Paper On Super Critical Technology and Analysis For Indian Environment

Analysis of Supercritical technology in Indian Environment
and Utilizing Indian coal
Boben Anto C
Head of Plant services
Evonik Energy Services India Ltd
Prof: M M Hasan
Mechanical Engineering dept
Jamia Islamiya New Delhi
DESIGN, INSTALLATION & OPERATION
OF SUPERCRITICAL POWER PLANTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
SECTIONS PAGE
INTRODUCTION.....................................................................9
ASSIGNMENT AND OBJECTIVES...................................................................10
Assignment.....................................................................................................10
Objectives.......................................................................................................10
APPROACH AND METHODOLOGY................................................................10
Data Collection...............................................................................................10
Choice of supercritical technology .................................................................11
Design Issues..................................................................................................11
Implementation Issues....................................................................................11
Operational Issues..........................................................................................11
Environment Issues.........................................................................................11
Development of Simulation Models ...............................................................13
EVOLUTION OF TECHNOLOGY ..............................................14
NEED FOR INCREASING EFFICIENCY............................................................15
DEVELOPMENT OF SUPERCRITICAL TECHNOLOGY .....................................17
Technology evolution in U.S.A.........................................................................17
Technology evolution in Europe and Japan.....................................................18
1.1.1Technology evolution in China ...............................................................20
Development of supercritical technology in India...........................................20
Development prospects..................................................................................20
POPULATION OF SUPERCRITICAL PLANTS .............................23
PROPOSED AND UNDER CONSTRUCTION SUPERCRITICAL PLANTS IN INDIA
.........................................................................................................24
SUPERCRITICAL PLANTS IN OTHER COUNTRIES..........................................26
AVAILABILITY OF MANUFACTURES OF SUPERCRITICAL PLANTS
..................................................................................34
SPECIAL MATERIALS FOR SUPERCRITICAL PLANTS.................37
BOILER........................................................................................................ 38
Materials for Boilers in Ultra Supercritical Power Plants..................................38
Boiler Materials Requirements........................................................................40
Historical Evolution of Steels...........................................................................41
Evolution of Ferritic Steels..............................................................................43
Evolution of Austenitic Steels..........................................................................46
Choice of Materials for Headers and Steam Pipes...........................................50
Choice of Materials for Superheater/Reheater Tubes......................................54
Creep Rupture Strength..................................................................................55
Fire-side Corrosion..........................................................................................59
Steam-side oxidation......................................................................................61
Summary of SH/RH Tube-Material Status........................................................61
Choice of Materials for Waterwalls..................................................................63
Waterwall Corrosion Concerns.......................................................................63
Summary........................................................................................................64
TURBINE......................................................................................................68
Materials for Turbines in Ultra Supercritical Power Plants...............................68
Materials for Casings and Shells.....................................................................68
Materials for Bolting........................................................................................70
Materials for Rotors/discs................................................................................71
Materials for Blading.......................................................................................71
Summary........................................................................................................72
Role of owner of plant.....................................................................................72
E040/ REPORTBoben Anto C

PAGE 2 OF 163
OPERATIONAL FLEXIBILITY AND PERFORMANCE OF

SUPERCRITICAL PLANTS...............................................76
OPERATIONAL FLEXIBILITY OF SUPERCRITICAL PLANTS..............................77
Start-up flexibility in supercritical boilers........................................................77
Shorter start-up times.....................................................................................78
Flexibility for Load Changes............................................................................88
Fuel flexibility.................................................................................................89
Water Chemistry.............................................................................................89
Higher efficiency.............................................................................................89
6.1.7 PROBLEMS FACED BY SUPERCRITICAL PLANTS IN INDIA -
IMPACT OF FIRING INDIAN COAL ON AVAILABILITY OF
SUPER AND ULTRA SUPER CRITICAL BOILERS ...............91
Other operational problems............................................................................96
High availability............................................................................................109
Improved cost effectiveness.........................................................................109
6.1.12 Reliability..........................................................................................109
OPERATIONAL PERFORMANCE OF SUPERCRITICAL PLANTS......................110
Assumptions for Plant Parameters................................................................110
Coal Analysis.................................................................................................111
Ambient Conditions.......................................................................................112
Performance Modelling Results.....................................................................112
DESIGN ISSUES.................................................................115
LAYOUT AND CLEARANCES.......................................................................116
Plant Layout..................................................................................................116
Pipe Layout ..................................................................................................117
Typical Longitudinal Sectional View .............................................................117
BOILER CONFIGURATION AND TECHNICAL FEATURES..............................119
Two path/Tower type....................................................................................119
Constant Pressure / Sliding (Variable) Pressure Type....................................119
Spiral Type....................................................................................................122
TUBE LAYOUT............................................................................................123
BFP & HP BY PASS SYSTEM.......................................................................123
IMPROVEMENT IN COMBUSTION SYSTEM..................................................126
OPERATION IN INDIAN CONDITIONS..........................................................127
ELECTRO-STATIC PRECIPITATOR (ESP)......................................................129
MILLS 129
DESIGN FEATURES OF TURBINES..............................................................130
Materials for High Temperature....................................................................131
Materials for High Temperature....................................................................131
Continuous Cover Blade (CCB)......................................................................132
Tandem-Compound High Supercritical STG ................................................133
MATURITY OF SUPERCRITICAL TECHNOLOGY............................................135
IMPLEMENTATION ISSUES..................................................136
INTRODUCTION.........................................................................................136
TECHNOLOGY ISSUES...............................................................................136
Waterwall Cracking.......................................................................................137
Negative Flow Characteristic ......................................................................137
Slagging........................................................................................................138
Welding of Special Materials.........................................................................138
Tube Spacing to Handle Indian Coal.............................................................139
Height of Structure.......................................................................................139
OTHER ISSUES ASSOCIATED WITH DEPLOYMENT OF SC TECHNOLOGY IN
INDIA..............................................................................................139
Transportation of Major Equipment...............................................................139
Material Handling..........................................................................................140

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Grid Code......................................................................................................140
Skilled Manpower..........................................................................................140
Coal Quality and Boiler Performance............................................................140
Environmental Benefits.................................................................................141
Socio-economic Benefits...............................................................................142
OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE ISSUES..............................143
SUPER CRITICAL TECHNOLOGY IN INDIAN AMBIENT CONDITIONS and INDIAN
COALS.............................................................................................144
OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE ISSUES FOR SUPER AND ULTRA SUPER
CRITICAL TECHNOLOGY IN INDIA....................................................145
Design and manufacture of components for supercritical coal fired plants in
developing countries.......................................................................145
Availability of contractor for maintenance....................................................145
Availability of Critical Spare, Tools and Tackles in India................................145
Status of super and ultra super critical boiler manufacturers / suppliers......146
ENVIRONMENT ISSUES.......................................................147
INTRODUCTION.........................................................................................148
INDIAN STANDARDS..................................................................................148
Ambient Air Quality Standards......................................................................148
Flue Gas Emission Standards........................................................................148
Wastewater Quality Standards......................................................................149
Noise Standards............................................................................................150
EMISSIONS RESULTS ................................................................................150
CO2 Emissions Results..................................................................................150
Other Emission Results.................................................................................150
Nitrogen oxides Emissions............................................................................151
Sulphur oxides Emissions..............................................................................152
Particulate Emissions....................................................................................152
APPLICABILITY OF STANDARDS AND COMPLIANCE...................................153
CDM ISSUES .............................................................................................154
Methodology ................................................................................................154
Applicability Conditions.................................................................................155
COST IMPLICATION OF TECHNOLOGY IN INDIA.....................157
REFERENCE.......................................................................161
LIST OF ABBREVIATION......................................................162
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2-1: Classification for Coal Fired Plants.......................15
Table 3-2: List of Ultra Mega Power Projects in India.............24
Table 3-3: List of Under Construction Supercritical Thermal
Power Stations in India................................................24
Table 3-4: List of Proposed Supercritical Power Stations in
India...........................................................................25
Table 3-5: Supercritical Power Plants in the World................27
Table 3-6: Supercritical Power Plants of each Electric Power Co.
..................................................................................28
Table 3-7: Steam Parameters of Supercritical Plants in Japan 28
Table 3-8: Advanced Supercritical Plants in Japan.................28

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Table 3-9: Steam Parameters of Supercritical Plants in USA...29

Table 3-10: Steam Parameters of Supercritical Plants in
Germany.....................................................................29
Table 3-11: Advanced Supercritical Plants in Germany..........29
Table 3-12: Steam Parameters of Supercritical Plants in Russia
..................................................................................30
Table 3-13: Steam Parameters of Supercritical Plants in China
..................................................................................30
Table 3-14: Availability Factor (%) 1982-1984.......................32
Table 3-15: Availability Factor (%) 1988-1997.......................32
Table 3-16: Availability Factor (%) in 1954............................32
Table 5-17: Steam conditions for coal-fired plants in EPRI
program.....................................................................39
Table 5-18: Evolution of Four Generations of Ferritic Steels. .42
Table 5-19: Nominal Chemical Compositions of Ferritic Steels
for Boilers...................................................................45
Table 5-20: Nominal Chemical Compositions of Austenitic
Steels for Boiler (wt%).................................................48
Table 5-21: Candidate Materials for Advanced Supercritical
Plants for Various Steam Conditions.............................49
Table 5-22: Application of New Tungsten-Bearing Steels in
European Power Stations.............................................54
Table 5-23: Chemical Compositions of Alloys considered for
Steam Turbines (in weight percent)..............................73
Table 5-24: Materials Selection for the High-Pressure Steam
Turbine.......................................................................73
Table 5-25: Ranking and Development Effort Needed for
Materials for Turbines.................................................75
Table 6-26: Availability of Supercritical Plants....................109
Table 6-27: Cycle Conditions for the Coal Fired Plant Options
................................................................................110
Table 6-28: Proximate Analysis for Domestic Coal...............111
Table 6-29: Typical Ultimate Analysis (as received basis) for
Domestic Coal...........................................................111
Table 6-30:Common Ambient Conditions.............................112
Table 6-31: Turbine Performance Estimates (Domestic Coal,
100% MCR)...............................................................113
Table 6-32: Plant Performance Estimates using Domestic Coal
(LHV basis, 100% MCR)..............................................113

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Table 6-33: Plant Performance Estimates using domestic Coal

(HHV basis, 100% MCR).............................................113
Table 6-34: Coal, Ash & Water Consumption/Production
Estimates (relevant unit size, 100% MCR)...................114
Table 7-35: Line-up of LSB with CSB Structure....................133
Table 10-36: Ambient Air Quality Standards........................148
Table 10-37: Flue Gas Emission Standards..........................148
Table 10-38: Wastewater Standards...................................149
Table 10-39: Noise Standards.............................................150
Table 10-40: CO2 Emission Estimates (100% MCR)...............150
Table 10-41: CO2 Emission Reduction % Estimates Relative to
Base Subcritical Plant (100% MCR).............................150
Table 10-42: NOx Emission Limits for New Coal Fired Power
Stations....................................................................152
Table 10-43: SOx Emission Limits for New Coal Fired Power
Stations....................................................................152
Table 10-44: Particulate Emission Limits for New Coal Fired
Power Stations..........................................................153
Table 11-45: Plant Characteristics......................................158
Table 11-46: Plant equipment capital costs per unit............158
Table 11-47: Other Capital Costs........................................159
Table 11-48: Capital and Specific Capital Cost for Each Unit Size
................................................................................159
Table 11-49: Capital and Specific Capital Cost for two units. 160
Table 11-50: O&M Costs – Fixed and Variable for Each Unit Size
................................................................................160
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2-1: Efficiency Performance in Germany TPS..............16
Figure 2-2: Worldwide Introduce Supercritical Technology.....21
Figure 3-3: Capacity of SC & USC Power Plants Worldwide.....27
Figure 5-4: Improvement in heat rate (efficiency) achieved by
increasing steam temperature and single and double
cycles , compared to the base case of 535ºC/189 kg/cm2.
..................................................................................38
Figure 5-5: Historic evolation of materials in terms of
increasing creep rupture strength................................42
Figure 5-6: Evolution of ferritic steels for boiler....................44

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Figure 5-7: Evaluation of authentic steels for boiler..............49

Figure 5-8: Comparison of allowable stress of ferritic steels for
boiler .........................................................................52
Figure 5-9: Comparison of allowable stresses and sectional
view of main steam pipes designed at 570ºC and 600ºC 53
Figure 5-10: Cost of P-22, P-91 and P-122 steels header
materials as a function of temperature at 316 kg/cm2
steam pressure...........................................................53
Figure 5-11: Comparison of allowable stresses 18Cr-18Ni and
15Cr steels.................................................................56
Figure 5-12: Comparison of allowable stresses for austenitic
alloys containing more than 20% Cr..............................57
Figure 5-13: Allowable metal temperatures at constant
allowable stress of 500 kg/cm2 (7ksi) as a function of
chromium content for various alloys.............................58
Figure 5-14: Relationship between hot-corrosion weight loss
and temperature for ferritic steels...............................58
Figure 5-15: Relationship between hot-corrosion weight loss
and chromium content for various alloys......................59
Figure 5-16: Comparison of fire side corrosion resistance of
various alloys..............................................................60
Figure 5-17: Corrosion of steels containing 0.5-18% Cr under
FeS containing deposits in oxidizing flue gas................64
Figure 5-18: Materials Development Stages and Related Steam
Parameters Limits.......................................................66
Figure 5-19: Plot of Creep Rupture Stress Versus Larson-Miller
Parameter..................................................................69
Figure 6-20: Chart Presents Higher Efficiency.......................90
Figure 7-21: Standard two unit layout................................116
Figure 7-22: Three dimensional model of pipe layout ..........117
Figure 7-23: Turbine hall...................................................117
Figure 7-24: Longitudinal Sectional view............................118
Figure 7-25: Plot allocation...............................................118
Figure 7-26: Constant Pressure Program for C-E Type..........120
Figure 7-27: Constant Pressure Diagram of C-E Type...........120
Figure 7-28: Sliding (Variable) Pressure Program for C-E Type
................................................................................121
Figure 7-29:Furnace Configuration.....................................121
Figure 7-30: Basic Principle of Spiral-wall Furnace..............122

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Figure 7-31: Tube layout....................................................123

Figure 7-32: HP bypass......................................................124
Figure 7-33: Vertical and spiral type boilers........................124
Figure 7-34: Tubing in Once through and Drum type boilers.125
Figure 7-35: Heat transfer and temperature range..............125
Figure 7-36: Heat transfer in vertical and spiral type boilers126
Figure 7-37: Frame Structure of Hitachi NR2 Burners..........127
Figure 7-38: Materials of Boiler..........................................129
Figure 7-39: Modified mill..................................................130
Figure 7-40: The new technology of the High Supercritical
Steam turbine (HP & IP Sections)...............................132
Figure 7-41: Continuous Cover Blade (CCB) Structure..........132
Figure 7-42: Correlation between Unit Output and Turbine
Exhaust Annulus Area................................................134
Figure 7-43: Sectional Arrangement of TC4F-40 high
supercritical Steam Turbine for .................................134
Figure 7-44: Sectional Arrangement of TC4F-43 high
supercritical Steam Turbine for 50 Hz use...................135
LIST OF ANNEXURES
3.1 300 MW or Over Coal Fired Supercritical Power Plants since 1985
Worldwide
3.2 300 MW or Over Supercritical Power Plants in Japan
3.3 300 MW or Over Supercritical Power Plants in Germany
3.4 300 MW or Over Supercritical Power Plants in Russia
3.5 300 MW or Over Supercritical Power Plants in China
3.6 300 MW or Over Supercritical Power Plants in Other Countries

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INTRODUCTION

PAGE 9 OF 163
INTRODUCTION
ASSIGNMENT AND OBJECTIVES
Assignment
The primary purpose of the study is to assess whether supercritical thermal

plant technology is a proven and mature commercial technology and whether
modern supercritical power plants installed in India will have a robust
availability and reliability.
Objectives
The objective of the study is to provide a comprehensive report regarding
supercritical technology specifically in the context of setting up supercritical
thermal power plants in India. The report shall include qualitative and
quantitative analysis of the issues and risks involved which would assist the
owner in taking an appropriate investment decision regarding setting up a
supercritical power plant at a suitable location in India. The study will address
the following issues.
1. Evaluation of the current state of supercritical technology with

respect to typical range of steam pressure and temperature and
efficiency of plant.
2. Design related issues that differentiate supercritical technology

from sub-critical technology such as sliding pressure versus
constant pressure, feed water quality, startup time and ramp-up
rates.
3. Adaptability of technology to Indian conditions. Effect of use of

Indian coal on cost and performance.
4. Operational issues, breakdowns, outages in Indian conditions,

availability of spares.
5. Suggest range of parameters to be adopted for proposed plant.

Provide assessment of design areas requiring focus during
manufacture and installation of plant and execution of project.
6. Materials of construction; availability in India.
7. Availability of plants from Indian and foreign manufacturers
8. Ability of supercritical technology in meeting Indian environmental

regulations and World Bank norms.
APPROACH AND METHODOLOGY

Data Collection
The experience of supercritical thermal power plants in India is limited. While
work in various stages is in progress at a few supercritical plants, none of
them has been commissioned as yet. Supercritical technology, however, has
been an established technology in Germany, Russia and eastern block
countries, Japan, China and U.S.A.

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Data shall be collected for supercritical plants under construction in India.

