A 450 Geotechnical Construction

some equipment, may be willing to buy some equipment, may prefer to hire some. In selection of
equipment the following guidelines are useful.
(i) Buying equipment or hiring equipment: It is usually advantageous to hire equipment for small
works. Wherever the size of a work is large enough such that the capital costs are substantially
recovered, it may be desirable to buy the equipment.
(U) Small equipment or big equipment: Large sized equipment normally yields higher productivity
at lower cost. The number of units to be maintained ,and coordinated is also reduced. Hence large sized '
equipment is desirable wherever feasible and wherever spatial constraints do not exist. However break ,
down of a large sized equipment causes a large loss in productivity compared to one unit of multiple'
smaller equipment. For example, if the choice is of one I?ig equipment against three smaller equipment, ,
the loss in productivity due to breakdown of one small equipment will be 33% of that due to breakdown
of the big equipment. Hence big equipment is a good choice only if adequate stand-by equipment can
be afforded for the job.
(iii) Single-purpose or multi-task equipment: Dedicated equipment which perform only one
function normally yield higher productivity than equipment that perform multiple functions. Hence /I
multi-task equipment has utility only where it is likely to have spare time to perform more than one
task which makes it more cost effective than buying ,separate equipment for separate functions. This
situation is often encountered in small works. '
(iv) Towed or selj.propelled equipment: Self-propelled units yield higher productivity due to better
mobility and maneuverability in comparison to towed equipment and hence are preferred in large
works. Self-propelled units are more expensive than towed units. Towed equipment is used in relatively",
small jobs where idle time of the equipment is large and where an extra prime mover, such as a dozer
is available.
(v) Single frame or. frame with articulation joint: An articulated equipment has greater maneuver
ability due to low turning radius and hence yields higher productivity. It is preferred to a single frame ,
equipment at sites with sharp comers and space restriction.
(vi) Other factors: The ability of the equipment to peliorm under the prevailing conditions of grade,
temperature, pressure, rainfall also have to be taken into account during equipment'selection.
Example 26.1 ,
A dozer with a blade capacity of 3 m
3
has to strip soil that has a swelling factor of 25% in thin horizon'tal '
layers for a distance of 50 m. The dozer:s forward speed is 2 kmlhr and return speed is 5 kmlhr. In each cycle
it consumes a fixed time of 0.4 mins for shifting gears, adjusting. blade, ,etc. Compute ,the output of the dozer.
Solution
Blade capacity 3.0 3
Volume (bank measure) stripped per cycle = (1 I.. f ) = 125 = 2.4 m bank measure,
+ swe mg actor , ,
Cycle time, te = time for cutting and pushing at forward speed, t
p
' + time for returning at return speed, t
r
, +
,
te =tp + tr + 1
Assuming an
Example 26.2'
Compute the
soil has a swell '
for positioning ,
output.
Solution U
Earthwork and Earthmoving Equipment 451 .A
te = + +0.4
te =2.5 min
Assuming an efficiency factor, k = 0.8
Trips per hour =0.8 x .Q. =19.2
2.5
Output per hour =2.4 x 19.2 =46 m
3
thr (bank measure)
Example 26.2
Compute the ideal output of a shovel with 1.5 m
3
bucket c . . " ",
has a swell factor of 20 per cent. If the, shovel is filling a r a3cycle :lme of 30, seconds. The
for positiOning (spotting) of the dumper after each I d d d pe 0 . m and 2 nunutes are lost
output. oa e umper moves, what wIll be the effect on the
Solution Using Eq. 26.4, ideal output
Q-08(1.5) 3600 3
-. 1.2 x 30 =120 m /hr (bank measure)
Number of cycles to load a dumper = 9.0 = 6 cycles
1.5
Delay after 6 cycles for spotting dumper =120 seconds
Average delay per cycle =20 seconds
Cycle time (including delay) = 30 + 20 =50 seconds
Output with spotting delay =0.8 (1.5) x 3600 =72 3/hr (bank
, 1.2 50 m measure)
. 120-72 "
% Decrease m output = 'x100 = x 100 40 01.
120 120 - 70
!e on both sides of the shovel such that this spotting delay is eliminated,
Example 26.3
A top width of 8 m, height of 3 m, length of 2.5 km and side s.lones of 1
;::/lcal IS to be .constructed using 6 passes of vibratory rollers that have a width' of 1.8 m
a ve octty 0 . hr. Rollers Will work 8 hrs/day. Each compacted layer has a thickness 045 Th 'k h
to be completed 111 1 month. ' m. e wor as
(a)
(b)
Estimate the minimum number of rollers required to complete the job.
How many will be required if the rollers cannot function continuously but remain idle fo 40
tIme when soil spreading, water spraying and operations of each !:;
'Solution Volume of earthwork equ I th f h .
length of embankment =0,5 x 3 x (8 : ;8 + ; X
O
by the
Using Eq. 26.3. output of one roller =0,8 x 1.8 x 2000 x 0.45 = 216 m3/hr
6 '
Output of one roller per month =216 x 8 x 30 =5.18 x 1<f m3
Number of rollers required = total volume of earthwork = 9.4 X 10
4
output of one roller 5.18 x 104 =1.8
A 450 Geotechnical Construction
some equipment, may be willing to buy some equipment, may prefer to hire some. In selection of
equipment the following guidelines are useful.
