficients
a) For volume expasion show that

V = V T

=3
b) For a fat plate show that

A= AT

= 2
Task 3.1 Problem
1. Consider a composite structure shown on below. Conductivities of
the layer are: k
1
= k
3
= 10 W/mK, k
3
= 16 W/mK, and k
4
= 46 W/mK. The
convection coefficient on the right side of the composite is 30 W/m
2
K.
Calculate the total resistance and the heat flow through the composite.

2. An aluminum tube is 3m long at 20
0
C. What is its length at 100
0
C.
3. A metal rod made of some alloy is to be used as a thermometer. At 0
0
C its
length is 40cm, and at 100
0
C its length is 40.06cm.
a. What is the linear expansion coeffcient of the alloy?
b. What is the temperature when its length is 39.975cm?
4. At 20
0
C, an aluminum ring has an inner diameter of 5cm, and a brass rod has
a diameter of 5.05cm.
a. To what temperature must the aluminum ring be heated so that it will just slip
over the brass rod?
b. To what temperature must both be heated so the aluminum ring will slip off
the brass rod? Would this work?
5. Calculate the fractional change in the volume (

V
V
) of an aluminum bar that
undergoes a change in temperature of 30
0
C
Solution
1. First, draw the thermal circuit for the composite. The circuit must span between
the two known temperatures; that is, T
1
and T
.
Next, the thermal resistances corresponding to each layer are calculated:

Similarly, R
2
= 0.09, R
3
= 0.15, and R
4
= 0.36
To fnd the total resistance, an equivalent resistance for layers 1, 2, and 3 is found
frst. These three layers are combined in series:
The equivalent resistor R
1,2,3
is in parallel with R
4
:
Finally, R
1,2,3,4
is in series with R
5
. The total resistance of the circuit is:
Total thermal resistance R
total
= R
1,2,3,4
+ R
5
= 0.46
The heat transfer through the composite is:
= 173.9 W. heat fow through the composite
Formative Evaluation 3
1.What is the properties of semiconductor
a) it is an in sulators b) it is con ductors C it is material which has a conduc-
tivity between conductors (generally metals) and nonconductors or insu-
lators
2. The hollw cylinder as shown in the fgure has the length L and inner and
outer radii a and b. It is made of a material with resistivity . A potential
difference is set up between the inner and outer surface of the cylinder so
that current fow radially through the cylinder. What is yhe resistance to this
radial current fow

a
b
Solution

dR =
dr
2rL

R =

2L
dr
r
a
b

R =

2L
ln
b
a
3. Derive the diffusion equation in 1D
4. State the properties of solid ,liquid and gas
XV. Synthesis Of The Module
Electricity and magnetism I
needs your expertise.
Expected Solutions To Some Problems Set
XVI. Summative Evaluation
Summative evaluation
1. Determine Youns modulus, Bulk modulus and Poissons ratio and derive
a relation between them
2. Asteel wire 2mm in diameter is just stretched between two fxed points at
a temperature of 20
0
C. Determine its tension when the temperature falls
to 10
0
C. (coeffcient of linear expansion of steel is 0.000011 and Youngs
modulus for steel is 2.1x10
12
dynes per sq.cm)
Solution
let the length of wire be Lcm
then, on a fall in temperature, from 20
0
C to 10
0
C, its length will decrease by an
amount

L = LT
=

L90.000011)(10)

L = (L)11x10
5
-the strain produced in it

=
L
L
=(L)(11x10
-5
)/L
=11x10
-5
-strees =T/ r
2
=T/

(0.1)
2
Youngs moduolus (Y) =

stress
strain
=7.3x10
6
dyne.
3. Defne stress, strain and Youngs modulus.
4. A copper wire 3 meters long of Youngs modulus 2.5x10
11
dyne/cm
2
has a
diameter of 1mm. If a weight of 10kg is attached to one end what extension is
produced? If poissons ratio is 0.26, what lateral compression is produced?
Solution
Original length of the wire (L)=3m
Youngs modulus for the wire (Y)=12.5x10
11
dynes/cm
2
Radius of the wire (r)= mm
Its area of cross section= r
2
Force applied (F)= 10kgmwt.= 981x10
4
dyne
From the relation
Y=

F .L
a.l
, then

l =
F .L
a.Y
= 0.2997cm
Poissons ratio,

=
lateralstrain
longitudinalstrain
0.26=

lateralstrain
l
L
Lateral strain = 0.26x

l
L
= 2.6x10
-4

This, therefore, gives the value of lateral strain, i.e, d/D, where d is the decrease
in diameter
(d/D) = 2.6x10
-4
d = D(2.6x10
-4
) = 2.6x10
-5
cm is lateral compression
5. Establish an expression for the workdone in streching a wire through 1cm,
assuming Hookes law to hold. Find the work done in joules in stretching a
wire of cross-section 1sq.mm and length 2meters through 0.1mm, if youngs
modulus for the materials of the wire is 2x10
12
dynes/cm
2
Solution
Work done =(1/2) stretching x the stretch
= (1/2) F.