Information about proposed supercritical plants will be collected, also, to the
extent it is available. Information about plants in other countries will be
obtained from conference papers, internet, published literature and from our
parent company in Germany.
Choice of supercritical technology

The evolution of supercritical technology worldwide and the driving forces
contributing to its adoption will be described.
The reasons for developers in India now preferring supercritical technology

for the establishment of large capacity power plants in preference to the
currently prevalent sub-critical technology will be analysed.
Design Issues
The current state of supercritical technology with respect to typical range of
steam temperature, pressure and efficiency of the power block will be
studied.
The impact of plant design data and operating parameters of the plant on
design margin of various plant auxiliaries will be assessed.
Typical design related issues that differentiate supercritical technology from

subcritical technology such as sliding pressure versus constant pressure, feed
water quality, startup time and ramp-up rates will be studied specifically.
The progressive improvement in materials of construction of supercritical

plants to bring greater stability and increase operational efficiency will be
studied.
Implementation Issues
Experience of construction of supercritical power plants in India is limited and
problems likely to arise during construction need to assessed beforehand.
Some issues such as welding of special materials are likely to arise on
account of special design of equipment. Transport of heavy equipment from
manufacturer’s workshops to plant site requires proper route survey and
handling facilities at points of transfer. Requirements of skilled manpower
during construction period will be assessed to enable its availability in time.
Operational Issues
The data collected and information gathered from different sources will be
analysed for availability and reliability achieved and for breakdowns and
outages suffered by supercritical plants during their operation. The causes of
breakdowns and outages as also, causes of poor performance regarding
availability will be sought from the data gathered and ways to mitigate them
will be suggested.
Other problems faced in maintenance and operation such as lack of

experienced personnel, problems of spares and availability of experienced
contractors for maintaining large supercritical power stations will be studied.
Environment Issues

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One of the main driving forces for the development, acceptability and
encouragement of supercritical technology has been its potential for
reduction of green house gases. Compatibility of supercritical technology with
and its ability to conform to the Indian environmental regulations and the
World Bank norms as applicable to thermal power plants will be studied.
The benefits of the proposed supercritical plants in terms of saving in coal

consumption and reduction in carbon-di-oxide emissions will be evaluated.
The possibility of the project obtaining credits under the Clean Development
Mechanism (CDM) will be explored in general terms.

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Development of Simulation Models

The actual operating data available for supercritical plants being limited,
simulation models will be employed to obtain operating results under
different operating parameters.

PAGE 13 OF 163
EVOLUTION OF TECHNOLOGY

PAGE 14 OF 163
EVOLUTION OF TECHNOLOGY
NEED FOR INCREASING EFFICIENCY
The demand for energy is closely related to economic growth and standard of
living. Currently, demand for all global energy is increasing at an average rate
of approximately 2% per annum. The growth rate in India is higher and was
about 4 percent during the previous plan period even with serious constraints
of generation capacity. Electricity generated from coal currently accounts for
about 40 per cent of the electricity generated worldwide and about 53% in
India. As coal is a relatively more abundant fuel resource in India, it is likely to
remain a dominant fuel for electricity generation in future also. The
Integrated Energy Plan developed by Planning Commission also considers
that coal is likely to be the primary energy source for the electricity sector in
the foreseeable future.
The main argument advanced against coal fired thermal power generation is
the large amount of carbon-di-oxide (CO2) emissions produced by them which
contribute in a large measure to greenhouse effect and global warming. CO 2
emissions can be lowered by improving the efficiency of coal fired power
plants. Increasing the temperature and pressure in a steam turbine increases
the efficiency of the Rankine steam cycle used in power generation, in other
words it decreases the amount of fossil fuel consumed and the emissions
generated. A one percent increase in efficiency leads to reduction of
emission of CO2 by 2.5 per cent. For an 800 MW coal based unit, the 1%
increase in efficiency would lead to a life time reduction in CO2 emission of
approximately one million tones.
There has been a gradual evolution in the increase in steam parameters used
in coal fired plants. Steam parameters have been raised from 80 kg/cm2 for
50 MW plants to 170 kg/cm2 for 500 MW units. Supercritical units use higher
steam parameters of 240 kg/cm2.
"Supercritical" is a thermodynamic expression describing the state of a

substance where there is no clear distinction between the liquid and the
gaseous phase (i.e. it behaves as a homogenous fluid). Water reaches this
state at a pressure above 221 bar.
The water-steam cycle is sub-critical up to an operating pressure of around

190 bar in the evaporator part of the boiler. This means, that there is a non-
homogeneous mixture of water and steam in the evaporator part of the
boiler. In this case a drum-type boiler is used because the steam needs to be
separated from water in the drum before it is superheated and led into the
turbine. Above an operating pressure of 221 bar, the cycle is supercritical.
The cycle medium is a single phase fluid with homogeneous properties and
there is no need to separate steam from water in a drum. Once-through
boilers are therefore used in supercritical cycles.
The classification for the coal fired plants with increasing steam parameters is
shown in the table below.
Table 2-1: Classification for Coal Fired Plants

Main Steam Main Steam Reheat Steam
Unit size
Pressure Temperature Temperature
Sub-critical 500 MW 166 bar 538°C 538°C

PAGE 15 OF 163
Low supercritical 660 MW 247 bar 538°C 565°C

Ultra supercritical 800 MW 270 bar 565°C 593°C
Advanced
1000 MW 295 bar 600°C 600°C
supercritical
Comparative efficiencies for typical steam parameters and temperatures are

depicted in diagram below. While plant efficiencies of sub-critical plants in
India are still around 32%, modern sub critical cycles have attained
efficiencies close to 40% (LHV basis). Current supercritical coal fired power
plants have efficiencies above 45% (LHV basis). It is thus, obvious that the
supercritical (SC) and ultra-supercritical (USC) coal fired power plant
technology is one of the major options for high-efficiency, low-emissions
power generation
The gradual evolution of increasing efficiencies of coal fired thermal power

plants in Germany is depicted in the diagram below.
Figure 2-1: Efficiency Performance in Germany TPS
Supercritical power plants using once through boilers can maintain higher
efficiency at rather low loads as compared to sub-critical plants..
Conventional drum-type boilers in sub-critical plants have bigger material
requirements because of the thick-wall drums, and also the water/steam
inventory.
A Committee was set up by the Central Electricity Authority in 2003 to

recommend the next higher unit size for coal fired thermal power stations.
The Committee felt that with the progressive increase in installed capacity,
higher share of thermal generation and large peak to off peak ratios, backing
down, and cyclic operation of thermal units would become imminent. Super
critical thermal units offer better operational profile in such an environment.
The Committee recommended that the next higher units size adopted in the
country should be from 800 to 1000 MW. The steam parameters of 246 - 250
kg/cm2, and higher steam temperatures of 568ºC to 593 ºC may be adopted
depending upon site specific techno-economics for deriving maximum
efficiency gains from higher size units.

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DEVELOPMENT OF SUPERCRITICAL TECHNOLOGY

Technology evolution in U.S.A.
The first supercritical units, 375MW Drakelow C and 125MW Philo plants. were
put into commercial operation in UK and USA in the year 1957. In 1959, the
famous Eddystone 1 plant owned and operated by the Philadelphia Electric
Co. was commissioned in U.S.A. It was designed for 650º/565º/565ºC/351.8
kg/cm2 steam conditions but due to serious mechanical and metallurgical
problems, it was later down-rated to 605º/565º/565ºC/330.38 kg/cm 2. Most of
the problems were due to the use of austenitic steels for thick section
components operating at high temperatures. These steels have low thermal
conductivity and high thermal expansion resulting in high thermal stresses
and fatigue cracking.
These problems reduced the availability of the then operating supercritical

plants leading to new investments in developed countries flowing back to
sub-critical plants with live steam conditions of about 550°C/183.54 kg/cm2.
118 supercritical plants were built in U.S.A. during 1967 to 1976 with
maximum unit capacity of 1300 MW. Further installation of SC plants was
slowed due to their low availability. Environment concerns for green house
emissions dominated in 1970s causing oil and gas combined cycle units to be
substituted for coal fired units. Nuclear power stations were also, established
but later nuclear generation went out of favour completely on account of
some major accidents to nuclear plants such as that of Three Mile Island in
1979 and of Chernobyl in 1986. The energy crisis in the mid-1970s and
consequent sharp rise in fuel prices, however, rekindled interest in the
development of more efficient coal based power plants. Problems of materials
suitable for high temperatures and pressures also, were solved gradually and
availability of supercritical plants converged to and then became higher than
that of comparable sub-critical ones. With improvements in pollution control
equipment in 1990s, new supercritical plants have been constructed with
capacities of 500 to 800 MW and more than 190 supercritical plants were in
operation in U.S.A. by 2004.
The evolution of coal fired thermal power plant technology in U.S.A. over the
years is shown below:
1924 First reheat generating unit – Philo Plant

1941 First very high pressure (2,300 psi) natural circulation generating unit –
Twin Branch Plant
1949 First high pressure high temperature combination (2,000 psi & 1050 F
main steam & 1,000 F reheat) – Twin Branch Plant
1950 First heat rate below 10,000 Btu/kWh – Philip Spom Plant
1957 First supercritical pressure steam (4,500 psi) and super-high
temperature steam (1,150 F) and double reheat – Philo
Plant
1960 First heat rate below 9,000 Btu/kWh – Church River Plant

PAGE 17 OF 163
1966 First control room simulator to train plant operating personnel –

Cardinal Plant
1961 First application of sliding pressure technique on supercritical pressure
generating units - Gen. James M Gavin Plant
2000 to 2008 Installation of advanced steam path turbine components on
600 MW, 800 MW and 1,300 MW units
2011 Planned startup new 600 MW pulverized coal plant using 3,800
psi/1,100 F/1,125 F steam cycle with 8,900 Btu/kWh heat
rate (HHV)
The Department of Energy (DOE) of U.S.A. proposed three power generation

initiatives namely Vision 21, Future-Gen and Clean Coal Power to promote
increases in power generating plants efficiencies and decreases in emissions.
The Vision 21 initiative has the goal of achieving 7,200 kJ/kWh heat rate for
coal fired power plants. This is proposed to be achieved in two major steps,
675°C live steam temperature by year 2010 ( n*=45-50%) and 760°C by
year 2020 (6,000-7,200 kJ/kWh n*=50-60%). The final live steam
temperature and pressure goal is 760°C and 393 kg/cm2 by the year 2020
Technology evolution in Europe and Japan

Development of supercritical coal fired units in Europe started late mainly
after 1990 and has been confined to Germany, Italy, Denmark and Holland.
Early units were designed for 254.92 kg/cm2/540°C/540°C. Steam
temperatures were raised to meet higher environment protection
requirements. The sliding pressure design was incorporated into supercritical
design in which pressure is reduced with load. This allows the maintenance of
relatively constant first stage turbine temperature reducing stress on
components in the unit and providing higher availability. A number of the
units were operated in daily Start-Stop mode and had a good control
capability for load change.
Originally, the supercritical technology of Japan was from USA, and in order to
have the capability of partial load operation and Daily Start-Stop (DSS)
operation, the technology of sliding pressure from Europe was incorporated
into the power plant design. After many years of Research & Development
studies and improvements, the thermal efficiency and availability of
supercritical plants was improved to match those of sub-critical units. Japan
is, now, a leading manufacturer of power generating equipment for unit
capacities of 700 MW and 1000 MW as standard products. Coal-fired power
generation in Japan is operated with a total efficiency rate of 40% or more,
the highest rate in the world.
The historical development of increases in operating pressures and

temperatures for supercritical plants in Germany, Denmark and Japan are
shown in table below.
Country Year Pr (kg/cm2) Temp ºC

Germany 1995 290.60 545 /560
1999 275.30 580 /600

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Denmark 1991 254.92 540 /540

1997 295.70 580 / 580 / 580
Japan 1991 230.85 538 / 566
1995 230.85 566 / 593
2000 230.85 593 / 593

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1.1.1 Technology evolution in China

About 70% of China's total energy consumption comes from coal and the
country still has huge reserves. Burning it, however, has severely damaged
the environment for Chinese people themselves and people in surrounding
countries. In northern China, cities like Beijing and Shenyang have some of
the highest readings for total suspended particulates and SO2 in the world,
with coal burning being a major source of this pollution. In southern China,
large areas have growing acid rain problems.
Coal based power generation in China started with small low efficiency units
and more than 8,000 units of less than 200 MW are in operation The first 300
MW sub-critical unit was commissioned in 1982 and first 600 MW sub-critical
unit in 1989. To reduce emission of pollutants, China started using
supercritical and ultra supercritical technologies in its thermal power plants.
China's first 1,000MW ultra-supercritical power plant is located at Yuhuan on
the coast of East China's Zhejiang Province. Units 1 and 2 went on line in
2006, and units 3 and 4 in 2007. With all units working, the plant generates
22 billion kWh of electricity a year. The plant is operated by China Huaneng
Group, China's largest power producer. It is claimed that Yuhuan Units 1
and 2 are the world's cleanest, most efficient and most advanced ultra-
supercritical units
Development of supercritical technology in India

The average efficiency of coal based power plants in India is very low being in
the range of 27–34%. Increases in unit size have been done to increase
efficiency and reduce green house gas emissions. Bharat Heavy Electricals
Ltd, (BHEL), the Indian manufacturer of large power plants has commissioned
about 135 plants of capacities 200–250 MW and about 25 units of 500 MW.
The first supercritical plant of capacity 3X660 MW is under construction at
Sipat with South Korean technology. Another SC plant (3X660) at Barh is
under construction A number of supercritical and ultra-supercritical plants in
the public sector, private sector and joint sector are in different phases of
development. Details are given in Section 3 of this report.
Development prospects
With coal regaining its dominant position for power generation and with
increasing environment consciousness, emphasis worldwide is shifting to
supercritical and ultra-supercritical power plants. More than 600 SC&USC
power plants (status 2004), with total capacity above 300 GW, were
operating or were under construction mainly in USA, Japan, China, Europe,
Russia, Korea and other countries. The greatest concentration of SC power
plants is in Russia and in the former Eastern bloc countries, where more than
240 are in service providing about 40% of all electricity needs those
countries.
An important problem faced by power generation systems is the substantial

difference between peak load and base load. Thermal stations have to adapt
to frequent load changes and even shift operation. The steam boilers are
required to have fast load-following capability, which includes two
characteristics: 1) ability for fast startup from different conditions, and 2)
ability to handle sharp changes in load. Supercritical once-through boilers,
because of the absence of a drum and other thick-walled parts, require 15 to

PAGE 20 OF 163
20 percent less time for cold startups than conventional boilers. Using
full/partial flow separators, modern once-through SC boilers also are capable
of very fast load changes, typically 3 to 4 percent per minute, and even 5
percent per minute when using an advanced control system.
Regarding availability and reliability, previous studies of the coal fired sub-
critical and supercritical plants had revealed that conventional sub-critical
boilers have had better reliability during their first 10 years of operation. After
10 years, the average outage time caused by the pressure parts of SC units
had leveled off at less than 500 hours/year (representing about 94 percent
availability) which is comparable to figures for sub-critical plants. Availability
of older SC units, when used for base load duty, is as good as sub-critical
units. The average annual availability factor for all 300 MW units in the former
Soviet Union from 1990 to 1995 was 95 to 97 percent, which was somewhat
higher than SC power plant availability in the United States and Germany,
where the best units had availability factors of 94 to 97 percent. Present
generation supercritical plants, however, have availability comparable to that
of sub-critical plants.
The chart below indicates that more and more new plants worldwide are
likely to introduce supercritical technology.
Figure 2-2: Worldwide Introduce Supercritical Technology
Development of alloys suitable for use in supercritical and ultra- supercritical

boilers is a major challenge for supercritical technology.
Some materials for supercritical and ultra- supercritical boilers have been
identified already. A remaining major challenge is the selection or
development of candidate alloys suitable for use in the USC steam turbines.
Another important aspects is the role of pressure on steam-side oxidation. It

is now known that most of the efficiency gains in higher capacity supercritical
and ultra-supercritical plants result from increased temperature and not from
increased pressure.

PAGE 21 OF 163
As a result, material requirements, in terms of high temperature strength

and steam-side oxidation, could lead to the use of lower pressures to make
the supercritical and ultra- supercritical turbines more economical, and yet be
beneficial in terms of efficiency increases.
Manufacturers of high efficiency thermal power plants are undertaking

intensive research work continuously for developing new materials for
different components of the plants to withstand the increasing temperatures
and pressures required for efficiency enhancement.
Development of materials for different components of supercritical plants is

dealt with in detail in Section 5 of this report.