(i) Buying equipment or hiring equipment: It is usually advantageous to hire equipment for small
works. Wherever the size of a work is large enough such that the capital costs are substantially
recovered, it may be desirable to buy the equipment.
(U) Small equipment or big equipment: Large sized equipment normally yields higher productivity
at lower cost. The number of units to be maintained ,and coordinated is also reduced. Hence large sized '
equipment is desirable wherever feasible and wherever spatial constraints do not exist. However break ,
down of a large sized equipment causes a large loss in productivity compared to one unit of multiple'
smaller equipment. For example, if the choice is of one I?ig equipment against three smaller equipment, ,
the loss in productivity due to breakdown of one small equipment will be 33% of that due to breakdown
of the big equipment. Hence big equipment is a good choice only if adequate stand-by equipment can
be afforded for the job.
(iii) Single-purpose or multi-task equipment: Dedicated equipment which perform only one
function normally yield higher productivity than equipment that perform multiple functions. Hence /I
multi-task equipment has utility only where it is likely to have spare time to perform more than one
task which makes it more cost effective than buying ,separate equipment for separate functions. This
situation is often encountered in small works. '
(iv) Towed or selj.propelled equipment: Self-propelled units yield higher productivity due to better
mobility and maneuverability in comparison to towed equipment and hence are preferred in large
works. Self-propelled units are more expensive than towed units. Towed equipment is used in relatively",
small jobs where idle time of the equipment is large and where an extra prime mover, such as a dozer
is available.
(v) Single frame or. frame with articulation joint: An articulated equipment has greater maneuver
ability due to low turning radius and hence yields higher productivity. It is preferred to a single frame ,
equipment at sites with sharp comers and space restriction.
(vi) Other factors: The ability of the equipment to peliorm under the prevailing conditions of grade,
temperature, pressure, rainfall also have to be taken into account during equipment'selection.
Example 26.1 ,
A dozer with a blade capacity of 3 m
3
has to strip soil that has a swelling factor of 25% in thin horizon'tal '
layers for a distance of 50 m. The dozer:s forward speed is 2 kmlhr and return speed is 5 kmlhr. In each cycle
it consumes a fixed time of 0.4 mins for shifting gears, adjusting. blade, ,etc. Compute ,the output of the dozer.
Solution
Blade capacity 3.0 3
Volume (bank measure) stripped per cycle = (1 I.. f ) = 125 = 2.4 m bank measure,
+ swe mg actor , ,
Cycle time, te = time for cutting and pushing at forward speed, t
p
' + time for returning at return speed, t
r
, +
,
te =tp + tr + 1
Assuming an
Example 26.2'
Compute the
soil has a swell '
for positioning ,
output.
Solution U
Earthwork and Earthmoving Equipment 451 .A
te = + +0.4
te =2.5 min
Assuming an efficiency factor, k = 0.8
Trips per hour =0.8 x .Q. =19.2
2.5
Output per hour =2.4 x 19.2 =46 m
3
thr (bank measure)
Example 26.2
Compute the ideal output of a shovel with 1.5 m
3
bucket c . . " ",
has a swell factor of 20 per cent. If the, shovel is filling a r a3cycle :lme of 30, seconds. The
for positiOning (spotting) of the dumper after each I d d d pe 0 . m and 2 nunutes are lost
output. oa e umper moves, what wIll be the effect on the
Solution Using Eq. 26.4, ideal output
Q-08(1.5) 3600 3
-. 1.2 x 30 =120 m /hr (bank measure)
Number of cycles to load a dumper = 9.0 = 6 cycles
1.5
Delay after 6 cycles for spotting dumper =120 seconds
Average delay per cycle =20 seconds
Cycle time (including delay) = 30 + 20 =50 seconds
Output with spotting delay =0.8 (1.5) x 3600 =72 3/hr (bank
, 1.2 50 m measure)
. 120-72 "
% Decrease m output = 'x100 = x 100 40 01.
120 120 - 70
!e on both sides of the shovel such that this spotting delay is eliminated,
Example 26.3
A top width of 8 m, height of 3 m, length of 2.5 km and side s.lones of 1
;::/lcal IS to be .constructed using 6 passes of vibratory rollers that have a width' of 1.8 m
a ve octty 0 . hr. Rollers Will work 8 hrs/day. Each compacted layer has a thickness 045 Th 'k h
to be completed 111 1 month. ' m. e wor as
(a)
(b)
Estimate the minimum number of rollers required to complete the job.
How many will be required if the rollers cannot function continuously but remain idle fo 40
tIme when soil spreading, water spraying and operations of each !:;
'Solution Volume of earthwork equ I th f h .
length of embankment =0,5 x 3 x (8 : ;8 + ; X
O
by the
Using Eq. 26.3. output of one roller =0,8 x 1.8 x 2000 x 0.45 = 216 m3/hr
6 '
Output of one roller per month =216 x 8 x 30 =5.18 x 1<f m3
Number of rollers required = total volume of earthwork = 9.4 X 10
4
output of one roller 5.18 x 104 =1.8
i
;
452 Geotechnical Construction
Therefore 2 rollers are required.