l
= .(Y.a)/L .

l
=5x10
-4
joule
6. Show that the bulk modulus k, Youngs moduous E and the Poissons ratio
are connected together by the relation

k =
E
3 1 2
( )
Solution
We have

k =
1
3 2
( )
then

1
3 1 2
where

E =
1
and =

Therefore

k =
Y
3 1 2
( )
7. Show that the rigidity n, and youngs modulus E are connected by te relation

n =
1
2 1+
( )
where is the poisson ratio

Solution
we have

n =
1
2 +
( )

n =
1
2 1+

But

Y =
1

=

Therefore

n =
1
2 1+
( )
8. Water fows along a horizontal pipe, whose crosssection is not costant.
The pressure is in cm/sec. Find the pressure at a point where the velocity is
65cm/s.
Solution
p
1
=1cm=1 x 13.6 x 981 dynes/cm
2
V
1
= 35cm/s, V
2
= 65 cm/s, = 1 gm/cm
3
P
2
=?
Appling Bernoullis relation
P
1
P
2
=

1
2
V
1
2
1
2
V
2
2
=

1
2
V
1
2
V
2
2
( )
P
2
= 0.89cm of mercury
9. Defne the coeffcient of viscosity. Give examples of some viscous substances.
How would you determine the coeffcient of a liquid?
10. State
a) the law of fuid pressure
b) The principle of Archimedes
11. A string supports a solid iron object of mass 180gm totally immersed in a
liquid of density 800kg m
-3
. Calculate the tension in the string if the
density of iron is 8000kg/m
3
Solution

The tension in the string = weight of an object in the air the weight of liquid
displaced
T= Mg-mg where m=(.18/8000) x 800 =18gm
=(0.18 x 10 - 0.018 x 10 )
=(1.8 - .18 )
=1.62N
12. At 20
0
C, an aluminum ring has an inner diameter of 5cm, and a brass rod has
a diameter of 5.05cm.
a) To what temperature must the aluminum ring be heated so that it will just
slip over the brass rod?
To what temperature must both be heated so the aluminum ring will slip off the
brass rod? Would this work?
XVII. References
Finn, C. B.P (1993). Thermal Physics , Chapman & Hall, London.
Raymond A. Serway (1992). PHYSICS for Scientists & Engineers. Updated
Version.
Kleppner & Kolenkow An introduction to mechanics.
Douglas D. C. Giancoli Physics for Scientists and Engineers. Vol. 2. Prentice
Hall.
Sears, Zemansky and Young, College Physics, 5th ed.
Sena L.A. (1988) Collection of Questions and Problems in Physics, Mir Pu-
blishers Moscow.
Nelkon & Parker (1995), Advanced Level Physics, 7th ed, CBS Publishers
& Ditributer, 11, Daryaganji New Delhi (110002) India. ISBN 81-239-
0400-2.
Godman A, and Payne E.M.F, (1981) Longman Dictionary of Scientifc Usage.
Second Impression, ISBN 0 582 52587 X, Commonwealth Printing press
Ltd, Hong Kong.
Siegel R. and Howell J. R., (1992) Thermal Radiation Heat Transfer, 3rd ed.,
Hemisphere Publishing Corp., Washington, DC.
Kittel C. and Kroemer H., (1980) Thermal Physics, 2nd ed., W. H. Freeman
and Co., San Francisco, CA.
Zemansky M. W. and Dittman R. H., (1981) Heat and Thermodynamics, 6th
ed., McGraw Hill Book Co..
Halliday D., Resnick R., and Walker J. (1997), Fundamentals of Physics, 5th
ed., John Wiley and Sons
XIX. Main Author of the Module
About the author of this module:
Sisay Shewamare
Department of physics, Jimma University,
Ethiopia, East Africa.
P.O.Box (personal), (Institutional)
E-mail : sisayshewa20@yahoo.com
Tel: +251-91-7804396
Brief Biography: My name is Sisay Shewamare I am living in Ethiopia I am
working in Jimma university department of physics. You are always welcome to
communicate with the author regarding any question, opinion, suggestions, etc
about this module.
Thank you

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Properties of Matter

Prepared by Sisay Shewamare

is transverse strain, and

therod,l is the length of the rod and, F, is the load.

and L, the length

Now, Youngs modulus for the material of the wire, i.e.

Alr|car v|rlua| ur|vers|ly 31

Thus we have a system of three equations. (3.1) is an experimental law linking

is the specifc heat per unit volume.

is called the thermal diffusivity by analogy with Eq. (3.3). E1.

African Virtual University 76

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