PAGE 22 OF 163
POPULATION OF SUPERCRITICAL PLANTS

PAGE 23 OF 163
POPULATION OF SUPERCRITICAL PLANTS

PROPOSED AND UNDER CONSTRUCTION SUPERCRITICAL PLANTS IN
INDIA
The details of Ultra mega Power Plants (4000 MW each) other supercritical
plants under construction and those proposed are given in Table 3-1, 3-2 and
3-3 below:
Table 3-2: List of Ultra Mega Power Projects in India
Unit
S. Name/Location of No. of
capacity Utility
No. Thermal Power Station units
(in MW)
1 UMPP, Mundra 5 800 M/s. Tata Power
Limited
2 UMPP, Sasan 6 660 M/s. Reliance Power
Limited
3 UMPP, Krishnapatnam 5 800 M/s. Reliance Power
Limited
4 UMPP, Tilaiya 5 800 M/s. Reliance Power
Limited
5 Orissa, UMPP 5 800 -
6 Chhatisgarh, UMPP 5 800 -
7 UMPP, Tamil Nadu 5 800 -
Table 3-3: List of Under Construction Supercritical Thermal

Power Stations in India
S. Name/Location of No. of Unit capacity
Utility
No. Thermal Power Station units (in MW)
1 Hissar 2 660 M/s. HPGCL
2 Jhajjar 2 660 M/s. HPGCL
3 Talwandi Sabo 2 660 M/s. PSEB
4 Mundra, Kutch 2 660 M/s. Adani Power
Limited
5 Meja IV, Uttar Pradesh 2 660 M/s. NTPC Joint
Venture
6 Sipat-I, Bilaspur 3 660 M/s. NTPC Limited
7 New Nabinagar, Bihar 3 660 M/s. NTPC Joint
venture
8 Krishnapatnam 3 800 M/s. APGENCO
9 Sholapur Thermal Power 2 660 M/s. NTPC
plant, Maharashtra
10 Barh Super Thermal 3 660 M/s. NTPC Limited
Power Station
11 Raghunathpur-II, West 2 660 M/s. DVC
Bengal
12 Gidderbaha Station-I, 2 660 M/s. PSEB
Punjab
13 Sahapur Thermal Power 2 660 M/s. STPCL
Company Limited
14 Jewargi Power Company 2 660 M/s. Power Company
of Karnataka Limited of Karnataka
Company Limited

PAGE 24 OF 163
Table 3-4: List of Proposed Supercritical Power Stations in India

Utility
1 Dhenknal, Orissa 2 660 M/s. Lanco Infratech
Limited
2 Pussurar Region, 3 660 M/s. Infrastructure
Raigarh, Chhatisgarh Leasing & Financial
Services Ltd.
3 Chutru region of 3 660 M/s. Infrastructure
Jharkhand Leasing & financial
Services Ltd.
4 Chandil region of 3 660 M/s. Infrastructure
Jharkhand Leasing & financial
Services Ltd.
5 Bade Dumarpali, 2 660 M/s. Athena
Raigarh, Chhatisgarh Chattisgarh Power
Private Limited
6 Gondia, Maharashtra 3 660 M/s. Adani Power
Maharashtra Private
Limited
7 East Godavari, Kakinda 2 660 M/s. Spectrum Power
Generation Limited
8 Sinnar, Nasik, 2 660 M/s. Fama Power
Maharashtra Company Limited
9 Nagapattinam, Tamil 2 660 M/s. PEL Power
Nadu Limited
10 Nandgaon pet, 4 660 M/s. Sophia Power
Amravati, Maharashtra Company Limited
11 Tamnar Raigarh, 2 660 M/s. Opelina Finance
Chhatisgarh and Investment
Limited
12 Tamnar Raigarh, 2 660 M/s. Jindal Power
Chhatisgarh Limited
13 Lathur, Maharashtra 2 660 M/s. Amravati Thermal
Power Limited
14 Machillipatnam, Andhra 2 660 M/s. Thermal
Pradesh Powertech
Corporation (I) Limited
15 Gopuvanipalem, 3 660 M/s. Nagarjuna
Krishna, Andhra Pradesh Construction
Company Limited
16 Simar Thermal Power 2 800 M/s. JSW Energy
Plant, Junagarh, Gujarat Limited
17 Salaboni Thermal Power 2 800 M/s. JSW Energy
Plant, Paschim Limited
Midnapore.
18 Manappad, Tuticorin, 2 660 M/s. Ind-Bharat Power
Tamil Nadu (Madras) Limited
19 Mudnra, Kutch, Gujarat 3 660 M/s. Adani Power
Limited
20 Sompeta, Drikakulam, 3 660 M/s. Nagarjuna
Andhra Pradesh Construction

PAGE 25 OF 163

Utility
Company Limited
21 Central India Power, 1 668 M/s. Central India
Phase-II, Maharashtra Power Company
Private Limited
22 Tanda Expansion, Uttar 2 660 M/s. NTPC Limited
Pradesh
23 Katwa, West Bengal 2 660 M/s. WBPDCL
24 Bakreshwar, Extension 1 660 M/s. WBPDCL
Project
25 Koradi Extension 2 660 M/s. Mahagenco
Project, Maharashtra
26 East Coast, Andhra 2 660 M/s. East Coast
Pradesh Energy
27 NSL Power, Tamil Nadu 2 660 M/s. NSL Power
Private Limited
28 Marakanam, Tamil Nadu 4 800 M/s. NTPC Limited
29 Darlipali, Orissa 4 800 M/s. NTPC Limited
30 Lara, Chhatisgarh 5 800 M/s. NTPC Limited
31 Kudgi, Karnataka 3 660 M/s. NTPC Limited JV
with M/s. PCKL
SUPERCRITICAL PLANTS IN OTHER COUNTRIES

More than 600 SC&USC power plants, with total capacity above 300 GW, were
operating or were under construction in 2004 mainly in Europe, South Africa,
USA, Japan, China and Russia. Around 170 units have been commissioned in
USA, about 100 in Japan, and more than 60 in Europe. The greatest
concentration of SC power plants is in Russia and in the former Eastern bloc
countries, where more than 240 are in service providing about 40% of all
electricity needs in those countries. (Figure 3-3).

PAGE 26 OF 163
Figure 3-3: Capacity of SC & USC Power Plants Worldwide
Advanced SC designs can now be found at several Asian power plants, which
are currently under construction in the People's Republic of China, South
Korea and Taiwan with the capacity in range of 25 GW. Emerging interest in
advanced SC coal fired power plants has fueled development of new, cutting-
edge technologies.
Power plants with record-breaking steam parameters approaching or

exceeding levels of 300kg/cm2 and 600ºC have been commissioned in the last
decade or are under construction in Denmark, Germany and Japan.
This is, however, not the case for the traditional developers of SC technology
like Russia and the USA. In these two countries no further major growth of SC
technology has been seen in the last decade. Most of the 170 US SC power
plants with combined installed capacity above 107 GW came on-line prior to
1980.
Ultra-Supercritical Technology
Increasing the temperature and pressure in a steam turbine increases the
efficiency of the Rankine steam cycle used in power generation; in other
words it decreases the amount of fossil fuel consumed and the emissions
generated per kW of electricity generated.
Status in the World

Operation data of 573 units has been collected and tabulated as follows. The
data relates to the year 2004.
Table 3-5: Supercritical Power Plants in the World

Country/Region Units MW
Japan 120 77,900
USA 170 107,000
Germany 28 17,286
Russia 67 29,730
China 32 19,800
Other-Countries 156 58,722
The data cover most of principal power plants in the world with supercritical
steam conditions with capacities of 300 MW or more as shown in Annexure-
3.1.
Actual status for the adoption of Supercritical Power Technology in major

countries is shown below:

PAGE 27 OF 163
(a) Japan
The first supercritical unit Anegaski Unit No. 1 of Tokyo Electric Power Co. had
started operation in 1967. Since then, supercritical power plants with 120
units aggregating to 77,900 MW output have been constructed and were
operating successfully till 2004.
The unit capacity increased to 350, 500, 600, 700, 1000 MW step by step and
reached 1050 MW in the Tachibanawan unit no. 1&2 of Electric Power
Development Co. Japan.
The installed capacity of each electric power company in Japan is as follows:
Table 3-6: Supercritical Power Plants of each Electric Power Co.

Utility Total Units Total Capacity (MW)
Hokkaido Electric Power Co. 4 2,000
Tohoku Electric Power Co. 8 5,600
Tokyo Electric Power Co. 25 18,750
Chubu Electric Power Co. 19 12,900
Kansai Electric Power Co. 22 12,300
Hokuriku Electric Power Co. 6 3,400
Chugoku Electric Power Co. 7 4,400
Shikoku Electric Power Co. 5 2,050
Kyushu Electric Power Co, 12 6,900
Electric Power Development Co. 8 6,400
Joban Kyodo Power Co. 2 1,200
Soma Kyodo Power Co. 2 2,000
Total 120 77,900
Steam parameters and the numbers of installation of supercritical power

plant in Japan are shown as follows:
Table 3-7: Steam Parameters of Supercritical Plants in Japan

Steam Parameters No. or Year
2 Units
MSP246 kg/cm MST533/RST538ºC 21 1968-1985
MSP246 kg/cm2 MST538/RST566ºC 75 1967-1993
2
MSP246 kg/cm MST566/RST566ºC 5 1991-1997
MSP246 kg/cm2 MST566/RST593ºC 6 1994-2002
2
MSP246 kg/cm MST593-600 / RST 593-610ºC 13 1997-2004
Most advanced steam condition power plants, namely, Ultra Supercritical

Pressure Power Plants exceeding steam temperature 593ºC have already
been operated in Japan and their typical units are shown below;
Table 3-8: Advanced Supercritical Plants in Japan

Station Year Unit Capacity (MW) Steam Parameters
Mtsuura 2 1997 1,000 246 kg/cm2 593/593ºC
Haramachi 2 1998 1,000 250 kg/cm2 600/600ºC
Misumi 1 1998 1,000 250 kg/cm2 600/600ºC
Tachibanawan 1&2 2000/2001 1,050/1,050 250 kg/cm2 600/610ºC

PAGE 28 OF 163
Supercritical thermal power plants in Japan are summarized in Annexure-3.2.
(b) USA
Both subcritical (drum) type and supercritical (once-through) type units were
in operation from 1960 to 1980. Subsequently there was a shift to subcritical
units owing to lower availability and other problems with supercritical plants.
Most of the 170 supercritical units of 300MW or over, were put into operation
in 1970s or earlier, 4 units in 1980s and only 1 unit in 1990s.
Typical steam parameters in USA are as follows.
Table 3-9: Steam Parameters of Supercritical Plants in USA

246 kg/cm2 538/538ºC 116 units
234 kg/cm2 538/538ºC 11 units

2
246 kg/cm 538/566ºC 40 units
246 kg/cm2 566/566ºC 2 units
2
325 kg/cm 649/566ºC 1 units
(c) Germany
Germany is an advanced country is supercritical technology and has a lot of
supercritical thermal power plants.
Supercritical power plants with 28 units (17,286 MW) were constructed

between 1969 and 2001.
The unit capacity increase to 300 MW in 1969 and achieved 1,000 MW in

2001.
Steam parameters of MSP280kg/cm2 and MST580ºC / RST600ºC were

achieved in 2000 while they were MSP230kg/cm2 and MST532ºC /RST533ºC in
1969.

plants in Germany are shown in Table 3-9 below.
Table 3-10: Steam Parameters of Supercritical Plants in Germany

Steam Parameters No. of Units Year
MSP230-298 kg/cm2 MST 527-537/RST 533-543ºC 13 1969-1989
MSP243-257 kg/cm2 MST 542/RST 566ºC 7 1993-1997
MSP250-266 kg/cm2 MST 541-577/RST 580-588ºC 6 1992-2001
MSP260-280 kg/cm2 MST 575-580/RST 600ºC 2 1999-2000
Advanced supercritical plants in Germany are listed in Table 3-10 below.
Table 3-11: Advanced Supercritical Plants in Germany

Capacity Year in
Utility Steam Parameter
(MW) Operation
MST (kg/cm2) x MST (ºC) / RST

PAGE 29 OF 163
(ºC)
Bexbach 2 750 260x575/600 1999
Lippendorf R-S 2x930 265x550/582 1999-2000
Niedderaussem K 980 280x580/600 2000
Frimmcrdorf 1000 250x577/588 2001
Supercritical thermal power plants in Germany are summarized in Annexure

3.3
(d) Russia
Supercritical power plants with 67 units aggregating to 29,730MW were
constructed between 1964 and 1996.

plants in Russia are shown in Table 3-11.
Table 3-12: Steam Parameters of Supercritical Plants in Russia

2
MSP240 kg/cm MST540/RST54OºC 65 1969-1996
MSP255 kg/cm2 MST545/RET545ºC 1 1996
MSP255 kg/cm2 MST565/RST575ºC 1 1968
Supercritical thermal power plants in Russia are summarized in Annexure 3.4.
(e) China
China has constructed supercritical power plants with progressive increase
since 1995, and the total installed capacity had reached 32 units with thermal
output of 19,800 MW in 2006.
Furthermore, power plants with 37 units and capacity 23,800 MW have been
under construction after 2006. Steam parameters and number of units of
supercritical plants in China are shown in Table 3-12 below.
Table 3-13: Steam Parameters of Supercritical Plants in China

MSP246 kg/cm2 MST540/RST 540ºC 5 1999-2006
MSP246 kg/cm2 MST53S/RST 566ºC 13 1997-2006
2
MSP246 kg/cm MST566/RST 566ºC 12 2004-2006
MSP259 kg/cm2 MST600/RST 600ºC 2 2006
Supercritical thermal power plants in China are summarized in Annexure 3.5
(f) Other Countries

Supercritical thermal power plants with total 156 units aggregating to 58,720
MW capacity in 22 countries/ areas such as the Denmark, Netherlands, Britain,
Italy, Ukraine, Uzbekistan, South Korea and Taiwan have been constructed
and are operating successfully.
Supercritical thermal power plants in Other Countries are summarized in

Annexure 3.6.

PAGE 30 OF 163
It is seen that, large number of supercritical plants with 552 units aggregating
to 309,800 MW capacity have been constructed and put in operation in
Europe, USA, Japan and China since 1960s. Supercritical technology is now
established in almost all the countries in the world and the technology can be
estimated as a proven technology in the power sector.

PAGE 31 OF 163
(2) Availability of Supercritical Plants

Availability of supercritical plants is analyzed and evaluated by utilizing the
public reports/data issued by EPRI(USA), VGB (Germany), JEPIC (Japan) and
FEPC (Japan) as follows.
(a) EPRI Report

The data below shows the comparison of supercritical and subcritical coal-fired
unit performance on Availability Factor for several size ranges from 1982 to
1984.
Table 3-14: Availability Factor (%) 1982-1984

Size Range (MW) 300-399 400-499 500-599 600-799 800+
Subcritical 76.5 77.4 76.3 78.5 77.2
Supercritical 64.4 74.6 73.8 74.2 75.6
In1982-1984, supercritical units had lower availability factor than subcritical

units of the order of a few percentage points.
(b) VGB Report

The data below shows the comparison of supercritical and subcritical
performance regarding Availability Factor from 1988 to 1997.
Table 3-15: Availability Factor (%) 1988-1997

Year 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 88-97
Subcritical 84.2 82.5 84.1 84.9 84.5 82.0 83.8 83.7 86.6 88.5 84.4
Supercritical 80.2 74.9 84.2 85.2 87.1 89.8 83.0 84.7 79.5 90.3 84.0
Availability of supercritical units was almost equal to that of subcritical units

from 1988 to 1997. In 1997, availability factor of supercritical unit was
superior to that of subcritical unit.
(c) JEPIC/FEPC Data

JEPIC / FEPC collected the data on the availability factor of subcritical /
supercritical coal-fired power plants of Japan in 1994. These are summarized
in Table 3-15.
Table 3-16: Availability Factor (%) in 1954

Rated Output Availability Factor
Nos. of Unit
(MW) (%) (Average)
Subcritical 12 250-350 83.4
Supercritical 20 600-1,000 88.1
According to these data, supercritical units had higher availability than

subcritical units by 4.7 percentage points.
The detailed availability data for subcritical and supercritical plants in Japan,
available in J-POWER was compiled and evaluated. In this survey, no
significant difference in availability between subcritical and supercritical plants
in recent years was noticed.

PAGE 32 OF 163
It is apparent from the availability data for supercritical units installed

worldwide, that supercritical units cannot be differentiated from conventional
subcritical units with respect to unit availability.

PAGE 33 OF 163
AVAILABILITY OF MANUFACTURES OF
SUPERCRITICAL PLANTS

PAGE 34 OF 163
AVAILABILITY OF MANUFACTURERS SUPERCRITICAL PLANTS

1.2 SUPERCRITICAL PLANT MANUFACTURERS IN INDIA
At present, Bharat Heavy Electricals Ltd. (BHEL) is the only manufacturer of
supercritical thermal power plants in India. BHEL has Technical Collaboration
Agreement with Alstom, France for the manufacture of “once through boilers”
of both single pass and two pass designs used in supercritical plants. The
agreement provides for transfer know how from Alstom to BHEL.
BHEL, also, has Technical Collaboration Agreement with Siemens, Germany

for the complete range of Steam Turbines and Generators. BHEL will be able
to manufacture large unit rating machines of Siemens design under their
agreement.
BHEL is implementing capacity addition at its Hardwar plant for Steam turbine
and Generator and at Trichy plant for Boilers to augment its manufacturing
capacity for thermal units of existing range as also supercritical sets of 800
MW and 1,000 MW.
In addition to BHEL, Larsen & Toubro Ltd (L&T) has Cooperation Agreement
with Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Ltd. (MHI), Japan for transfer of technology
for supercritical boilers. Under the agreement, MHI will transfer design and
engineering know-how to L&T who will initially manufacture part of the boiler
in India and increase indigenous content in a phased manner.
In addition to the above two, few other companies are planning to setup
manufacturing plant in India. Their proposed commissioning capabilities are
shown in table below:
Capability

PAGE 35 OF 163
1.3 SUPERCRITICAL PLANT, MANUFACTURER OUTSIDE INDIA

There are a number of large manufacturers of supercritical plants in the
world.
The main manufacturers are:

• Siemens AG, Germany
• Alstom SA, France
• Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Ltd., Japan
• Technoprom Export, Russia
• Doosan Heavy Industries, Korea
• Babcock Hitachi, Japan
• Ishikawajima Harima Heavy Industries (IHI), Japan
• Toshiba Corporation, Japan
• Hitachi Ltd, Japan
• Harbin Power, China
• Dong Fang Electric, China
• Shanghai Electric Corporation, China
• Hitachi Ltd, Japan
• General Electric Power System, U.S.A,
• Ansaldo Energia, Italy
1.4 DELIVERY PERIODS

Manufacturing capabilities for supercritical plants are available in India
presently with two manufacturers. Manufacturing capabilities for supercritical
and ultra- supercritical plants are available, however, with a large number of
manufacturers in other countries and some of them have some
manufacturing or commercial presence in India already. Choice of a
manufacturer suitable to meet specific requirements of any developer at an
economical price is available. The main problem, at present, is the
comparatively long delivery period on account of the order books of most of
the manufacturers being full already. Shorter delivery periods are likely to
invite higher prices and a balance has to be arrived at between the benefits
of early commissioning as against those of lesser initial capital cost.