(a) Hence minimum number of rollers required will be 3, that is, one extra to take care of breakdown.
(b) If each roller will remain idle for 40% time, then the output of the roller per month will be 60% of full
3 3
output, i.e. 0.6 x 5.18 x 10
4
m 3.1 x 10
4
m
. 9.4 X 10
4
Number of rollers reqUIred = =3 rollers
3.1 x
Hence minimum number of rollers required will be 4, that is, one extra to take care of breakdown.
Objective-type ,Question
26.1 (i) Match the following:
(a) Swing around '(A) Large machine
(b) Low turning radius (B) Articulation joint
(c) High mobility (C) Crawler mounted
(d) High traction (D) Wheel mounted
(e) High productivity (E) Swivel joint
(ii) Match the following:
(a) Excavation along vertical face (A) Scraper
(b) Horizontal stripping, long haul (B) Dozer
(c) 8 m deep excavation below ground surface (C) Ripper
(d) Loosening of stiff dry clay (D) Shovel
(e) Horizontal stripping, short haul (E) Backhoe
(ill) Match the following:
(a) Mixing while rolling (A) Power Tamper
(b) Gravel (B) Pneumatic Tyre Roller
(c) No bridging action (C) Static Steel Drum Roller
(d) Restricted space (D) Vibratory Roller
(e) Surface densification (E) Sheepsfoot Roller
(iv) Match the following:
(a) On-road movement (A) Scraper
(b) High capacity (B) Tipper
(c) Self loading (C) Articulated Dumper
(d) High maneuverability (D) Bottom Dumper
Descriptive Questions
26.2 State which type of equipment will you use for the following earthworks:
(a) Lowering the ground surface by 1 m in a flat area of 100 m x 125 m for constructing a
warehouse:
(b) Removing soil for construction of multiple level basements C3-levels) beneath ground surface
for a tall building to be constructed on an area of 50 III x 100 m in an urban zone.
(c) Removing overburden soil down to 40 m depth below ground surface for an open cast mine.'
26.3 Compare I
(a) Sheep!
(b) Plate I
(c)
Ui.4 List the fa
Numerical Prot
----..j
26.5 Excavatio,
bucket cal
available i
excavation
due to spo
26.6 Compare!
medium pi
-----J'f
RollelU be 60% 1
Sheep
Pneumat i
Ans. Sh
f
breakdJ
pIlij
I
26.7 A 70 m x I
site level.
area 3.0 ki
I
week. Th!
two sets I
I
capacity) I
soil in the
t
that:
I
Loader C)
I
(a) (
(b) I
(c) R
(d) J
(e) 1
Tipper Cy
(a) J
(b) I
(c) ).
(d) lOller
(e) 1Roller
constructin
ground sun
te,
en cast mil
,
I,I
il
.... 452 Geotechnical Construction
26.3 Compare tl,
(a) Sheepl;
. d '11 b 3 that is one extra to take care 0 rea 0 .
Therefore 2 rollers are required. . f b kd wn
(b) Plate (!
(a) Hence minimum number of rollers W1 the , tp t 'f the roller per month will be 60% of full
Cc) Vibrate'
(b) If each roller will remain idle for 40% arne,
th
en e ou u 0
4 3
3
26.4 List the f<lii output, i.e. 0.6 x 5.18 x 10
4
m =3.1 x 10 m
4
Numerical 9.4 x 10 =3 rollers
Number of rollers required = 3.1 x 104
26.5 Excavation!
"
. th' tra to take care of breakdown.
bucket Hence minimum number of rollers required will be 4, at 1S, one ex
Objective-type Question
26.1 (i) Match the following;
(a) Swing around
(b) Low turning radius
(c) High mobility
Cd) High traction
(e) High productivity
(ii) Match the following;
(a) Excavation along vertical face
(b) Horizontal stripping, long haul
(c) 8 m deep excavation below ground surface
(d) Loosening of stiff dry clay
(e) Horizontal stripping, short haul
(iii) Match the following:
(a) Mixing while rolling
(b) Gravel
(c) No bridging action
(d) Restricted space
(e) Surface densification
(iv) Match the following:
(a) On-road movement
(b) High capacity
(c) Self loading
(d) High maneuverability
Descriptive Questions
available

due to
26.6
Compare
medium p
___ ) breakdown.
be 60% of
(A) Large machine

(B) Articulation joint
(C) Crawler mounted
(D) Wheel mounted
(E) Swivel joint

Aus. SbJ breakdown.
pnl
(A) Scraper
Dozer
26.7
A x
(B)
(C) Ripper
(D) Shovel
(E) Backhoe
(A) Power Tamper
(B) Pneumatic Tyre Roller
(C) Static Steel Drum Roller
(D) Vibratory Roller
(E) Sheepsfoot Roller
(A) Scraper
(B) Tipper
(C) Articulated Dumper
(D) Bottom Dumper
26 2 State which type of equipment will you use for the following earthworks: .