PAGE 36 OF 163
SPECIAL MATERIALS FOR SUPERCRITICAL

PLANTS

PAGE 37 OF 163
SPECIAL MATERIALS FOR SUPERCRITICAL PLANTS

BOILER
Basic boiler design criteria guidance to be followed for the boiler as follows for
utilizing the Indian erosive high ash content coal as follows.
Materials for Boilers in Ultra Supercritical Power Plants

Improving the efficiency of pulverised coal (PC) power plants, by increasing
the temperature and pressure of the working fluid (steam) has been pursued
for many decades. Figure 5-1 illustrates the improvements in heat rate that
can be achieved by increasing steam temperature and pressure by use of
advanced steam conditions.
Figure 5-4: Improvement in heat rate (efficiency) achieved by increasing steam

temperature and single and double cycles , compared to the base case of 535ºC/189
kg/cm2.
Eddystone 1 power plant in USA commissioned in 1959 was one of the first
supercritical plant designed to operate under steam conditions of 346 kg/cm 2

PAGE 38 OF 163
and 650/565/565°C (1200/1050/1050°F). The plant has been operational

since 1959 but has operated under rated conditions of 330 kg/cm2 and 605°C
for most of its service life, because of mechanical and metallurgical problems.
Most of the problems were due to the use of austenitic steels for heavy
section components operating at high temperatures. These steels have low
thermal conductivity and high thermal expansion resulting in high thermal
stresses and fatigue cracking. These problems and the general low
availability of many supercritical plant due to "teething" problems temporarily
dampened utility interest in building super or ultra supercritical plants and
consequently most utilities reverted back to plants with sub-critical conditions
of about 525°C and 173 kg/cm2.
EPRI initiated a study of the development of more economic coal-fired power

plants in 1978. A number of research and development activities was initiated
involving US, Japanese and European manufacturers. These activities focused
on developing further the existing high-temperature-resistant ferritic-
martensitic 9%Cr and 12%CrMoV steels for the production of rotors, casings
and chests, pipes and headers capable of operating at inlet steam
temperatures of up to 650°C. One of the early conclusions from this project
was that the construction of a plant with a 593°C/ 316 kg/cm 2steam condition
would be feasible with only minor evolutionary improvements in materials
technology. This has proved to be correct as evidenced by the spate of power
plants built in Japan and Europe over the last decade. In Japan, nearly 16
plants, most of them with typical main steam temperature of about 593°C
and pressure of 245 kg/cm2 are operational. In Europe, nearly a dozen plants
are operational with main steam temperature/ pressure or 583°C
(1080°F)/305.91 kg/cm2 (4200 psi).
An improvement in thermal efficiency of the plant not only reduces the

operating costs but also reduces the release of SO2, NOx and CO2 emissions.
The latter is very significant in view of die world-wide agreements to reduce
CO2 emissions by 2010 and the fact that a 1% increase in efficiency of an 800
MW machine would lead to a life-lime reduction in CO2 approaching one
million tones. These environmental factors have provided an added incentive
to building SC & USC plants in recent years.
Intense R&D efforts have been carried out in Japan, USA and Europe to evolve
materials suitable for temperatures of 593°C and beyond. In each case, a
phased approach was adopted. In USA, the phases of development were
defined as shown in Table 5-1, where the temperatures given are for the main
steam and first and second reheats.
Table 5-17: Steam conditions for coal-fired plants in EPRI program

EPRI Program Pressure Temperature
Phase kg/cm2 °C
0 22.21 566/566/566
1 22.21 593/593/593
1B 22.21 620/620/620
2 24.39 649/649/649
The Phase 0 conditions were considered to be achievable with the state-of-
the-art technology in 1978 while the Phase 1 conditions were considered to
be achievable with only minor improvements. The technology needed for
phase 2 was considered well beyond reach and hence, an intermediate goal

PAGE 39 OF 163
of 620-630°C 305 kg/cm2 was introduced. For convenience, this Phase may
be referred to as phase IB. Although the material developments For Phase 2
have not been fully achieved, technology exists today that will enable
building plants that can meet Phase IB conditions. This has been made
possible by the development of highly creep resistant 9 to l2%Cr ferritic
steels.
EPRI performed review of materials technology for ultra supercritical power

plants. The results of the review show that high strength ferritic 9-12Cr steels
for use in thick section components are now commercially available for
temperatures up to 620°C. Initial data on two experimental 12Cr ferritic
steels indicate that they may be capable of providing long term service up to
650°C. Advanced austenitic stainless steels for use in super- and reheater
tubing are available for service temperatures up to 650°C and possibly
700°C. None of these steels have been approved by the ASME Boiler Code
Group so far. Higher strength materials are needed for upper water walls of
boilers with steam pressure above 245 kg/cm2. A high strength 2-1/2%Cr steel
ASME code approved alloy T-23 is the preferred candidate material for this
application.
Boiler Materials Requirements

The key components whose performance is critical for supercritical and ultra
supercritical plants are high-pressure steam piping and headers, superheater
tubing and waterwall tubing. All of them have to meet creep strength
requirements. In addition, pipes and headers, being heavy section
components, are subject to fatigue induced by thermal stresses.
Ferritic/martensitic steels arc preferred because of their lower coefficient of
thermal expansion and higher thermal conductivity compared to austenitic
steels. Many of the early problems in the SC & USC plants were traceable to
the use of austenitic steels which were highly prone to thermal fatigue.
Research during the last decade has, therefore, focused on developing cost-
effective, high-strength ferritic steels that could be used in place of austenitic
steels. This has resulted in development of ferritic steels capable of operating
at metal temperatures up to 620°C, with good weldability and fracture
toughness.
Superheater and reheater (SH/RH) tubing application calls for high creep
strength, thermal fatigue strength, weldability, resistance lo fireside
corrosion/erosion and resistance to steamside oxidation and spallation.
Thermal fatigue resistance as well as cost considerations would dictate the
use of ferritic/martensitic steels. Unfortunately, the strongest of these steels
which can be used up to metal temperature of 620°C purely from a creep
strength point of view are still limited by fireside corrosion to metal
temperature of 593°C. This corresponds to a steam temperature of about
565°C since SH/RH metal temperature can exceed the steam temperature by
as much as 28°C. Excessive corrosion of ferritic steels caused by liquid iron-
alkali sulfates in the lube deposits is an acute concern, where high sulfur
corrosive coals are used more frequently than elsewhere. Therefore high
strength ferritic stainless steels such as T-91 are infrequently used. The
standard practice is to use T-22 for the lower temperatures and SS304H or
SS347 for the highest temperatures.
With respect to waterwall tubing, the concern is twofold. High supercritical

pressures and the use of high heat release furnaces will increase the

PAGE 40 OF 163
waterwall temperatures to the point that easily weldablc low alloy steels such
as T-113 (1.25Cr, 0.5Mo) have insufficient creep strength. Higher strength
steels such as T-91 are available, but require postweld heat treatments. The
second concern is corrosion. Recent results in on boilers retrofitted with low
NOx burner systems indicate that the present low alloy steels can suffer from
excessive corrosion, as high as 2 mm/yr. Weldable high strength alloys clad
or overlaid with high Cr alloys have to be utilized to reduce or eliminate
excessive corrosion.
Historical Evolution of Steels

Masuyama has presented an excellent historical perspective on the
development of steels for power plants as shown in Figure 5-2. The figure
shows 105h creep rupture strength at 600°C (1112°F) by year of
development. They classify the ferritic steel development in terms of four
generations as shown in Table 5-2.

PAGE 41 OF 163
Figure 5-5: Historic evolation of materials in terms of increasing creep rupture

strength
Table 5-18: Evolution of Four Generations of Ferritic Steels

Strength 105
hr Creep Maximum
Generation Years Alloy Modifications Rupture Example Alloys Metal Use
Achieved Temp. °C
kg/cm2
1 1960-70 Addition of Mo or Nb, V 611.82 EM 12, HCM9M, 565
to simple 12Cr and 9Cr HT9, Tempaloy
Mo steels F9.HT91
2 1970-85 Optimization of C, Nb.V 1019.71 HCMI2.T91, 593
HCM2S
3 1985-95 Partial substitution of 1427.60 P-92, P-122 620
W Tor Mo (HCMI2A, NF616)
4 Emerging Increase of W and 1835.48 NFI2.SAVEI2 650
addition of Co
In the field of austenitic steels, efforts were made from the 1970s to the
early 1980s to improve conventional l8Cr-8Ni series steels originally
developed as corrosion resistant materials for chemical use, mainly with
respect to their creep strength. Another goal pursued from the 1980s to the

PAGE 42 OF 163
early 1990s was to improve the creep strength of conventional 20-25Cr

series steels having superior oxidation and corrosion resistance.
Evolution of Ferritic Steels

Ferritic sled developments are mostly aimed at their use for thick section
pipes and headers. Table 5-3 shows the chemical compositions of ferritic
steels for power boilers. The systematic evolution of these steels has been
thoroughly reviewed by Masuyama, as shown in Figure 5-3. Among the 9%Cr
steels fully commercialized, the P91 steel has the highest allowable stress
and has been extensively used all over the world as a material for headers
and steam pipes in ultra supercritical plants operating at steam
temperatures up to 593°C. Alloy NF6I6 (P-92), developed by substituting part
of the Mo in P91 by W, has an even higher allowable stress and can be
operated up to steam temperatures of 620°C. E911 is a European alloy
similar in composition to NF6I6 with similar capabilities. Beyond 620°C, the
9%Cr steels become limited by oxidation resistance and 12%Cr steel and
austenitic steels have to be used.

PAGE 43 OF 163
105h Creep Rupture Strength at 600°C

First Generation Second Third Fourth
Generation Generation Generation
357 kg/cm2 612kg/cm2 1020 kg/cm2 1428 kg/cm2 1835 kg/cm2
+V
2.25Cr-1Mo 2.25Cr-1MoV 2.25Cr-1.6MVNb
+Mo
HCM2S
ASME T22 9Cr-2Mo (ASME T23
(STBA24) STBA24J1)
+Mo HCM9M
+V (STBA 27
+N
9Cr-1Mo 9Cr- 2MoVNb
EM12 V.Nb +Mo

ASME T9 Optimize
+V (NFA 49213) +W
(STBA26) d E 911
+Nb
9Cr- 1MoVNb
9Cr- 1MoVNb 9Cr-0.5 Mo-
1.8WVNb
Tempaloy F-9 ASME T91
(STBA28)
NF616
(ASME T92 +W
STBA29) +Co
+Mo
12Cr-0.5Mo- 12Cr-WCo-
12Cr 12Cr-0.5Mo
1.8WVNb NiVNb
AISI 410 -C -Mo

+Mo +W +W
+v TB12 +W NF12
+Nb +Cu
+Co
+W
12Cr-
12Cr-1Mov 12Cr-1Mo- 12Cr-0.5Mo- 12Cr-
1MoWV
1WVNb 2 WCuVNb WCoVNb
HT91 HT9
(DINX20C (DINX20C HCM12 HCM12A (ASME
r r (SUS410J T122
MoV121) MoV121) 2TB) SUS4410J3TB)
Figure 5-6: Evolution of ferritic steels for boiler

PAGE 44 OF 163
Table 5-19: Nominal Chemical Compositions of Ferritic Steels for Boilers

Specification Chemical Com Mass %) Manufacturers
position
Steels ASME J1S C Si Mn Cr Mo W Co V Nb B N Others
1-1/4 Cr T11 T11 0.15 0.5 0.45 1.25 0.5 -- -- -- -- -- -- --
MFIH 0.12 -- -- 1.25 1.0 -- -- 0.20 0.07 -- -- -- Nippon Steel
2Cr F22 T22 STBA24 0.12 0.3 0.45 2.25 1.0 -- -- -- -- -- -- --
SCM2S T23 STBA24J1 0.06 0.2 0.45 2.25 0.1 1.6 -- 0.25 0.05 0.003 -- -- Sumitomo
Tempaloy 2.0 0.6 1.0 0.25 0.05 -- NKK
F-2W
9Cr T9 T9 STBA26 0.12 0.6 0.45 9.0 1.0 -- -- -- -- -- -- Vallourec-Mannesman
HCM9M — STBA27 0.07 0.3 0.45 3.0 2.0 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- Sumitomo
T91 T9I STBA28 0.10 0.4 0.45 3.0 1.0 0.20 0.08 0.05 0.8Ni Vallourec-Mannesman
Sumitomo
E911 0.12 0.2 0.51 3.0 0.94 0.9 -- 0.20 0.06 0.06 0.25Ni
12Cr HT91 (DINx20CrMoV121) 0.20 0.4 0.60 12.0 1.0 -- -- 0.25 -- -- -- 0.5Ni Vallourec Mannesman
HT9 (DIN x 20 Cr MoWV 0.20 0.4 0.60 12.0 1.0 0,5 -- 0.25 -- -- -- 0.5Ni Vallourcc Mannesman
121)
Tempaloy 12.0 0.7 0.7 -- NKK
F12M
HCMI2 SUS410J2T 0.10 0.3 0.55 12.0 1.0 1.0 -- 0.25 0.05 0.03 --
B
TB12 -- -- 0.08 0.05 0.50 12.0 0.50 1.8 - 0.20 0.05 0.30 0.05 0.1Ni
HCM12A T122 SUS410J3T 0.11 0.1 0.60 12.0 0.4 2.0 -- 0,20 0.05 0.003 0.06 1.0Cu Sumitomo
B
NF12 -- -- 0.08 0.2 0.50 11.0 0.2 2.6 2.5 0.20 0.07 0.004 0.05 -- Nippon Steel
SAVE 12 -- -- 0.10 0.3 0.20 11.0 -- 3.0 3.0 0.20 0.07 -- 0.04 0.07Ta, Sumitomo
0.04Nd
E040/ REPORT boben PAGE 45 OF 163

`DESIGN, INSTALLATION & OPERATION
Among the l2%Cr steels, HT91 has been widely used for tubing, headers and
piping in Europe. Use of the steel in Japan and US has been limited due to its
poor weldability. HCM12 is an improved version of HT91 with 1% W and 1%
Mo, having a duplex structure of 5-ferrite and tempered martensite with
improved weldability and creep strength. Further increases in creep strength
by substituting more of the Mo with W and addition or Cu has resulted in alloy
HCM12A (P-122), which can be used for header and piping up to 620°C - Two
alloys NF12 and SAVE12 having an even higher creep strength than HCMI2A
are in the developmental stage. NF12 contains 2.5%Co, 2.6%W and slightly
higher B compared to HCM12A. SAVE12 contains 3% Co, 3% W, and minor
amounts of Ta and Nb. These latter elements contribute to strengthening by
producing fine and stable nitride precipitates. HCM2S (T-23), a low carbon 2-
1/401.6W steel with V and Mb, is a cost-effective steel with higher creep
strength than T22. Because of its excellent weldability without pre- or post-
weld heat treatment it is a good candidate for waterwall tubing.
The role of alloying elements in development of the ferritic steels has been
extensively investigated. W and Mo and Co are primarily solid solution
strengthened. V and Nb contribute to precipitation strengthening by forming
fine and coherent precipitation of M(C, N)X carbonitrides in the ferritc matrix.
Vanadium also precipitates as VN during tempering or during creep. The two
elements arc more effective in combination at levels of about 0.25%V and
0.05%Nb. Chromium contributes to solid solution strength as well as to
oxidation and corrosion resistance. Nickel improves the toughness but at the
expense of creep strength. Partial replacement of Ni by Cu helps stabilize the
creep strength. Carbon is required to form fine carbide precipitates but the
amount needs to be optimized for good weldability.
Atom probe results have shown that boron enters the structure of M23C6 and
boron segregates to M23C6 - matrix interface. It has also been suggested that
boron helps reduce coarsening of M23C6 and that boron also assists in
nucleation of VN, the mechanism of “latent creep resistance.
Cobalt is an austenite stabilizer and developers of NFI2 suggest that is why

they used cobalt additions. Cobalt is known to delay recovery on tempering of
martensitic steels. Cobalt also promotes nucleation of finer secondary
carbides on tempering. This is attributed both to its effect on recovery and its
effect on the activity of carbon. Cobalt also slows coarsening of alloy carbides
in secondary hardening steels. This was suggested to be the result of cobalt
increasing the activity of carbon and cobalt not being soluble in alloy
carbides. Results of Hidaka suggest that Co has a positive effect on creep
rupture stress.
Evolution of Austenitic Steels

Austenitic steels are candidates primarily in the finishing stages of
superheater/reheater tubing, where, oxidation resistance and fireside
corrosion become important in addition to creep strength. From a creep
strength point of view, T91 is limited to 565°C steam (metal 593°C) and
NF616, HCM12A and E911 arc limited lo 593°C steam (metal 620°C). Even
the strongest ferritic steel today is limited to 593°C (metal temperature) from
an oxidation point of view. At temperatures above these, austenitic steels are
required. Hence there has been considerable development with respect to
austenitic stainless steels. In actual practice, in SS304M and SS347 are widely
E040/ REPORT/MARCH 2009 PAGE 46 OF 163

`DESIGN, INSTALLATION & OPERATION
used the U.S. instead of T-91 in superheater applications, mainly because

they are easier to weld, while the cost difference is relatively small.

Table 5-4 lists the compositions of various stainless steels for SH/RH lube applications.
Table 5-20: Nominal Chemical Compositions of Austenitic Steels for Boiler (wt%)
Specifications
ASME JIS C Si Mn Ni Cr Mo W V Nb Ti B Others
18Cr-8Ni TP304H SUS304HTB 0.08 0.6 1.6 8.0 18.0 -- -- -- -- -- -- -
Super 304H SUS304JIHT B 0.10 0.2 0.8 9.0 18.0 -- -- -- 0.40 -- -- 3.0Cu, 0.10N
TP321H SUS321HTB 0.08 0.6 1.6 10.0 18.0 -- -- -- -- 0.5 -- -
Tempaloy A-1 SUS321JIHT B 0.12 0.6 1.6 10.0 18.0 -- -- -- 0.10 O.OS -- -
TP316H SUS316HTB 0.08 0.6 1.6 12.0 16.0 2.5 -- -- - -- -- ..
TP347H SUSTP347H TB 0.08 0.6 1.6 10.0 18.0 - - -- 0.8 - - -
TP347 HFG 0.08 0.6 1.6 10.0 18.0 - - - 0.8 - -- -
15Cr-15Ni 17-l4CuMo 0.12 0.5 0.7 14.0 16.0 2.0 -- - 0.4 0.3 0.006 3-0Cu
Esshete 1250 0.12 0.5 6.0 10.0 15.0 1.0 0.2 1.0 - 0.06 --
Tempaloy A-2 0.12 0.6 1.6 14.0 15.0 1.6 -- -- 0.24 0,10 --
20-2SCr TP310 SUS310TB 0.08 0.6 1.6 20.0 25.0 - -- - - - -
TP310NbN SUS310J1TB 0.06 0.4 1.2 20.0 25.0 - -- - 0.45 - - 0.2N
NF707* 0.08 0.8 1.0 35.0 21.0 1.5 -- - 0,2 0.1 - -
Alloy 800H NCF800HTB 0.03 0.8 1.2 32.0 21.0 - - - - 0.5 - 0.4A1
Tempaloy A-3* SUS309J4HT B 0.05 0.4 1.5 15.0 22.0 - - - 0,7 - 0.002 0.15N
NF709* SUS310J2TB 0.15 0.5 1.0 25.0 20.0 1.5 -- - 0.2 0.1 -
SAVE25* 0.10 0.1 1.0 18.0 23.0 - 1.5 - 0.45 - - 3.0Cu. 0.2N
HighCr-High Ni CR30A* 0.06 0.3 0.2 50.0 30.0 2.0 - -- -- 0.2 -- 0.03Zr
HR6W* 0.08 0.4 1.2 43.0 23.0 - 6.0 - 0.18 0.18 0.003
Inconel 617 0.40 0.4 54.0 22.0 8.5 - - -- - - 12.5Co. 1.2A1
--
Inconel 671** 0.05 -- -- 51.5 43.0 -- -- -- -- -- --
* Not ASME code approved.
** Low strength material for use in co-extruded tubing. For weld overlays. IN72 (44%Cr-bal Ni) is the matching weld wire

\DESIGN, INSTALLATION & OPERATION
The austenitic steels fall into four categories: l5Cr, 18Cr, 20-25Cr and higher
Cr stainless steels. The various stages in the evolution of these steels have
consisted of initially adding Ti and Nb to stabilize the steels from a corrosion
point of view, then reducing the Ti and Nb content (underslabilizing) lo
promote creep strength rather than corrosion, followed by Cu additions for
increased precipitation strengthening by fine precipitation of a Cu rich phase.
Further trends have included austenite stabilization using 0.2% nitrogen and
W addition for solid solution strengthening. This development sequence is
illustrated in Figure 5-4.
Figure 5-7: Evaluation of authentic steels for boiler
Table 5-21: Candidate Materials for Advanced Supercritical Plants for Various
Steam Conditions
Phase 0 Phase 1 Phase IB Phase 2
316 kg/cm2 316 kg/cm2 316 kg/cm2 316 kg/cm2
Component
565/565/565°C 593/593/593°C 620/620/620°C 650/650/65O°C
(1050/1050/1050°F) 1050/1050/1050°F) 1050/1050/1050°F) 1050/1050/1050°F)
Headers/steam P22, HCM2S (P23) P9LP92.P122, E911 P92,PI22 E911, SAVE 12+ NF12+
pipes P91, P92, P122 NFI2, SAVE 12
Finishing SH non- T91, 304H, 347 TP347 HFG NF709 Super 304 H NF709 Inconel 617
corrosive Super 304 H/P-l 22*
Corrosive 310NbN(HR3C) 3IONbN(HR3C) 3I0NbN(HR3C) Cr30A
SS347/IN72** Super304H/IN72** NF 709/1N72**
Finishing RH Same as SH Same as SH Same as SH Same as SH
Water wall Lower C steel Tll,TI2, T22 T23 Same as Phase 1
wall Upper wall T11, T12, T22 (HCM12) Same as Phase 1
Clad with alloy
For low NOx Boilers containing >20% Cr Same as Phase 0 Same as Phase 0 Same as Phase 0
+ High S coal or chromized
E040/ REPORT/Boben Anto C PAGE 49 OF 163

* High strength ferritic alloys with 9%Cr arc suitable for steam piping and
headers, but may suffer excessive fire side oxidation. l2Cr steels may be
suitable, but further testing is needed.
** IN72 (44Cr, bal Ni) weld overlay for corrosion protection
+
Developmental Alloy
Choice of Materials for Headers and Steam Pipes

Ferritic steels for thick section applications at various temperatures are
shown in Table 5-5. Material-property requirements for headers and steam
pipes are likely to be similar, and hence they have been grouped together.
Some minor differences exist which may affect material selection. The steam
temperature is likely to be much more uniform in steam pipes, but subject to
time-dependent and location-dependent fluctuations in headers. Hence, the
thermal-fatigue-strength requirements are greater for headers than for steam
pipes. Self-weight-induced stresses are less important for headers than for
steam pipes, permitting heavier-wall construction and an attendant higher
temperature/pressure capability for a given material when used in headers.
An important difference is that headers have many welded attachments to
inlet stub tubes from reheaters and superheaters and intersections of outlet
nozzles connecting pipework. Depending on the selection of materials for the
superheater/reheater tubes and the header piping, dissimilar-metal welded
joints may be required. The integrity of such austenitic-to-ferritic welds, when
9 to l2%Cr steels form the ferritic components, needs to be more thoroughly
investigated.
Headers and pipes have traditionally been made from low alloy steels such as
P11 and P22. Even in conventional boilers, such headers can fail due to
thermal fatigue cracking, caused by cycling. A common failure mode is the
cracking of the ligaments between the tube boreholes. The use of higher
temperatures and pressures can only increase the problem. Previous
attempts lo use austenitic steels have not been successful due to high
thermal expansion of these steels.
Several candidate ferritic steels have emerged succeeding the P11 and P22
steels, which are capable of operation up lo 593°C. These include HT9, HT91,
HCM9M, HCM12 and P91. Alloys HT9 and HT91 are well-established steels
with an extensive stress-rupture database which exceeds 105 h at
temperatures in the range 500 to 600°C for all product forms. There is also
extensive operating experience (>20 years) in Germany, Belgium, Holland,
South Africa, and Scandinavia for steam temperatures up to 540°C (1000°F)
and some limited experience on a few small units with steam temperatures
from 560 to 580°C. This experience generally has been satisfactory.
Difficulties have. however, been reported during fabrication and particularly
during welding and post-weld heal treatment. This arises because the
relatively high carbon content of the steel (0.2%) and the correspondingly low
Ms temperature promote the possibility of austenite retention after welding,
high residual stresses, and cracking prior to and during stress relief. It is
reported that these problems have been overcome by careful control of
preheat treatment and post weld heat treatment backed up by vigorous
quality control. Difficulties have also been reported when the material has
been given inadequate solution heal treatment. Due lo these concerns, these

alloys have not found much favor in the United Slates, the United Kingdom, or
Japan. Alloys with improved weldability characteristics, such as HCM12M have
been adequately characterized for tubing and large-diameter, thick-wall
pipes.
With regard to the 9Cr-2Mo steel (HCM9M), the feasibility of fabrication of

large-diameter, (hick-wall piping and application to in-plant header and main
steam piping was first demonstrated in 1985. The practical use of this
material has been easy because its simple composition lends fabricability and
weldability comparable to those of low-alloy steels. The toughness of large-
diameter pipes has been found to be over 102 kg/cm 2 (460 ft-lb/in.2) at 0°C
(32°F). Allowable stresses arc comparable to those for the HT9 alloy, but
lower than those for P91. Service experience of nearly 25 years has
accumulated since the alloy was developed with about 2000 tons having been
produced specifically for SH/RH lubes and steam pipes.
The modified 9Cr alloy, P91, appears to be quite superior to HT9, HT-91 and lo
HCM9M in terms of creep-rupture strength and is, thus, the most promising
candidate for use in header and steam piping for temperatures up to 595°C
(I100°F). One of the early applications was by the Chubu Electric Power
Company (Kawagoe Power Station, Units 1 and 2) for 565°C (I050°F) steam
conditions as headers and steam pipes. A majority of the recent European
supercritical plants have utilized P91 as main steam and reheat piping.
Numerous retrofit applications have also been carried out for headers/steam
pipes. The alloy was approved by the ASME Boiler Code Committee for
various uses between 1983 and 1986 as T, P, F-91. Since that time, the alloy
has found applications worldwide and is available from many sources, since
the composition is not proprietary. It is especially popular in Europe, where it
proved superior in creep strength as well as weldability, compared lo the well-
known HT9I steel, used in supercritical boilers.
The high creep strength of grade 91 steel is due to small additions of V, Nb

and nitrogen, which lead to the precipitation of M23C6 carbides and (Nb, V)
carbonitrides, in addition to solution strengthening by Mo. Very extensive
studies were made world wide to evaluate the suitability of P-91 for heavy
section components. These included manufacturing studies, welding trials,
both similar and dissimilar, bending trials, both hot and cold, and various
mechanical tests, on both virgin and aged samples. The net result of all these
tests is that P-91 is now the preferred heavy section material for supercritical
boilers worldwide. However, most designers feel the use of P-91 will probably
be limited to steam conditions of about 593°C/254.92 kg/cm2. This is
especially the case in Europe, where the allowable creep strength is 254.92
about 10% lower than in Japan and the U.S.
Recent development in Japan has indicated that the creep strength of 9-12Cr.
Mo, V, Nb steels can be raised by about 30% through partial substitution of
Mo by W. This has spawned another round of intensive alloy development and
evaluation worldwide. Two of these steels, a 9Cr steel developed by Nippon
Steel NF6I6 (P-92) and a 12Cr steel HCMI2A developed by Sumitomo metals
(P-122) have been approved for use in boiler heavy section components by
ASME. Another W containing steel E-911 is in an advanced stage of
development in Europe. The allowable strength of the new steels at 600°C is
about 25% higher than that of P-91. Thus these steels should allow steam
temperatures up to 620°C and pressures up to 347 kg/cm2.

Figure 5-5 shows a plot of the allowable stress at various temperatures for
ferritic steels. The figure clearly shows the enormous advances in the
materials technology which have been made in the last 20 years. Especially
at the higher temperatures, the most advanced steels show allowable
stresses that arc nearly 2.5 to 3 times that of the workhorse steel in
conventional plants, i.e., 2-1/4Cr-lMo steel (P22). The layering of the alloys
into the different generations described earlier is also evident. HCM12A
(P122), NF616 (P92) and E911 emerge as the three highest strength alloys
suitable for ultra supercritical plants up to 620°C, followed by T91, HCM12,
EMI2. HCM9M and HT91 suitable for intermediate temperatures up to 593°C
followed by T22 for use up to 565°C. NF1'2 and SAVE12 are still
developmental but are expected to meet the Phase 2 goals. This rationale has
been incorporated in the materials selection shown in Table-5.6.
Figure 5-8: Comparison of allowable stress of ferritic steels for boiler
An interesting fact is that application of the new steels may actually result in
a capital cost reduction. Figure 5-5 shows the allowable design stresses and a
comparison of the relative wall thicknesses at various temperatures. At any
given temperature, higher allowable stresses for a material permit design of
thinner wall headers/pipes. This not only reduces thermal stresses, but also
reduces cost. From Figure 5-6, section thicknesses and materials costs can be
calculated as a function of temperature and pressure. Figure 5-7 shows the
results for a pressure of 316 kg/cm2. The cost of using high strength steel
becomes lower than that of P-22 steel at about 520°C. The cost of using the
W containing steel is lower than that of P-91 above about 550°C. These
relations do not change very much with decreasing pressure down to 203
kg/cm2. Actual fabricated and installed cost differences should be even larger

as the thinner pipes need less welding and arc easier to install. Fewer
supports are needed thus reducing costs further.
Figure 5-9: Comparison of allowable stresses and sectional view of main steam pipes
designed at 570ºC and 600ºC
European power stations using the most advanced steels NF616 (P92),
HCM12A (PI22) and E911 are shown in Table 5-22.
Figure 5-10: Cost of P-22, P-91 and P-122 steels header materials as a function of
temperature at 316 kg/cm2 steam pressure

Table 5-22: Application of New Tungsten-Bearing Steels in

European Power Stations
Steam
Power Station Material Grade Size Component Conditions °C/ Installation
kg/cm2
Vestkraft Unit 3 P92(NF616) ID 240 x 39 Straight PipeMain 560/254.92 1992
Steam
Nordjyllands-vacrkct P92 (NF616) P122 ID 160x45 Header 582/295.71 1996
(HCM12A)
Schkopau Unit B E91I ID 550 x 24 Induct. BendHot 560/71.38 1996
Reheat
Staudinger Unit 1 E9II ID 201x22 Induct. BendMain 540/217.19 1996
Steam
Skaerback Unit 3 E911 ID 230 x 60 Induct. BendMain 582/295.71 1996
Steam
GK. Kiel P92 ID 480 x 28 Header 545/54 1997
VEW E911 OD3J.8x4 Superheater 650 1998
Westfalen E911 ID 159 x 27 Steam Loop 650/183.54 1998
Westfalen P92 ID 159x27 Steam Loop 650/183.54 1998
There is considerable interest in using these alloys for outlet headers and
main steam and reheat pipe work. Full-scale headers have been being
installed in a 415MW supercritical plant under consideration by the Danish
utility, ELSAM. Headers using P92 and P122 have been constructed and
installed. Two of the headers will be tested under accelerated high-
temperature conditions in a high-pressure cell operated by Mitsubishi Heavy
Industries.
Some additional design considerations in applying the advanced steels are as

follows:
1. The high temperature strength of the advanced alloys, e.g. NF616,
HCM12A and E9II (P-92, P-122, E911) is essentially the same as that of
austenitic alloys. But oxidation resistance is less than that of austenitic
alloys. This parameter of advanced 9 to 12Cr alloys must be more fully
evaluated prior to application to high temperature parts.
2. Post weld heal treatment (PWHT) is always required for welded joints of
advanced 9 to 12 Cr alloys to ensure minimal stress and optimal
ductility. Design must allow to reduce field heat treatment as much as
possible to keep production and PWHT costs minimal.
3. In the weldment of dissimilar alloys, material selection must be based
on consideration of PWHT temperature. For example, the 9Cr-lMo alloy
and ICr-0.5Mo steel would not be acceptable material for the joints in a
longitudinal direction; measures must be taken to consider the
behavior of welded joint creep rupture strength.
4. It is the apparent susceptibility of ferritic steel welds to Type IV
cracking, which occurs at the edges of line grained HAZ material
adjacent to unaffected parent material. Susceptibility to this has been
clearly demonstrated for l/2CrMoV, 2-l/4Cr-IMo and 9Cr-IMo (T91)
steels. Safety margins of 10 to 20% are sometimes adopted to provide
for this problem. Since the problem in girth welds is primarily
associated with bending stresses, the problem can be overcome by
proper plant design and maintenance. This issue has therefore been
generally glossed over.
Choice of Materials for Superheater/Reheater Tubes

The superheater tubes in the boiler are likely lo undergo the most severe
service conditions and must meet stringent requirements with respect to fire-
side corrosion, streamside oxidation, creep rupture strength and fabric ability.
In addition, they must be cost-effective. Based on these issues candidate
materials for various steam conditioning have been summarised in Table 5-5.
The rationale for these selections is discussed in the following sections.
Creep Rupture Strength

In terms of creep rupture strength, application of ferritic steels for tubes
follow the same logic as for the headers/pipes discussed earlier. Thus, tubes
made of T22 should be limited to steam temperature of 538°C. Alloys T91,
HCM12, EM12. HCM9M and HT91 are limited lo steam temperature of 565ºC,
Alloys T-92, P-122 and E911 limited to steam temperature of 593°C. Under
corrosive conditions however, even the best ferritic steel may be limited to
563°C temperature and austenitic steels arc needed. Although the creep
resistance of 9Cr steels is adequate for use at 593°C, there is considerable
doubt about their fireside oxidation resistance. Thus 12Cr steels, such as
P122 are preferred.
In practice, the high Cr, high strength ferritics have found little use in the U.S.
because of perceived welding problems. T-22, SS30411 and SS347 are the
steels most commonly used in supercritical boilers (3500 psi) in the USA.
For convenience, austenitic steels can be classified as those containing less

than 20% Cr and those containing more than 20% Cr. Alloy modifications
based on the 18Cr-8Ni steels, such as TP304H, 316H, 34711 and Tempaloy A-
l, and alloys with lower chromium and higher nickel contents, such as 17-14
CuMo steel, Esshete 1250, and Tempaloy A2, fall into the classification of
steels with less than 20% Cr. The allowable tensile stresses for steels in this
class are compared in Figure 5-8. Tempaloy A1, Esshete 1250, and 17-14
CuMo steel are found to offer major improvements over the 300 series
stainless steels. It has been reported that grain-size modifications of AISI type
347H stainless steel can in some instances lead to rupture properties
somewhat better than those of Tempaloy A-1.

Figure 5-11: Comparison of allowable stresses 18Cr-18Ni and 15Cr steels
Several high-crcep-strength alloys containing more than 20% Cr, such as

NF707, NF709, and HR3C, have been developed, and offer low-cost
alternatives to Incoloy 800 for use in the temperature range from 650 to
700°C (1200 to 1290°F). A comparison of the ASME Code allowable stresses
for the high-chromium alloys is shown in Figure 5-9. Clearly, NF709 and HR3C
are leading candidates for use in the highest-temperature applications. The
latter steel was approved for use in boilers by ASME as SS310NbN. The
highest creep strength is achieved in Inconel 617, which contains 22% Cr, but
it is also likely to be the most expensive alloy to use, due to its high Ni
content.

Figure 5-12: Comparison of allowable stresses for austenitic alloys containing more
than 20% Cr.
A comparison of allowable temperatures at a constant allowable stress of 500

kg/cm2, as a function of chromium content, is shown in Figure 5-10. With
increasing chromium, a discontinuity is seen in the allowable metal
temperatures of austenitic steels, rising about 50°C (90CF) above those of
ferritic steels. In terms of increasing temperature capability, stable austenitic
alloys offer the highest capability, followed by melaslable austenitic steels,
and then by ferritic steels. The fully enhanced, stable austenitic alloys are
clearly capable of operating under phase 2 steam conditions (650°C, or
1200°F).