. d rf b 1 m in a flat area of 100 m x 125 m for constructlUg a ,
(a) Lowenng the groun su ace y
warehouse: (3 1 I) b th ground surface
(b) Removing soil for construction of multiple level basements - s enea
for a tall building to be constructed on an area of SO m x 100 m m an urban zone. ..
. b d soil down to 40 m depth below ground surface for an open cast mme. '
(c) Removmg over ur en
site level. .
area 3.0
week.
two sets i
capacity)
soil in the'
that:
Loader C
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
Tipper C
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
lier
(e)
oller
I



I'

II
'
ronstructing a
surface

in cast mine.
\
a
Earthwork and Eanhmoving Equipment 453 .it.
Compare the' advantages and disadvantages of using the following:
(a) Sheepsfoot rollers versus pneumatic tyre rollers for compaction of clays.
(b) Plate compactors versus power tampers for compaction in restricted areas.
(c) Vibratory versus static steel drum rollers for compacti'on of sands.
26.4 List the factors that affect the productivity of (a) dozers and (b) backhoes.
Numerical Problems
26.5 Excavation down to 3.5 m depth is to be carried out in an area of 30 m x 40 m using backhoes with
bucket capacity of 0.6 m
3
Assume that tippers of 6 m
3
capacity in adequate numbers will be
available at the site for hauling the soil. Find the minimum number of backhoes required if the
excavation is to be completed in 2 weeks given that cycle time of backhoes is 004 minutes and delay
due to spotting of truck is 1.5 minutes. Working hours : 8 hours per day, 6 days a week.
26.6 Compare the productivity of sheepsfoot roller with that of pneumatic tyre roller for compacting
medium plasticity clay. Given that:
Roller type Roller Layer No. of Roller velocity Efficiency Idle
width m thickness mm passes kmIhr factor, k time %
Sheepsfoot 2 300 14 4 0.8 10
Pneumatic 2 300 8 6 0.7 40
Ans. Sheepsfoot roller - 123 m
3
fhr
pneumatic type roller - .189 m
3
fhr
26.7 A 70 m x 90 m site is to be developed into a park. This involves stripping of top soil to reduce the
site level. A total of 6400 m
3
0f top-soil (bank measure) is to be removed and tipped at a low lying
area 3.0 km away from the park. The work has to be completed in 3 weeks by working 40 hours a
week. The soil exhibits easy excavatability and s)Velling of 20 per cent. The contractor plans to use
two sets of equipment available with him; namely crawler tracked loaders (each of 1.5 m
3
bucket
capacity) to strip and load the soil into tippers (each of 7.5 m
3
capacity) which will carry and tip the
soil in the low lying area. Compute the number of loaders and tippers required for the work. Given
that:
Loader Cycle:
(a) Cutting and pushing/hauling soil for 20m @204 kmlhr.
(b) Loading into tipper
Cc) Return for 20 m @ 6.0 kmlhr.
(d) Fixed time (gear change, bucket adjustment etc.)
(e) after loaded tipper moves
Tipper Cycle:
(a) Positioning at loader
(b) Loading time by loader
(c) Moving off and on the site
(d) Travel 3.0 km each way at 30 kmIhr
(e) Tipping time at low lying area
= 0.5 min.
= 0.3 min.
=0.2 min.
=0.2 min.
=2.0 min.
=2.0 min.
=to be computed
=2.0 min.
= 12 min.
=3.0 min.
<
.. 524 Ground Engineering
Surcharge
Settled
Lsurface
DensifiedJ
r-r-,." consolidated
clay
Soft clay
(a) Sand drains installed
by pushing
[
Fig. 29.5
(b) Surcharge load (c) Surcharge removed (d) Structure on
applied denSified clay
Rapid consolidation of a clay deposit using surcharge and sand drains
void space of fine sand and silts fa, which chemical groUts "'e used. Grouting is discussed in Chapter
31.
29.4.5 Replacing Existing Soil with Stronger Soil in 80re Holes
In soft clays. mechanism (v) listed above is used to improve the p,operties of Soil by replacing 25.,
33% of existing soil by Strong material such as gravel. This technique is often refeITed to as the "one.
column method. It involves drilling large diamete, holes into the soft clay and filling them with gravel
to fonn vertical stone columns as shown in Fig. 29.6. The stone colUmns act as flexible Vo,lical
reinfon:ing elements that inc,ease the beating. capacity and ,edUCe the settlement of the soill1lilss. The
ColUmns being flexible in nature bulge outwards when load is applied on them. They derive thel; axial
capacity on aceo'"'t of the passive latenil resiStance offered by the Clay against thei; bulging. The
pmcess of consoli<lation of the clay is also aceelerated by the installation of stone columns since they
function as vertical d;ainage paths for dissipation of exCess /lOre Water pressure.