Figure 5-13: Allowable metal temperatures at constant allowable stress of 500 kg/cm2
(7ksi) as a function of chromium content for various alloys
Figure 5-14: Relationship between hot-corrosion weight loss and temperature for
ferritic steels

Fire-side Corrosion
Fireside corrosion results from the presence of molten sodium-potassium-iron
trisulfates. Because resistance to fireside corrosion increases with chromium
content, the 9 to 12% Cr ferritic steels are more resistant than the 2-1/4Cr-
lMo steels currently used. The 12% Cr in turn steel shows belter corrosion
resistance than 2-1/4% Cr steel and 9% Cr steel, as shown in Figure 5-11.
Stainless steels and other supcralloys containing up to 30% Cr represent a
further improvement. Increasing the chromium content beyond 30% results in
a saturation effect on the corrosion resistance at least in the laboratory, as
shown in Figure 5-12. For practical purposes, when corrosive conditions are
present, line distinctions between ferritic steels may be academic, and it is
usually necessary to use austenitic steels containing chromium in excess of
20%.
Figure 5-15: Relationship between hot-corrosion weight loss and chromium content
for various alloys
A ranking of the performance of various austenitic alloys in the presence of

trisulfates has been provided by Ohtomo on the basis of short-term laboratory
tests (see Figure 5-13). The plots or weight loss versus temperature exhibit a
bell-shape curve. At temperatures below 600°C (1110°F). corrosion is
believed to be low because the trisulfate exists in solid form. Above 750°C
(I380°F), corrosion rates arc once again low, as the trisulfates vaporize. The
worst corrosion problem is in the range 600 lo 750°C (1110 to I380°F). The
data indicate that the high-chromium alloys such as type 310 stainless steel
and Incoloy 800H arc superior to the other alloys tested and that Inconel 671
(Ni-50Cr) or its matching weld metal IN72 is virtually immune to attack.
Lower-chromium stainless steels, such as type 316H, type 321H, and Esshete
1250, show considerable susceptibility to attack. The alloy most susceptible

to attack seems to be the 17-14 CuMo alloy used in the Eddystone 1 plant.
Results of field probe studies confirm the following ranking of alloys in
increasing order of corrosion resistance: T91, HCM12, type 347 stainless
steel, Incoloy 800, and Inconel 671. In addition to alloy selection, other
“fixes’’ to minimize fire-side corrosion, such as shielding of the tubes may
also be applied, if economical.
Figure 5-16: Comparison of fire side corrosion resistance of various alloys
Test carried out in U.S.A indicate that substantial superheater corrosion can
occur, especially in high strength austenitic alloys with a low chromium
content. For most coals, high strength modified Alloy 800 type alloys such as
NF709, will probably have sufficient corrosion resistance, while for more
corrosive coals modified SS310 type alloys, e.g. HR3C, should given an extra
margin of safety. It is of interest to note here that a T-91 sample exposed in
the low sulfur coal fueled boiler had a corrosion loss similar to SS 347, which
is considerably less than that of SS 304 and 17-l4CuMo. A probable reason is
that scales and deposits usually adhere tight to ferritic/martensitic steels, but
spall readily from all austenitic steels.
Based on the favorable results from the air-cooled probes in one of the plants,
the SS304M reheater, which suffered from severe alkali sulfate corrosion was
replaced by one made from SS310 NbN (HR3C). Test sections of other alloys
were built into the reheater and carefully monitored. It was found thai
310NbN (HR3C) was a satisfactory material for 90% of the reheater, with less
than 0.25 mm/yr (10 mils/yr) corrosion. However in one area, about 10 tubes
wide and 10 ft (3m) high, corrosion rates ranged from 0.5 - 1.25 mm/yr (20-
50 mils/yr). Here the corrosion resistance of SS310 was about the same as
that of SS347 and alloy 800H. Only a Cr-Ni steel (Cr30A) with 30% Cr had
significantly lower corrosion rate, ranging from 0.125 - 0.5 mm/yr (5 - 20
mils/yr). Il is concluded that increasing the Cr content of the alloy from 18-

20% to 23-25% will significantly increase corrosion resistance, when the

corrosivity of the deposits is moderate, i.e. ≤ 0.5 mm/yr (20 mils/yr for 18-8
stainless steels). For more corrosive conditions, co-extruded tubes or weld
overlay claddings containing at least 40% Cr are strongly recommended.
Steam-side oxidation
Steam-side oxidation of tubes and exfoliation of the oxide scale and its solid-
particle erosion damage to the turbine are well known. This problem is
expected to be more severe in advanced steam plants, because the much
higher steam temperatures employed are likely to cause more rapid
formation of oxide scale.
Very limited data are available regarding the steam-side scale-growth

characteristics of the fcrritic tubing alloys. In a study by Sumitomo Metal
Industries, the oxide growth in steam for alloys T22 (2-14Cr-IMo), T9, HCM9M,
and the modified 9Cr-lMo (T91) were compared based on 500 hr tests.
Results showed the superiority of the T91 alloy over the other alloys.
Masuyama compared alloys HCMI2, HCM9M, 321H, and 347H in field tests in
the temperature range 550 to 625°C(1020 to 1155"F) over a period of one
year. Samples were inserted in the tertiary and secondary superheaters and
re heaters. From the results, it was concluded that the resistance to steam
oxidation of HCM12 is superior to those of 321H and HCM9M and comparable
to that of fine-grained 347H for exposure to the high-temperature region of
the reheater. Subsequent monitoring over a period of three years has borne
out these conclusions. In addition to the inherent resistance of HCMI2M steel
to steam-side oxidation, Masuyama suggests that the tendency toward
exfoliation or oxide scale would also be less for this alloy than for austenitic
steels. Additional improvements in 9 to 12% Cr steels may be possible by
extending the chromizing and chromate conversion treatments(30) that
currently arc applied to lower-alloy steels. Grain refinement during heat
treatment has been shown to be clearly beneficial as well. Internal shot
blasting is also known to improve the steam oxidation resistance of 300
series stainless steels by enhancing chromium diffusion. Il is therefore
anticipated that these steels would be used in the fine-grain and shot-peened
conditions.
Summary of SH/RH Tube-Material Status

Based on the discussion so far recommendations for materials selection have
been made. For phase 0 steam conditions, alloys T91, HCM12M, and AISI type
304 stainless steel are viable candidates for superheater and reheater tubing,
provided that fire-side corrosion is not a major problem. Under mildly
corrosive conditions, 310NbN stainless steel may be the most cost-effective
option. For severe corrosion cladding, SS304 with IN72 (44%Cr) is
recommended.
For intermediate-temperature applications corresponding to phase I steam

conditions (595°C, or 1100°F), Tempaloy A-l and type 347 fine-grained
stainless steel are deemed to be adequate in the absence of corrosive
conditions. Under mildly corrosive conditions, 310NbM stainless steel may
offer the best combinations of creep strength and corrosion resistance. For
severe corrosion, cladding with IN72 is recommended.

For phase 1B i.e. 620°C conditions Super 304H, Tempaloy AAI, Esshele 1250
and 17-14 CuMo may be acceptable under non-corrosive conditions. For
mildly corrosive conditions alloys with 20-25% Cr such as HR3C. and NF709
will have the best combination of creep strength and corrosion resistance. For
severe corrosion, cladding with IN 7 2 is again recommended.
For the highest-temperature application corresponding lo phase 2 steam

conditions (650/650°C. or 1200/1200°F). the creep strength requirements are
met by Inconel 617, 17-14 CuMo steel, Esshete 1250 and NF709. Among
these alloys, 17-14 CuMo steel and Esshele 1250 have inadequate corrosion
resistance and will have to be clad with corrosion-resistant claddings of
Inconel 671 If corrosive conditions are present. NF709 and CR30A may be
used without any corrosion protection for mildly corrosive conditions, but will
require cladding with IN72 for severely corrosive conditions.

Choice of Materials for Waterwalls

Metal Temperature Concerns
This issue has been discussed recently by Blum. In boilers operating at
625°C/326 kg/cm2, maximum midwall temperatures can be as high as 500-
525°C, depending on magnetite deposits at the inside of the tube. This means
that the creep resistance of standard low alloy ferritic steels such as T-l 1 is
not adequate. Originally T-91 steel was the only suitable substitute. Under the
COST program it was demonstrated that this material can be fabricated into
waterwalls. However a postweld heat treatment is required, which is difficult
to do in the field. Two steels containing 2.5 and 12Cr% respectively
developed by Sumitomo and Mill are more promising in that they do not
require preheat or postweld heat treatment. Both steels have creep strength
in the same range as T-91 and \ use similar precipitation strengthening
mechanisms. Especially the 2.5%Cr steel appears promising for this
application. It also has recently been approved by the ASME Boiler Code
Committee as T-23. Test panels are now in service in various boilers.
Waterwall Corrosion Concerns

Recent reductions in NOx emissions, mandated by the Environmental
Protection Agency in the USA have led to the introduction of deeply staged
combustion systems, in which the air/fuel ratio is significantly less than 1, and
additional combustion air is added above the burners via overfire air ports.
Several boilers in the USA retrofitted with such systems have reported severe
corrosion of low alloy steel waterwalls, with metal losses in the 1-3 mm/yr
(40-120 mil/yr) range. Supercritical units are generally more severely affected
than subcritical units and severe corrosion is generally limited to coals with
more than 1%S. However above 1%S there is no strict correlation between S
and corrosion rate. The highest corrosion losses are found in regions where
H2S rich substiochiometric flue gas mixes with air from the overfire air ports.
Laboratory studies indicate that the high corrosion rates cannot be explained
by the presence of H2S and CO in the flue gas alone. Work by Kung has shown
that corrosion rales in gas mixtures, actually found in boilers, containing 500-
1500 pm H2S and 5-10% CO, are generally less than 0.5 mm/yr (20 mils/yr) at
450°C. More recently it was shown that the presence of FeS deposits can
greatly increase the corrosion rate, but only under alternating
oxidizing/reducing conditions or oxidizing conditions alone. Figure 5-17 shows
corrosion losses of a low alloy steel, T-91 and SS-304 in the presence of FeS
containing deposits and a gas mixture containing 1% oxygen. Although the
corrosion rates arc probably artificially high, because of the short duration of
the test, it is clearly demonstrated that low alloy steels will corrode quite
rapidly in the presence of FeS deposits and an oxidizing gas. The tests further
show that claddings or weld overlays containing at least 18 and preferably
more than 20% Cr are needed to assure acceptably low corrosion rates.

Figure 5-17: Corrosion of steels containing 0.5-18% Cr under FeS containing deposits
in oxidizing flue gas
Summary
There has been extensive development in the strengthening of 9 to 12%
ferritic steels resulting in temperature/pressure capabilities well over the
conventional framework of 538°C 174 kg/cm2 for the steam. Nearly two dozen
plants have been commissioned worldwide with main steam temperatures of
585 to 600°C and pressures of 245-305 kg/cm2. Specific materials
developments with respect to key components are as follows:
For heavy section components such as pipes and headers. minimising

thermal fatigue has been a major driver in addition to achieving high creep
strength. For this reason, alloy development has focussed on ferritic steels
containing 9-12% Cr. Optimisation of C, Nb, Mo and V and partial substitution
of W for Nb in the 9-12% Cr fcrrtitic steels has resulted in three new alloys
HCM12A, NF616 and E911 (P92, P122 and E911) capable of operating up to
620ºC at steam pressures up to 347 kg/cm 2. Beyond 620ºC oxidation
resistance may become an additional limiting factor, especially for the 9%
containing steels. A newer class of 12% Cr alloys NF12 and SAVE 12,
containing cobalt and additional W is being evaluated for possible 650ºC
(I200ºF) application. It appears from preliminary results that austenitic steels
or Nickel alloys would be needed for temperatures exceeding 650ºC.
For SH/RH tubes steam side oxidation resistance, and fireside corrosion
resistance are major drivers in addition to creep resistance. Furthermore,
tube metal temperatures often exceed the steam temperature by as much as

28°C It is unlikely that any of ferritic steels can be used in the finishing stages
of SH/RH circuits at steam temperatures exceeding 565°C. Austenitic steels
need to be used at these higher temperatures. Depending on the corrosivity
of the coal used, higher Cr steels or clad steels may be required. For 620°C
application. Super 304H, Tempalloy AA1, Esheat 1250 and 17 CW-MO are
acceptable under non corrosive conditions while 20-25% Cr alloys such as
HR3C, NF709 and cladding with 1N72 are recommended for more corrosive
conditions. Several candidate alloys Inconcl 617, NF709 and Cr30A and alloys
clad with Inconcl 671 (50% Cr) arc available for use at 650°C. For upper
waterwall sections, two new steels containing 2.5 and 12% Cr known as
HCM2(T23) and HCM 12 respectively are very promising in terms of creep
strength and weldability. They are suitable for use in the range of 595-650°C
steam conditions purely from a creep strength point of view. When fireside
corrosion in low NOx boilers is an issue, these alloys will have to be clad or
weld overlaid with alloys containing more than 18-20%Cr.
Several boiler materials with improved mechanical properties have been

developed recently, and new materials still in the R&D stages will enable
higher ultra-supercritical steam cycles than are today commercially available.
Most materials development is being conducted under national or
internationally coordinated programs including the AO 700 / CQMTES 700
program funded by the European Commission, and the US Ultra-Supercritical
Materials Consortium sponsored by the US Department of Energy.

Materials Development Stages – and Related Steam Parameter Limits
Figure 5-18: Materials Development Stages and Related Steam Parameters Limits
E040/ REPORT/boben anto c PAGE 66 OF 163


TURBINE
Materials for Turbines in Ultra Supercritical Power Plants
The requirements for advanced steam turbine materials include commercial or near-
commercial availability, sufficient strength, steam oxidation resistance and
temperature capability at 650-750°C, appropriate physical properties (ie. thermal
expansion and conductivity) for the part/component being considered, fabric ability,
and acceptable cost. While there is some debate as to the actual upper temperature
limit of commercial advanced 9-12Cr ferritic/martensitic steels, it does appear that for
temperatures of 625-650°C or above, they do not have adequate strength or steam
oxidation resistance, and must be replaced by alloys with more performance and
reliability at higher temperatures.
Materials for Casings and Shells

Steam turbine casings are typically large structures, with complex shapes that must
provide the pressure containment for the steam turbine. Because turbine casing
components are massive, their cost has a strong impact on the overall cost of the
turbine. The materials used currently for inner and outer casings are the 1-2CrMo
steels, usually as castings. The temperature limit of these alloys in this application is
approximately 566°C, mainly due to their resistance to steam oxidation. For higher
temperatures, cast 9Cr-1MoVNb alloys are considered to be adequate in terms of
strength capabilities to 593°C, while the 12Cr steels in either cast or forged form
currently appear to be limited to 620°C, assuming acceptable steam oxidation
resistance. Casings made of cast martensitic/ferritic steels must still be heat-treated
and tempered to produce the best combination of high temperature strength and
ductile-to-brittle transition temperature (DBTT) behavior at low temperature.
In terms of strength, the next step up in cast alloys for casings logically would be an
austenitic stainless steel: cast 316 was used in Eddystone. However, problems
experienced with that-cast stainless steel, such as thermal fatigue cracking, led the
industry to discontinue use of such alloys in steam turbines. Recent modifications to
cast 347H (CF8C) stainless steel have resulted in development of a new steel, CF8C-
Plus developed by ORNL and Caterpillar, with creep strength better than NF709 and
Super304H, and close to that of the Ni-based superalloy 617.The possibility of using an
austenitic stainless steel in significantly thinner sections (due both to better castability
and much better strength) has the potential for reducing thermal fatigue sensitivity
compared to earlier cast stainless steels. This new properties data suggest this class of
alloys should be reconsidered for steam turbines.

LMP (C=20)
Figure 5-19: Plot of Creep Rupture Stress Versus Larson-Miller Parameter
Plot of creep rupture stress versus Larson-Miller Parameter (LMP) for cast CF8C-Plus
steel, and various wrought alloys including TP347HFG and Super 304H stainless steels,
NF709 stainless alloy, and superalloy 617. The upper axis reflects extrapolation to use
temperature for rupture life of I00,000h.

The CF8C-P!us steel was developed based on a unique "engineered microstructure"

method to be have a stable austenite matrix phase (free of delta ferrite) for resistance
to the aging-induced sigma phase embrittlement that plagues standard CF8C steel.
The high temperature creep strength of CF8C-Plus steel is based on stable nano-scale
dispersions of NbC within the grains. CF8C-Plus steel also has much higher creep-
rupture ductility (despite its higher strength) due to the lack of sigma or other
embrittling precipitate phases. CF8C-Plus also has outstanding fatigue and thermal
fatigue resistance. These properties are achieved in the as-cast condition without the
need for any additional heat-treatments, which is a benefit for large castings. CF8C-
Plus also has good castability, and in July 2004, MetalTek International used it to cast a
large gas turbine end-cover component (6,700 lb) of this new steel. Steam oxidation
behavior of CF8C-PIus steel is much better than 9-12Cr martensitic/ferritic steel 650CC
and should be comparable to other austenitic stainless steels and alloys to about
700°C or slightly higher temperatures.
For the highest temperatures, Ni-based alloys will be required, and the question will be
whether adequate strengthening can be developed in solid-solution strengthened cast
alloys, or whether age-hardenable wrought alloys will be needed. The candidate alloys
chosen for evaluation by the European AD700 program included both Fe-based
superalloys and Ni-base alloys: 155, 230, 263, 617, 625, 706, 718, 901, and Waspaloy.
There are strong incentives to minimize the temperature requirement for the outer
shell components by design, and to improve the quality of large 12-Cr
martensitic/ferritic and austenitic stainless steel castings. There is considerable
experience in producing castings of Inconel 625 and, in the European programs, data
were generated from trial castings of both Inconel alloys 617 and 625. A step-block
casting geometry was used for the prototypical component, and a full-scale valve chest
was cast in alloy 617. Considerable experience also exists for large forgings of alloys
such as IN 706 and 718, and long-term creep data are available for the wrought forms
of alloys such as 617, 625 and Haynes 230. Only a modified version of 617 (CCA617),
and the new alloy, Inconel 740, appear to meet the strength and creep-rupture criteria
for the 760°C goal of the U.S. USC steam boiler program.
The major materials needs are for Ni-based alloys for operation at 760°C with (i)
adequate creep rupture strength; (ii) ability to cast them into the required size and
shape, and to inspect for defects; and (iii) ability to perform initial fabrication welding
(on cast or wrought forms, including dissimilar metal welds), and to make repair welds
on aged material. Considerable experimental effort to generate data is required, and
will involve the development of rupture, creep, and rupture ductility relationships for
these materials.
Materials for Bolting

The major requirements for bolting materials are high resistance to stress relaxation
(ageing characteristics) at temperatures that can range up to the maximum steam
temperature experienced by the casing for the hot gas path; thermal expansion
characteristics compatible with those of the structure to be bolted; and low notch
sensitivity. There is a wide range of alloys available for this application, and the
specific alloy selection depends for the most part on the criteria used by each
manufacturer. In current usage, ferritic steels (variants of type 422 steel) are used up
to approximately 566°C, and the Ni-base Nimonic alloys are typically used for higher
temperatures. Based on world-wide experience, Nimonic 80A and a few proprietary
alloys (such as Refractaloy 26) appear to be good candidates for temperatures up to

593°C. For the bolting needs to 720°C in the. European program, and to 760°C in the
U.S. USC Steam Program, Ni-based alloys will be required.
Overall, for bolting, the choice of materials appears to be relatively straightforward.

There do not appear to be significant manufacturing issues, since these alloys are
available as bar stock
Materials for Rotors/discs

The HP rotor/discs will have to handle the highest steam conditions, so that a Ni-based
alloy will be required for temperatures greater than 620°C; a mitigating factor is that
this component may be relatively small (depending on the overall steam turbine
design). The IP rotor handles steam at the maximum system temperature, but at
reduced pressure. The strength requirement may be relaxed compared to the HP rotor,
but the issue of oxidation in steam remains. Materials selection for this component
may be a critical issue because of its size. For maximum overall efficiency, it would be
desirable also to increase the temperature of the steam entering the low-pressure (LP)
rotor. This component will require a NiCrMoV steel of the type in current use, but which
is likely to be susceptible to temper embrittlement in this application (>316°C). Resort
may be made to cooling of this rotor, or to alloy modification. Alternatively,
metallurgical processing changes may be introduced to reduce the susceptibility to
temperature embrittlement (by reducing the levels of P, Sn, Mn, Si).
The alloys most commonly used for steam turbine rotors and/or discs are the
CrMoVWNbN steels, which can vary in chromium content from 1-13% depending on the
preference of individual manufacturers. These alloys are widely used up to a
temperature limit of about 566°C, and the higher-W, lower-Nb and -C versions are
capable of 593°C. The issues for alloys for higher-temperature use are similar to those
for materials for steam piping. Versions of these ferritic steels, based on the advanced
9-12% Cr compositions, are already in service at steam temperatures of 600°C, and it
is expected that they will be usable to approximately 620°C (and possibly 650°C). Ni-
based alloys will be required for the higher temperatures, and candidates include
Inconel alloys 617, 625, and the new 740 and 718Plus alloys, and Haynes 230. Except
for 740 and 718Plus, these alloys are approved by the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel
Code (not required for rotors), so that a significant design database exists for them,
but more complex mechanical data, such as creep-fatigue and thermal-fatigue, is
needed.
The main issues for rotors/discs concern manufacturing, especially the capability to
produce large castings and forgings. With modern secondary steel making practices,
such as ladle furnaces, electroslag remelting to control freezing segregation, and
control of the sulfur and phosphorus levels in the alloy, very large rotors now can be
produced, but experience is related mostly to Cr-Mo-V alloys (used in current 541-
566°C plants), and for 12 Cr alloys (needed for advanced steam cycles to 620°C). A
further major issue, depending on the design approach used, is the need for
developing the techniques required for making dissimilar metal welds when Ni-based
alloys are used for the HP turbine and the lower alloy/ferritic steels used for the IP
turbine.
Materials for Blading

The current supercritical steam plants in the U.S. typically use vanes and blades made
from 12 Cr ferritic steels such as type 422, or proprietary alloys of similar composition.

For higher temperatures there is available a wide choice of wrought Ni-based alloys, for
which a substantial design database exists from their application in gas turbines. The
choice of blading material will depend on (i) the-temperature-of-the rotor, hence on the
thermal expansion characteristics of the component material, and (ii) the size and
shape of the blade, which will be designed using computational fluid dynamics
modeling. Steam-compatibility data for these materials will be required. Recent
research data on moisture effects on oxidation suggest that it will be important to have
higher-Cr levels in these alloys to avoid preferential internal attack in steam.
Consideration needs to be given to the problem of solid particle erosion from entrained
particles of oxide scale that may exfoliate from the superheater and reheater tubing.
While this problem may not be greater in USC turbines than problems encountered in
current steam turbines, it will be prudent to ensure that erosion-mitigating coatings
technology is available and compatible with new high-temperature blading materials.
Summary
Chemical composition of alloys considered for steam turbines is given in
Table 5-7. Summary of materials considered suitable for different components of high
pressure steam turbines in given Table 5-8.
The issues regarding materials and manufacturing resulting from the need for turbines
to operate under ultra-supercritical steam conditions are summarized in Table 5-9,
which attempts to provide a simple ranking of the level of effort needed to provide
materials choices for three target steam temperatures, 620, 700, and 760°C. In the
Table, the level of effort required is given a numerical rating, from 1-5, where '5'
suggests that considerable research and development will be needed, while a ranking
of '1' indicates that most of the capability required is already available.
Role of owner of plant

The development of materials for fabrication and manufacture of different components
of supercritical power plants described in this section indicates that material
technology for these plants has matured and stabilised. The problems faced in the
early years of development of SC technology were, mostly, material related and led to
low availability of early SC plants established in USA as compared to sub-critical plants
due to higher planned and unplanned outages of SC plants. With development of
suitable materials to take care of higher pressures, higher temperature and higher
requirement of creep strength, availabilities of both type of plants later converged and
now availabilities of SC plants are better than those of sub-critical plants of similar
capacity.
Different manufacturers, however, may use different materials for the same
components depending upon their experience, availability of materials and economic
considerations. The purchaser of the plant is not in a position to specify the materials
to be used nor is he in a position to do so. The purchaser has to specify the ambient
conditions, the quality of coals, requirements of sliding pressure and ramp-up rates
grid code and conditions minimum acceptable efficiency and any other desired
operating parameters. The purchaser has to depend, then, upon the manufacturer to
design his plant accordingly for which he will offer performance guarantees.

Table 5-23: Chemical Compositions of Alloys considered for Steam Turbines (in weight
percent)
Alloy Fe Ni C Co Cr Nb Mo W Ti A1
T92 Bal 0.4 0.1 — 9 0.1 0.5 1.8 — —
Type 422 Bal 0.7 0.22 — 12 — 1 1 — —
T122 Bal 0.3 0.1 — 12 0.05 0.4 2 — —
Nimonic 901 Bal 42.5 0.04 1 12.5 — 6 — 3 0.3
A286 Bal 26 0.05 — 15 — 1 — — 2
Type 316 Bal 11-14 0.06 — 16-18 — 2-3 — — —
Type 347H Bal 10 0.08 — 18 0.8 — — —. —
NF7091 Bal 25 0.1 — 21 0.3 1.5 — — —-
Haynes1201 Bal 32 0.05 — 25 0.7 2 — — —
Refraclaloy Bal 36 0.03 19 18 — 3 — 2.6 —
26
CF8C Bal 10 0.08 — 19.5 0.85 — — — —
CF8C-P1US2 Bal 12.5 0.1 — 19 0.8 0.3 — — —
N155 Bal 20 0.15 20 21 — 3 2.5 — —
Haynes 230 3 Bal 0.1 5 22 — 2 14 — 0.3
Hastelloy X 18.5 Bal 0.1 1.5 22 — 9 0.6 — —
CCA6I7 0.7 Bal 0.06 12 22 — 9 — 0.4 1.2
Inconel 625 3 Bal 0.05 — 22 4 9 0.2 0.2 0.2
Inconel 740 2 Bal 0.07 20 24 2 0.5 — 2 1
IN706 40 Bal 0.03 0.5 16 — 0.5 — 2 0.2
IN718 18 Bal 0.04 — 19 5 3 — 1 0.5
Allvac 10 Bal 0.025 9 17.5 5.4 2.7 1 0.7 1.5
718Plus
IN939 — Bal 0.15 19 22 1 — 2 3.7 1.9
Nimonic 80A 5 Bal 0.1 2 20 — — — 3 2
Nimonic 105 1 Bal 0.2 20 15 — 5 — 2 4
Nimonic 115 — Bal 0.2 15 15 —- 4 — 4 5
Nimonic 263 1 Bal 0.06 20 20 — 6 — 2 0.5
U700 1 Bal 0.15 18.5 15 — 5.2 — 3.5 4.25
U710 — Bal 0.07 15 IS — 3 1.5 5 2.5
U720 — Bal 0.01 14.7 16 — 3 1.25 5 2.5
Waspaloy 2 Bal 0.07 14 20 — 4 — 3 1
1- contains >0.1 N
2- contains additions of Mn and N
Table 5-24: Materials Selection for the High-Pressure Steam Turbine

Component 566°C 620°C 700°C 760°C
Casings/Shells CrMoV (cast) 9-10%Cr(W) CF8C-Plus CCA617
(valves; steam 10CrMoVNb 12CrW(Co) CCA617 Inconel 740
chests; nozzle CrMoWVNbN Inconel 625 CF8C-Plus (?)
box;
cylinders) IN 718
Nimonic 263
Bolting 422 9-12%CrMoV Nimonic 105 U700
9-12%CrMoV A286 Nimonic 115 U710
Nimonic 80A IN718 Waspaloy U720
IN718 IN718 Nimonic 105
Allvac718Plus Nimonic 115
Rotors/Discs 1CrMoV 9-12%CrWCo CCA617 CCA617
12CrMoVNbN 12CrMoWVNbN Inconel 625 Inconel 740
26NiCrMoV115 Haynes 230

Inconel 740
Vanes/Blades 422 9-12%CrWCo Wrought Ni- Wrought Ni-
10CrMoVNbN base base
Piping P22 P92 CCA617 Inconel 740

Table 5-25: Ranking and Development Effort Needed for Materials for Turbines
Steam
Component Major Issues
Temperature, °C
620 700 760
Casing Materials 3 4 5 Design data; improved alloys
Manufacturin 3 5 5 Cost vs wrought; process control
g
Bolting Materials 1 3 3 Design data; design procedures
Manufacturin 1 1 1
g
Rotors/Discs Materials 3 3 5 Design data; weldability
Manufacturin 4 4 4 Melting and fabrication
g
Vanes/Blades Materials 3 4 4 Improved austenitics; Ni-base
alloys
Manufacturin 3 4 4 Forging process (modeling)
g

OPERATIONAL FLEXIBILITY AND PERFORMANCE OF

SUPERCRITICAL PLANTS

OPERATIONAL FLEXIBILITY AND PERFORMANCE OF SUPERCRITICAL PLANTS

OPERATIONAL FLEXIBILITY OF SUPERCRITICAL PLANTS
Start-up flexibility in supercritical boilers
Power systems are subject to wide diurnal as well as seasonal variations in demand.
There is a substantial difference in the peak demand and the base load. The magnitude
of variations is such that they cannot be taken care of entirely by the hydroelectric or
gas fired power plants in the system and coal fired plants , also have to face frequent
shut downs. It is, therefore, important that coal fired plants have a low start up time
and the capability to build up to the designed load conditions in a short time i.e. a
short ramp up time. Once through boilers used in supercritical plants are better
equipped to cater to these frequent load changes in the system.
In the supercritical cycle, water converts to steam in the evaporator itself and thus
steam flow is always available in super heaters. This leads to assured steam flow,
better heat transfer and better control of super heater metal temperature. These
factors reduce the limitation of firing rate in boiler and thus reduce the time required
to reach the required parameters. Shorter start-up times lead to lower start-up losses.
Once through boilers used in supercritical plants can adjust to frequent load variations
which could go up to as much as 10% per minute as against about 3% per minute for
drum type boilers used in sub-critical plants. Some supercritical power plants are
required to operate in two shift operation depending upon demand in the system. With
higher steam parameters in supercritical boilers, steam extraction, also, is high giving
higher regenerative heater output and higher temperature of condensate leading to
improvement in efficiency.
The transition from the re-circulation mode to the pure once – through operation, if
required, is fully automatic for supercritical boilers.
The sliding pressure operating mode thus enables load gradients of 5% to 10% per
minute for the steam turbine over the load range from 30% to 100% as the
temperatures remain mostly constant over load changes in this range. Thermal
stresses are also prevented.

Shorter start-up times

Start-up is classified as cold, warm or hot depending upon the period for which the
boiler remains shut-down.
Hot start up - after to 2 hours shut-down
Warm start up - after 8 hours shutdown
Cold start up - after 36 hours shut down
The comparative start up times for supercritical and sub-critical boilers are given in
table below.
Type of start Supercritical Sub-critical

Hot start up 2 hours 2 hours
Warm start up 8 hours 12 hours
Cold start up 36 hours 52 hours
The system usually followed in start up is diagrammatically depicted below which lists
the important steps to be followed in the operation. The different operating cycle and
efficiency achieved were listed below

The advantages and area wise attention as follows
Standard riffled tubes- require high mass flux to safely pass through critical
pressure, “OT” Characteristic Results

Comparison of pressure part weight between DRUM, Multi pass , spiral and
vertical tube wall for the same capacity
Technological impact on Operation and Maintenance



Operating parameter comparison for the subcritical and supercritical plants and
reduction in co2 emission due to the increase in efficiency.
The trend of efficiency improvement in Indian power sector as follows

One of the Start up systems followed in shown below

Typical start up curves for cold, warm and cold start ups for supercritical and sub-
critical plants in Germany as available with in India are given below. It will be seen for
all the three types of start ups, higher temperatures and pressures are attained within
the same period in supercritical boilers as compared to sub-critical ones indicating
better ramp up rates.

Start Up Curve for Cold Start

We normally due to cold start up when the shutdown period crosses the 48 hours and
all equipments in cold conditions In the graph below we have symmetrically explained
the mainsteam parameters that is mainsteam pressure, temperature and flow tobe
maintained during the rolling and ramp up period with time has shown. We have
described the warm start as well as hot start condition below
The time taken to build the pressure and temperature and ramp up already plotted as
per our supercritical plant at Parent company

Start Up Curve for Warm Start

Start Up Curve for Hot Start

Hot Start Up Curve
Flexibility for Load Changes

The sliding pressure operating mode enables a better load gradient and the load can
easily be raised from 30 % to 70 as temperature remains mostly constant. This
flexibility can be seen from the start up curves which indicate faster change in the
steam parameters faster. This enables convenient operation of the station in two
shifts. One of the optional design allows a circulating pumps and the scheme as
follows.
In this case of low load the circulation can be achieved either by a circulating pump or
by bypassing some part to the condensate flash tank and inturn send to condenser

Fuel flexibility
Supercritical boilers are able to operate efficiently with all types of furnaces like front,
opposed, corner, four wall, arch firing with slag type or dry ash removal.
Water Chemistry
Water chemistry had presented problems in early stages of supercritical development.
These problems basically related to the use of the de –oxygenated all volatile(AVT)
cycle chemistry. The solution to these problems was combination of a condensate
polishing unit with oxygenated treatment which is, now, a well proven procedure.
Further, once through boilers do not have a blow down which has a positive effect on
water balance of the plant with less condensate needing to be fed into the water
steam cycle and less waste water to be disposed off. 100% polishing unit is
incorporated with high quality water used
Higher efficiency
Very high plant efficiencies upto 48% (based on HHV) are achievable as compared to
lower unit capacity of sub-critical plants (35% - 37%). This is represented in the Figure
6-1.

Figure 6-20: Chart Presents Higher Efficiency
Note: The above efficiencies are based on UHV

6.1.7 PROBLEMS FACED BY SUPERCRITICAL PLANTS IN INDIA - IMPACT OF FIRING

INDIAN COAL ON AVAILABILITY OF SUPER AND ULTRA SUPER CRITICAL BOILERS
The state-wise distribution of coal resources in India is as follows:
State Coal Resources in Million Tonnes

Proved Indicated Inferred Total
Andhra Pradesh 8403 6158 2584 17145
Arunachal Pradesh 31 40 19 90
Assam 315 27 34 376
Bihar 0 0 160 160
Chhattisgarh 9570 27433 4439 41442
Jharkhand 36148 31411 6339 73898
Madhya Pradesh 7565 9258 2935 19758
Maharashtra 4653 2432 1992 9077
Meghalaya 117 41 301 459
Nagaland 4 1 15 20
Orissa 16911 30793 14295 61999
Uttar Pradesh 766 296 0 1062
West Bengal 11383 11879 4553 27815
Total 95866 119769 37666 253301
Non-coking Coal used available in India is classified into seven grades as follows.
Useful Heat Value Corresponding

Gr Gross Calorific Value GCV
(UHV)
Ash% + Moisture %
a (Kcal/ Kg) (at 5%
(Kcal/Kg)
at (60% RH & 40O
de moisture level)
C)
A Exceeding 6200 Not exceeding 19.5 Exceeding 6454
B Exceeding 5600 but 19.6 to 23.8 Exceeding 6049 but not
not exceeding exceeding 6454
6200
C Exceeding 4940 but 23.9 to 28.6 Exceeding 5597 but not
not exceeding exceeding. 6049
5600
D Exceeding 4200 but 28.7 to 34.0 Exceeding 5089 but not

not exceeding Exceeding 5597
4940
E Exceeding 3360 but 34.1 to 40.0 Exceeding 4324 but not
4200
F Exceeding 2400 but 40.1 to 47.0 Exceeding 3865 but not
not exceeding exceeding. 4324
3360
G Exceeding 1300 but 47.1 to 55.0 Exceeding 3113 but not
2400
Generally Grade ‘G’ coal is available for thermal power plants.
The quality of coal available from domestic sources compares very unfavourably with
the quality of coals imported from other countries such as Australia, Indonesia or South
Africa. Comparative analysis of coal available from Singrauli mines in India and Mount
Arthur coal from Australia is given in Table brlow.
Typical Proximate Analyses for Singrauli and Mount Arthur Coals
Mount
Singrauli
Item Unit Arthur
Coal1
Coal2
Fixed carbon % 34.50 51.50
Volatile matter % 20.00 33.00
Moisture % 9.55 3.50
Ash
% 40.00 12.00
Grindability index HGI 50.00 50.00

kCal
Higher heating value /
3,667.09 6,320.00
(HHV) k
g
Higher heating value MJ/k
15.35 26.46
(HHV) g
Lower heating value MJ/k
14.52 25.32
(LHV) g
Notes:
1 Average data based on typical analysis of run of mine design coal from
Singrauli coal fields.
2 Typical analysis of steam coal from Mount Arthur, Australia. Data sourced
from Chapter 7 of “McCloskey’s Big Coal Book 2002”.
Typical Ultimate Analyses (as received basis) for Singrauli and Mount Arthur Coals is
given in table below.
Typical Ultimate Analyses (as received basis)

for Singrauli and Mount Arthur Coals
Singrauli Mount Arthur
Item Unit 1
Coal Coal2
Carbon % 38.70 69.29
Oxygen
% 8.67 8.20
Sulphur % 0.50 0.70

Hydrogen % 2.61 4.63
Nitrogen % 0.75 1.69
Water % 9.38 3.50
Ash % 39.39 11.99
Sum of all
% 100.00 100.00
constituents
Notes:
1 Average data based on typical analysis of run of mine design coal from
Singrauli coal fields.