Soft
clay
Jetting
(a) Formation of
borehole
by jetting
Gravel
:::,
Vibroflot
(b) Backfilling ofgravel (c) Stone columns
and densification by
vibratory tool
Dense
gravel
columns
fig.29.6 Ground improvement With stone columns
l'
I I
J
(d) Stone columns for
building foundation
29.4,6 Deep Mixing
In the deep mixing technique. a special type of auger with a hollow drill rod and a mixing tool at the
tip shown in Fig. 29.7(a) is inserted by rotation into the soil to the required depth. As the auger is
withdrawn. cement or lime in powdo, fonn or in sjuny fonn is passed thmugh the hallow drill rod
and mixed with the soil in the vicinity of the tool. The mixing is done mechanically by the mixing tool,
Ground Improvement a
no. Modification 525..6.
Lime or cement
. I passed into hollow
drill rod
Soft
clay
t
Mixing./""
tool (b) Additive mixed with
(c) Overlapping
(a) Special auger cum soil during reverse
of soil + addItive
mixing rotated rotation '\ Ius additive column
into SOlI , 'ng creating a SOl p
. F' 29 7 Special auge, for deep m.x. blades and vertical
tg. . t r of the auger , Id
onds to the diame e are overlapped to Yle .
Th zone of treatment corresp 'n this manner. The columns lied successfully
Fig. i1'::'d additive mixture are (vi) in the list above has been have been
coIU'::;.s ad :'ss. This technique using mec :::: multiple angers and high torque
a sta I , ft clays. Large ngs w
to large depths m so t
developed to give speedy oUlpu . '. . .
g
' Elements , . elements mto the
29.4.7 Inserting Reiniorcm . can be improved by inserting not tal<e place
. . behaviour of a SOll mass . 'holding' or 'bIndIng reates a soil mass
ld
The engm"",:ng , r 'bind' the soil . us but at the and c . s often used to
soil mass to ho. a t at the level of gnu h:.usm (vii) in the lIst above.
at a micro-level, I.e. no S h treatment usmg mee
that behaves like a 'I is discussed in Chapter 32.
stabl
'lize vertical cuts m SOl d
. S il d odification. It IS a op . f
' d ted in col
29.4.8 Freezmg 0 . ed for temporary groun modification is useful .f. or
. viii) in the list above lS us f frozen pore water. Such m <ment will stabilize the
the During ::;.,":ti:
d
or

e
:':h borehole freezes s';'bilized soil. The into the excavated
mass. Excavation IS can:
'I b hind the vertlca
1 cut stable and also prevents hwate:avation including the arrangemen
tructed in t e ex
the so. e nt stmcture has been cons fr . g is terminated.
Once the 'I in position, ground eezm
" the adjacent SOl
retaInIng .' 1 En ineers in many
29 4 9 Applications 'ed by Consulting Geotechmca g .
, d' rovement . is now bemg us
In-situ groun lmp . some examples:
lVe . situations, 0 ' n below are

f
1
.. 524 Ground Engineering
Surcharge
Settled
Lsurface
DensifiedJ
r-r-,." consolidated
clay
Soft clay
(a) Sand drains installed
by pushing
[
Fig. 29.5
(b) Surcharge load (c) Surcharge removed (d) Structure on
applied denSified clay
Rapid consolidation of a clay deposit using surcharge and sand drains
void space of fine sand and silts fa, which chemical groUts "'e used. Grouting is discussed in Chapter
31.
29.4.5 Replacing Existing Soil with Stronger Soil in 80re Holes
In soft clays. mechanism (v) listed above is used to improve the p,operties of Soil by replacing 25.,
33% of existing soil by Strong material such as gravel. This technique is often refeITed to as the "one.
column method. It involves drilling large diamete, holes into the soft clay and filling them with gravel
to fonn vertical stone columns as shown in Fig. 29.6. The stone colUmns act as flexible Vo,lical
reinfon:ing elements that inc,ease the beating. capacity and ,edUCe the settlement of the soill1lilss. The
ColUmns being flexible in nature bulge outwards when load is applied on them. They derive thel; axial
capacity on aceo'"'t of the passive latenil resiStance offered by the Clay against thei; bulging. The
pmcess of consoli<lation of the clay is also aceelerated by the installation of stone columns since they
function as vertical d;ainage paths for dissipation of exCess /lOre Water pressure.
Soft
clay
Jetting
(a) Formation of
borehole
by jetting
Gravel
:::,
Vibroflot
(b) Backfilling ofgravel (c) Stone columns
and densification by
vibratory tool
Dense
gravel
columns
fig.29.6 Ground improvement With stone columns
l'
I I
J
(d) Stone columns for
building foundation
29.4,6 Deep Mixing
In the deep mixing technique. a special type of auger with a hollow drill rod and a mixing tool at the
tip shown in Fig. 29.7(a) is inserted by rotation into the soil to the required depth. As the auger is
withdrawn. cement or lime in powdo, fonn or in sjuny fonn is passed thmugh the hallow drill rod
and mixed with the soil in the vicinity of the tool. The mixing is done mechanically by the mixing tool,
Ground Improvement a
no. Modification 525..6.
Lime or cement
. I passed into hollow
drill rod
Soft
clay
t
Mixing./""
tool (b) Additive mixed with
(c) Overlapping
(a) Special auger cum soil during reverse
of soil + addItive
mixing rotated rotation '\ Ius additive column
into SOlI , 'ng creating a SOl p
. F' 29 7 Special auge, for deep m.x. blades and vertical
tg. . t r of the auger , Id
onds to the diame e are overlapped to Yle .
Th zone of treatment corresp 'n this manner. The columns lied successfully
Fig. i1'::'d additive mixture are (vi) in the list above has been have been
coIU'::;.s ad :'ss. This technique using mec :::: multiple angers and high torque
a sta I , ft clays. Large ngs w
to large depths m so t
developed to give speedy oUlpu . '. . .
g
' Elements , . elements mto the
29.4.7 Inserting Reiniorcm . can be improved by inserting not tal<e place
. . behaviour of a SOll mass . 'holding' or 'bIndIng reates a soil mass
ld
The engm"",:ng , r 'bind' the soil . us but at the and c . s often used to
soil mass to ho. a t at the level of gnu h:.usm (vii) in the lIst above.
at a micro-level, I.e. no S h treatment usmg mee
that behaves like a 'I is discussed in Chapter 32.
stabl
'lize vertical cuts m SOl d
. S il d odification. It IS a op . f
' d ted in col
29.4.8 Freezmg 0 . ed for temporary groun modification is useful .f. or
. viii) in the list above lS us f frozen pore water. Such m <ment will stabilize the
the During ::;.,":ti:
d
or

e
:':h borehole freezes s';'bilized soil. The into the excavated
mass. Excavation IS can:
'I b hind the vertlca
1 cut stable and also prevents hwate:avation including the arrangemen
tructed in t e ex
the so. e nt stmcture has been cons fr . g is terminated.
Once the 'I in position, ground eezm
" the adjacent SOl
retaInIng .' 1 En ineers in many
29 4 9 Applications 'ed by Consulting Geotechmca g .
, d' rovement . is now bemg us
In-situ groun lmp . some examples:
lVe . situations, 0 ' n below are

f
1
A 528 Ground Engineering
29.7 A
/
!.
Ground Improvement and Modification 529.6
A vertical cut-off wall (seepage barrier) is to be constructed to a depth of 12 m below a barrage
where the subsoil is gravel down to 10 m depth underlain by 2 m thick disintegrated rock and then
strong intact rock. The following alternatives are being considered. (a) RCC diaphragm wall (b) grout
curtain of cement (c) grout curtain of cement + Bentonite (1:1).
The diaphragm wall will be 250 mm thick. The grout curtain will comprise of 3 rows of grout holes
spaced at a distance of 2.5 m from each other. Along each row, the grout holes will be spaced 5 m.
apart. The grout intake (dry cement or cement + bentonite) is estimated as 2 kN/m length of each
hole (slurry water is extra). Determine the cost of each alternative given that (a) cost of concrete per
3
m
3
is Rs. 25001 (density 24 kN/m\ (b) cost of reinforcement is Rs. 3500/- per kN (0.6 kN per m
reinforcement in wall), (c) cost of cement is Rs. 300/ per kN (d) cost of Bentonite is Rs. 1501- per kN,
(e) cost of construction of diaphragm wall and grouting may be taken as similar.
Ans. For 5 m length
(a) RCC diaphragm wall: Rs. 69,000
(b) grout curtain of cement: 21,600
(c) grout curtain of cement + Bentonite (1:1) : Rs 16,200
d
I
I
Objective-type Questions
29.1 Match the following:
(i) Additives to Soil Mechanism of Improvement
(a) Cement A. Void filler
(b) Bentonite B. Cementation
(c) Bitument C. Cation exchange
(d) Lime D. Coating
(li) Mechanism Process uses or involoves
(a) Consolidation A. Steel rods or strips
(b) Cementation B. Sand drains
(c) Reinforcement C. Additive mixing
29.2 State whether the following statements are true or false and, if false, explain why?
(a) If the depth of loose or soft soil layer from ground surface is about 1.5 m, heavy rollers can be
passed several times on the ground surface to increase the density of the entire depth of loose
soil without excavation.
(b) Excavate and replace is a good method when ground improvement is required to a depth of
3.0 m. and the water table is 1.0 m below the excavation level.
(c) The density of soft saturated clays can be increased by subjecting the soil to vibrations.
(d) Stone columns are both strong and flexible.
(e) Soil reinforcement is a useful technique for stabilizing slopes on the verge of failure.
Descriptive Questions
29.3 A three storied structure is to be constructed at a site in which malba (construction waste
comprising of brickbats, concrete lumps, soil, etc) has been dumped down to a depth of 3 m in the
last five years. The malba also contains lumps that are as large as 300 inm in diameter. It exists in a
loose condition. Describe how you will proceed to find a solution for design and construction of"
foundations of a low rise structure without a basement.
29.4 A factory building is being constructed at a site in northern India in the Indo-Gangetic plain where
the subsoil consists of alluvial deposits. Site investigation revealed that the soil profile comprises of
a top layer of loose to medium-dense fine sand down to. 7 m below ground surface underlain by
dense to very dense sand. Pile foundations of 11 m are under construction at the site. The designer
was informed by a local Consulting Geotechnical Engineer that the top 7 m layer of fine sand was
. susceptible to liquefaction during earthquakes when it would loose the skin friction along the sides
of the piles and cause the piles to become unstable. How can this unforeseen problem be solved
now?
29.5 List the alternatives that are available for stabilizing the vertical sides of deep cuts in soils.
Numerical Problems
29.6 A very soft clay deposit, over which a road embanbnent that is 20 m wide at ground level is to be
constructed, can be stabilized (i) by constructing overlapping columns of clay with 5% c < ~ m e n t
using deep mixing technique or (ii) by replacing 50% of clay by gravel columns using stone column
technique. The clay deposit is 6 m deep. Compare the cost of treatment if gravel is available at Rs.
800 per m
3
. and cement is available at Rs. 300 per kN. The cost of constructing cement columns or
gravel columns is about the same and only the cost of materials needs to be considered.
!
lL
Iii
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::1\1
1.1.
I' ,
, I
A 528 Ground Engineering
29.7 A
/
!.
Ground Improvement and Modification 529.6
A vertical cut-off wall (seepage barrier) is to be constructed to a depth of 12 m below a barrage
where the subsoil is gravel down to 10 m depth underlain by 2 m thick disintegrated rock and then
strong intact rock. The following alternatives are being considered. (a) RCC diaphragm wall (b) grout
curtain of cement (c) grout curtain of cement + Bentonite (1:1).
The diaphragm wall will be 250 mm thick. The grout curtain will comprise of 3 rows of grout holes
spaced at a distance of 2.5 m from each other. Along each row, the grout holes will be spaced 5 m.
apart. The grout intake (dry cement or cement + bentonite) is estimated as 2 kN/m length of each
hole (slurry water is extra). Determine the cost of each alternative given that (a) cost of concrete per
3
m
3
is Rs. 25001 (density 24 kN/m\ (b) cost of reinforcement is Rs. 3500/- per kN (0.6 kN per m
reinforcement in wall), (c) cost of cement is Rs. 300/ per kN (d) cost of Bentonite is Rs. 1501- per kN,
(e) cost of construction of diaphragm wall and grouting may be taken as similar.
Ans. For 5 m length
(a) RCC diaphragm wall: Rs. 69,000
(b) grout curtain of cement: 21,600
(c) grout curtain of cement + Bentonite (1:1) : Rs 16,200
d
I
I
Objective-type Questions
29.1 Match the following:
(i) Additives to Soil Mechanism of Improvement
(a) Cement A. Void filler
(b) Bentonite B. Cementation
(c) Bitument C. Cation exchange
(d) Lime D. Coating
(li) Mechanism Process uses or involoves
(a) Consolidation A. Steel rods or strips
(b) Cementation B. Sand drains
(c) Reinforcement C. Additive mixing
29.2 State whether the following statements are true or false and, if false, explain why?
(a) If the depth of loose or soft soil layer from ground surface is about 1.5 m, heavy rollers can be
passed several times on the ground surface to increase the density of the entire depth of loose
soil without excavation.
(b) Excavate and replace is a good method when ground improvement is required to a depth of
3.0 m. and the water table is 1.0 m below the excavation level.
(c) The density of soft saturated clays can be increased by subjecting the soil to vibrations.
(d) Stone columns are both strong and flexible.
(e) Soil reinforcement is a useful technique for stabilizing slopes on the verge of failure.
Descriptive Questions
29.3 A three storied structure is to be constructed at a site in which malba (construction waste
comprising of brickbats, concrete lumps, soil, etc) has been dumped down to a depth of 3 m in the
last five years. The malba also contains lumps that are as large as 300 inm in diameter. It exists in a
loose condition. Describe how you will proceed to find a solution for design and construction of"
foundations of a low rise structure without a basement.
29.4 A factory building is being constructed at a site in northern India in the Indo-Gangetic plain where
the subsoil consists of alluvial deposits. Site investigation revealed that the soil profile comprises of
a top layer of loose to medium-dense fine sand down to. 7 m below ground surface underlain by
dense to very dense sand. Pile foundations of 11 m are under construction at the site. The designer
was informed by a local Consulting Geotechnical Engineer that the top 7 m layer of fine sand was
. susceptible to liquefaction during earthquakes when it would loose the skin friction along the sides
of the piles and cause the piles to become unstable. How can this unforeseen problem be solved
now?
29.5 List the alternatives that are available for stabilizing the vertical sides of deep cuts in soils.
Numerical Problems
29.6 A very soft clay deposit, over which a road embanbnent that is 20 m wide at ground level is to be
constructed, can be stabilized (i) by constructing overlapping columns of clay with 5% c < ~ m e n t
using deep mixing technique or (ii) by replacing 50% of clay by gravel columns using stone column
technique. The clay deposit is 6 m deep. Compare the cost of treatment if gravel is available at Rs.
800 per m
3
. and cement is available at Rs. 300 per kN. The cost of constructing cement columns or
gravel columns is about the same and only the cost of materials needs to be considered.
!
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Iii
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::1\1
1.1.
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A 544 Ground Engineering
(c) Down to 15 m depth C. Blasting
(water shortage at site)
(d) Down to depth exceeding 25 m D. Impact Compaction
(ii) Soil Type In situ Densification Technique
(a) SAND, loose A. Vibroflotation
(b) SAND, loose, silty B. Accelerated Consolidation
(c) CLAY, soft C. Impact Compaction
(ill) Technique Shape of Material Added
(a) Impact compaction A. Cylindrical
(b) Vibroflotation B. Cylindrical. slightly variable diameter
(c) Compaction Pile C. Crater/depression (small sized)
(d) Blasting D. Crater/depression (large sized)
30.2 State whether the following statements are true or false and, if false, explain why.
(a) Soft clays can be compacted by impact compaction.
(b) Installation of vertical sand drains in a soft clay deposit can accelerate the rate of consolidation
by up to 500 percent.
(c) Geosynthetic band drains should be used in preference to sand piles in small works.
Descriptive Questions
30.3 State the two main reasons that do not allow the techniques used for in situ densification of sands
to be successful for in situ densification of clays.
30.4 State the most important soil property required for deciding the spacing of sand drains in a soft clay
deposit. .
30.5 A sand deposit exists in a 'very dense' state. What will be the influence of in situ densification
techniques on the density of such a deposit, if these techniques are forcibly applied on the deposit.
30.6 List the factors that have to be considered while selecting an in situ densification technique for
loose sand.
Numerical Problems
30.7 An earth dam is to be built in a gorge of trapezoidal shape. The height of the dam is 80 m and its
length at the top and at the base is SSO and 300 m respectively. The dam has an upstream slope of
3:1 (hor. : vert.) and downstream slope of 2.S:1 (hor. : vert.) with a crest width of IS m-see Fig. 30.11.
The core of the dam extends down to bedrock level through a cut-off trench but the base of the dam
. rests on loose silty sano, which is 10 m deep. The density of this stratum is to be increased prior to
construction of the dam so that it does not liquefy during an earthquake. The cost of the in-situ
densification of the 10m deep stratum by various methods is estimated to be as follows:
Loose silty sand
Fig. 30.11 Section of earth dam
A 544 Ground Engineering
- - - - ~ - -
(c) Down to 15 m depth C. Blasting
(water shortage at site)
(d) Down to depth exceeding 25 m D. Impact Compaction
(li) Soil Type In situ Densification Technique
(a) SAND, loose A. Vibroflotation
(b) SAND, loose. silty B. Accelerated Consolidation
(c) CLAY, soft C. Impact Compaction
(ill) Technique Shape of Material Added
(a) Impact compaction A. Cylindrical
(b) Vibroflotation B. Cylindrical, slightly variable diameter
(c) Compaction Pile C. Crater/depression (small sized)
(d) Blasting D. Crater/depression (large sized)
30.2 State whether the following statements are true or false and, if false, explain why.
(a) Soft clays can be compacted by impact compaction.
(b) Installation of vertical sand drains in a soft clay deposit can accelerate the rate of consolidation
by up to 500 percent.
(c) Geosynthetic band drains should be used in preference to sand piles in small works.
Descriptive Questions
30.3 State the two main reasons that do not allow the techniques used for in situ densification of sands
to be successfui for in situ densification of clays.
30.4 State the most important soil property required for deciding the spacing of sand drains in a soft clay
deposit.
30.S A sand deposit exists in a 'very dense' state. What will be the influence of in situ densification
techniques on the density of such a deposit, if these techniques are forcibly applied on the deposit
30.6 List the factors that have to be considered while selecting an in situ densification technique for
loose sand.
Numerical Problems
30.7 An earth dam is to be built in a gorge of trapezoidal shape. The height of the dam is 80 m and its
length at the top and at the base is 550 and 300 m respectively. The dam has an upstream slope of
3:1 (hor. : vert.) and downstream slope of2.5:1 (hor. : vert.) with a crest width of 15 m-see Fig. 30.11.
The core of the dam extends down to bedrock level through a cut-off trench but the base of the dam
rests on loose silty sand, which is 10 m deep. The density of this stratum is to be increased prior to
construction of the dam so that it does not liquefy during an earthquake. The cost of the in-situ
densification of the 10m deep stratum by various methods is estimated to be as follows:
Loose silty sand
Fig. 30.11 Section of earth dam
30.8
In-situ Densijication of Soils 545 ....
2
Rs. 600/- per m .
(a) Vibroflotation Rs. 200/- per m
2

(b) Impact compaction . Rs. 501- per m
2

(c) Blasting . ' h th d If the cost of constructing the dam
f . 't densification by eac me a . f th
Compute the total cost 0 In 81 U b h t of in situ densification as a percentage a . e
is estimated at Rs. 200 crores, what WIll e t e cos
cost of constructing the dam? I'd' f r soft clay after 8 months of applying surcharge for
Compute the Average Degree of Canso 1 allon 0 .
30.S
the following cases .
(a) no sand drains . of 22m arranged in a square grid
(b) sand drains of diameter 250 nun at spacmg . 2/ nd
. h th' kness of soft clay is 12 m (double drainage case), cvz =0.5 m year a
Given t at IC 2 _ 075
c => 1.5 m
2
/year, surcharge =80 kN/m , Cc - .
vr
Ans. (a) 10%
(b) 60%