2 Typical ultimate analysis (dry basis) of steam coal from Mount Arthur,
Australia sourced from Chapter 7 of “McCloskey’s Big Coal Book 2002”. This
data was manipulated to determine the typical ultimate analysis (as received
basis).
As seen from data presented above, imported coal has higher GCV and contains low
ash with low silica in the ash. Therefore there is lower erosion of the boiler tubes
than with Indian coals, which have high ash and high silica. However, the ash
fusion temperature of imported coals is lower than Indian coals, and this can
lead to clinker formation in the SH/RH sections causing higher outages. The
estimation of outage in supercritical boilers for imported coal is given in the
table below.
Power plant outage factors have been derived from boiler/turbine manufacturers
planned outage figures and forced outage figures are based on estimates from
data of existing plants in India using imported coal.
Estimate of Power Plant Outage Factors with imported coal
Year Planned Forced Availabil
outages
s % % %
1 4.1 5.5 90.4
2 4.1 4.4 91.5
3 6.8 3.3 89.9
4 4.1 4.4 91.5
5 4.1 5.5 90.4
6 6.8 3.3 89.9
7 4.1 4.4 91.5
8 4.1 5.5 90.4
9 12.3 3.3 84.4
10 4.1 4.4 91.5
11 4.1 5.5 90.4
12 6.8 3.3 89.9
13 4.1 4.4 91.5
14 4.1 5.5 90.4
15 6.8 3.3 89.9
16 4.1 4.4 91.5
17 4.1 5.5 90.4

Year Planned Forced Availabil

outages
s % % %
18 12.3 3.3 84.4
19 4.1 5.5 90.4
20 4.1 5.5 90.4
21 6.8 6.0 87.2
22 4.1 6.6 89.3
23 4.1 7.1 88.8
24 6.8 8.2 85.0
25 4.1 9.9 86.0
Problems associated with firing Indian coal are:

• Indian coal typically has higher moisture content. This can lead to lower
boiler efficiencies than with imported coal.
• Low volatile matter in Indian coal leads to high-unburnt carbon loses.
• Low boiler efficiency due to low CV and high ash content in Indian coals
• High ash and coal handling costs and milling power lead to high auxiliary
power consumption
• High ash and high silica in the coal leads to higher erosion. Though lower
flue gas velocities and provision of shielding plates can reduce erosion, it
leads to higher capital costs for the boiler
However, Indian coals have also some advantages. They are:

• Low sulphur, therefore do not need Flue Gas Desulphurisation
• High ash fusion temperature therefore cause less slagging and clinker
formation in the boiler
Indian ambient conditions

• High ambient temperature leads to higher cooling water temperature
reducing the achievable condenser vacuum to a maximum of 0.13 bar.
This in turn leads to a higher steam consumption and a poorer turbine
heat rate.
• High relative humidity leads to more losses in cooling tower
Based on Indian coal characteristics, the outages are estimated as follows.

Estimate of Power Plant Outage Factors with Indian Coal

Year Planned Force Availabilit
s % % %
1 4.1 4.38 91.52
2 4.1 3.51 92.39
3 6.8 2.63 90.57
4 4.1 3.51 92.39
5 4.1 4.38 91.52
6 6.8 2.63 90.57
7 4.1 3.51 92.39
8 4.1 4.38 91.52
9 12.3 2.63 85.07
10 4.1 3.51 92.39
11 4.1 4.38 91.52
12 6.8 2.63 90.57
13 4.1 3.51 92.39
14 4.1 4.38 91.52
15 6.8 2.63 90.57
16 4.1 3.51 92.39
17 4.1 4.38 91.52
18 12.3 2.63 85.07
19 4.1 4.38 91.52
20 4.1 4.38 91.52
21 6.8 4.82 88.38
22 4.1 5.26 90.64
23 4.1 5.70 90.20
24 6.8 6.58 86.62
25 4.1 7.89 88.01
- Other operational problems
The original supercritical units installed were designed for constant

pressure operation, i.e. the boiler operates at full load pressure from start-up
and across the entire load range. For start-up, constant pressure
operation boilers require a start-up bypass system, which is complex in
configuration and operation compared with the new sliding pressure Benson
boilers. As a result, the start-up time for constant pressure boilers is longer

and the plant minimum load must be kept higher than for the sliding
pressure units. In addition, the load ramp rate of constant pressure
operation is restricted because of the limit in temperature change rate in HP
(High Pressure) turbine during a load change.
The start-up valves on constant pressure boilers have to withstand

larger pressure differentials during bypass operation, which leads to
higher erosion damage and hence the requirement for more frequent valve
maintenance.
Severe slagging on the waterwalls as well as the coils has been one of the
major issues in older coal-fired boilers constructed during the 1960s and 1970s.
This was primarily because the furnaces of those plants were relatively
small in volume. Since then, the furnace size has been continuously reviewed
for better performance, and larger sizes have been used for recently
constructed units. Appropriate furnace dimensions including plan area, height
and volume must be provided to reduce slagging potential, regardless of
whether the boiler is to be designed as sub-critical, supercritical, NC or once-
through type.
These causes of common problems faced in earlier supercritical boilers and
counter measures employed in new supercritical boilers are given in table
below.
- 12 –

Table Causes and countermeasures of experienced problems

Issues experienced in older Causes Countermeasures
supercritical units (As applied in
new supercritical
Er osion of start-up High differential pressure dueSliding
to units)
pressure operation,
valves constant pressure operation simplified start-up
and complicated start-up system, and low load
system recirculation system.
Long start-up times Complicated start-up systemSliding pressure operation,
and operation (ramping simplified start-up
operation required, system, and low load
difficulty establishing metal recirculation system.
matching condition, etc.)
Low ramp rates Turbine thermal Sliding pressure operation.
stresses
caused temperature change
in HP turbine during load
changing (due to constant
pressure operation)
High minimum stable Bypass operation & pressure Application of low load
operating load ramp-up operation required recirculation system
Slagging Undersized furnace and
Design of adequate plane area
inadequate coverage by heat release rate and
soot blower system furnace height, without
division walls. Provision of
adequate system of soot
blowing devices and/or
water blowers.
Circumferential cracking of
Metal temperature rise due to Oxygenated water treatment
water wall tubes inner scale deposit and fire (OWT).
side wastage Protective surface in
combustion zone of
furnace for high 98ulphur
coal, e.g.
Frequent acid cleaning thermal spray
Inappropriate water chemistryApplication or weld overlay.
of OWT
Lower efficiency than High air leakage due to Tight seal construction. Single
expected pressurized furnace. reheat system with high
RH spray injection required steam temperature and
due to complications of RH temperature control by
steam temperature control parallel damper gas
in the double reheat cycle biasing.
configuration.
Low availability All the above All the above
6.1.9 Improvements/upgradations made in plants to mitigate the problems

The Hitachi-Naka Thermal Power Station Unit No.1 (1,000 MW) of the Tokyo
Electric Power Company (TEPCO), has been taken as an example to
demonstrate the manner in which manufacturers have tried to mitigate the
problems faced by earlier supercritical plants. The Naka plant uses a “Benson”

type boiler which was designed and built by Babcock-

Hitachi K. K. (BHK is the latest supercritical coal-fired utility plant to commence
commercial operation in Japan. State-of-the-art technologies such as high pressure,
high temperature steam parameters of 3680 psig /(604ºC/602ºC)and Hitachi’s
advanced burner system for low NOx combustion were integrated into the new
design. Flexible sliding pressure operation, advanced steam temperature control
methods, and sophisticated computer control technologies make this unit an
ideal plant for load demand following applications. The sliding pressure
supercritical Benson boiler technology has been fully established and has
markedly surpassed drum type boilers in the areas of efficiency, flexibility in
operation and availability, as proven by over10 years operating experience in
Japan.
Since the start-up period, the Hitachi-Naka boiler has been operating with
stable and reliable performance parameters for both steady load and
dynamic load operation modes. The main features of the boiler are
summarized as follows.
Sliding pressure operation

As the nuclear power has become the primary source for base load generation in
Japan, coal-fired power plant equipment suppliers were challenged to design
new supercritical coal-fired units with flexibility for frequent load cycling. By
adopting the sliding pressure operation with lower boiler pressures at partial
loads, the plant heat rate can be improved at partial loads due to 1)
improvement of high pressure (HP) turbine efficiency, 2) reduced auxiliary
power consumption by boiler feed pumps, and 3) higher steam temperature
at the HP turbine outlet. In addition to the plant efficiency advantages, there
are other benefits such as reduction in start-up time, increase in ramp rate and
reduced erosion of bypass valves.
Spiral Waterwall
For sliding pressure boilers, maintaining uniform fluid conditions during low
load / low pressure operation becomes critical to reduce the potential of
tube damage caused by high metal temperatures. The lower part of the
Hitachi-Naka boiler furnace is arranged in a spiral configuration such that the
fluid path wraps around the boiler as it travels up the furnace. A comparison of
fluid temperature distribution between the conventional vertical wall and the
spiral waterwall is shown in Figure 5.
As a result of the uniform waterwall fluid temperature profile that is achieved
across the full range of boiler loads, the spiral waterwall system does not
require any flow adjusting devices to be installed at the furnace inlet.

Water Wall
Outlet
Fluid Temp.
Heat Flux
FLOWFLOW FLOW FLOW
BURNERS
BURNERS BURNERS
BURNER S BURNERS
BURNER S BURNERS
FRONT SIDE REAR SIDE FRONT SIDE REAR SIDE
Vertical Type Water Wall Spiral Type Water Wall
Figure 5 Fluid Temperature profile comparison for Water Wall Type
-7-

Steam Separator
As the Hitachi-Naka boiler is a Benson type unit, a steam separator
and a separator drain tank were installed to separate the steam and the
water at the furnace outlet during a low-load recirculation operation. This
design is different from that of a conventional NC boiler, for which a steam
drum is installed to separate the water from the steam under all operating
loads. The steam drum is designed to have sufficient water storage
capacity, and usually contains complicated internal parts, such as steam
cyclones, scrubbers, internal feed pipes, and baffles. Because
of the complex internals, steam drums require a large amount of maintenance
work during outage periods. However, the steam separator design of a
Benson boiler is simple in configuration and has no internal, therefore
significantly less maintenance work is required.
Boiler start-up systems

The Hitachi-Naka Boiler includes fully automatic start-up systems such
as the turbine bypass system and the low load recirculation system. The
turbine bypass system was designed to minimize the start-up time by
controlling the main steam pressure and temperature before turbine rolling,
and enabling the steam to flow through the superheater sections at a
short time after light-off. The low-load recirculation system was designed
to recover residual heat during start-up by circulation of the un-evaporated
water from the furnace back to the economizer inlet, which also can assist in
reducing start-up time. As this system is automatically operated, the start-
up process is as simple as with a natural circulation (NC) boiler.
Table 2 shows a comparison of the start-up systems betweem a NC

boiler, a constant pressure once-through boiler and a sliding pressure
Benson type boiler
(the Hitachi-Naka boiler).
-8-
Table 2 Comparison of Start-up Systems
NC Boiler T y p ic aCl o n s ta nPt re s s u re Benson Boiler
O p e ra tio
n O n ce Th ro u hg B o ile r
Flow diagram
IP&LP
IP&LP TURBINE IP&LP
TURBINE 'ryS/H 210
3'r y S/H yS/H TURBINE
HP TURBINE
HP S/H HP TURBINE
T 316
U 200 201 yS/H
R
207 REHEATER
B REHEATER
205
REHEATER
I 'ryS/H REHEATER REHEATER
N yS/H
E 203 202S/H 307
2'r y S/H 242 240 SEPARATOR
CONDENSER
DRAIN TANKCONDENSER
REHEATER
CAGE FLASH TANK
1'r y S/H CAGE
361
CP START UP
W ATER BCP CP
CAGE ATER W ALL ATER BLOW
W ALL W ALL W ATER
DEAER ATOR
220 ALL W ALL
CONDENSER 360 DEAER ATOR
ECONOMIZER
ECONOMIZER ECONOMIZER BFP
D BFP ECONOMIZER
ECONOMIZER
EAER ATOR H.P.HEATER L.P.HEATER
W ATER H.P.HEATERL.P.HEATER
W ALL CP ER ER H.P.HEATER L.P.HEATER
H.P.HEATER L.P.HEATER
ECONOMIZER
BFP
Start-up bypassNot installed Required for Installed for steam

system - Operation of · Maintaining furnacetemp and press control
drain valves is minimum flow (TB bypass)
necessary to· Heat recovery to HP
establish turbine heater and deaerator
Low loadNot required through flash tank Required
recirculation · Ramping (shift from - Maintaining
system recirculation mode to once furnace minimum
through mode, flow
temperature dip is - Automatic smooth
inevitable) shift operation from
- Continuous recirculation mode to
recirculation mode once through mode
operation is impossible - Direct heat recovery
to economizer inlet
- Continuous
Start-up pressureAtmosphere Full pressure recirculation
Atmosphere
at furnace (3500psig)
during cold start
-9-
Main and Reheat steam temperature controls
As the Hitachi-Naka boiler was to be designed to fire coals with a wide
range of combustion and slagging properties, the steam temperature
control system was designed to maintain rated temperature in varying heat
absorption profiles and load levels.
The primary parameter for the steam temperature control is the ratio of a
furnace water flow to a fuel input. This simple and effective temperature
control method cannot be used with an NC boiler as its water flow in the
furnace is driven by a natural circulation phenomenon. For
additional controllability, superheater attemperators were installed
between each superheater sectionsto maintain a rated main steam
temperature steadily when firing different types of coals with variant
combustion properties.
For the outlet reheater steam temperature (RST) control, a gas flow
biasing system with a parallel damper was adopted to maintain a rated steam
temperature over a wide load range without the help of water spray
attemperators, which were installed for emergency. For the Hitachi-Naka
boiler, a backpass heating surface arrangement has been optimized for
improved controllability of RST. In Figure 6, RST fluctuations during a load
ramp from 50% to 100% are shown for an older unit
(previous design) installed with a gas recirculation system and the Hitachi-
Naka boiler (no gas recirculation system). The results show that fluctuations
in RST for the Hitachi-Naka boiler were kept to a minimal level similar to the
older unit, and without use of the reheater spray attemperator. These
provisions for steam temperature control in the Hitachi-Naka boiler help the
power block to achieve a lower heat rate.
- 10 -
Reheater Evaporator Percent of Heating Surface
Superheater Controlled by Damper
Econo
mi
zer
Parallel Gas Damper Parallel Gas Damper

+ Gas Recirculation Only
100% Load Demand

650
op enin
Damper opening degree
degree
3%/min3%/ (Reheater
(Reheater
side)
sg
m ide)
50% i
n
50% Re st er outlet
e emperatur
e
Reheater
heat outlet
steam
amtemperature
t
550
0 　 30min. 60min.
(oC)
No
NoReheater
ReheaterSpray
Spray
Previous Design Hitachi-Naka No.1
with Gas Recirculation without Gas Recirculation
Figure 6 Reheater Outlet Steam Temperature Fluctuation during Load
Change
Advanced control systems

The latest developments in plant distributed control systems have led to a
highly automated operation from boiler light-off to shutdown. Advanced
dynamic control from computerized calculation algorithms for the main control
functions (e.g. steam temperature control) have been developed such that
recently installed boilers can
be controlled with reduced operator action.
-
High availability
As stated earlier, the rapid introduction of very large plants in the USA in the
early 1970s had created problems of their availability due to their forced
outages. Feedback from other operators (in Japan, Europe and Russia) for
plants installed later was, however, positive. With sustained improvements in
plant design and materials of construction, the average availability of
supercritical plants is, now, equal to or even higher than that of comparable
sub-critical plants as shown in Table below,.
Table 6-26: Availability of Supercritical Plants

Subcritical % Super critical %
Availability time ratio 83.7 84.1
Available capacity factor 82.6 82.9
Planned outage period 5.6 6.2
Unplanned outage period 11.8 10.9
Improved cost effectiveness

The life cycle costs of supercritical coal fired power plants are lower than
those of the sub critical power plants. Current designs of supercritical power
plants have installation costs that are only 2% higher than those of subcritical
plants. Fuel costs are considerably lower due to the increased efficiency and
operating costs are at the same level as subcritical plants. Specific
installation cost i.e. the cost per megawatt (MW) decreases with increased
plant size. For countries like India and China, unit ratings from 500 MW to 900
MW are possible due to their large electrical grids.
The specific coal consumption of calorific value 25 MJ/kg can be reduced from
294.9 to 283.3 g/kWh by increasing steam parameter from 167
bar/538/538°C to 250 bar/566/ 566°C. This corresponds to an annual
reduction in coal consumption of 116,000 tonnes in Unit capacity range of
600 to 700 MW.
The material expenditure in a 250 bar ONCE THROUGH boiler yields a cost
advantage over the evaporator system of a 167-bar drum boiler. However,
this advantage is offset in part by the higher manufacturing and erection and
assembly cost and by additional cost of feed pump. However, with latest
design of vertical-tube water walls and an adapted start-up system, the
investment costs for a ONCE THROUGH boiler still comes out lower than
those for a drum type boiler.
6.1.12 Reliability
Due to high steam parameters, there was initially lower availability of the
supercritical plants. However, with improvements in production technology
for the components and welding procedures, this gap no longer exists and
availabilities for subcritical and supercritical plants have converged.
Our analysis on the technical details at the Herne supercritical plant is

that there have been hardly any boiler tube failures.
Availability details to show this convergence over time are given below:
E040/ REPORT Boben Anto C PAGE 109 OF 163

As can be seen from the above chart, the availability figures have converged
for subcritical and supercritical plants by the 1990s.
OPERATIONAL PERFORMANCE OF SUPERCRITICAL PLANTS

Assumptions for Plant Parameters
The steam cycle parameters and unit sizes used for performing the
thermodynamic modelling for coal fired plant options under Indian conditions
are given below.
Table 6-27: Cycle Conditions for the Coal Fired Plant Options
Main Steam Main Steam Reheat Steam
Plant Type Unit size
Pressure Temperature Temperature
Subcritical 500 MW 166 bar 538°C 538°C
Low supercritical 660 MW 247 bar 538°C 565°C
High supercritical 800 MW 270 bar 565°C 593°C
These steam cycle conditions and unit sizes represent the typical conditions
that are available to be deployed in the Indian market.
The following assumptions regarding the boiler, turbine, and common

auxiliaries have been considered:
Boiler
Radiation losses 0.24%
Unburnt carbon losses 1.2 %
Unaccounted losses – domestic coal 0.85%
Boiler efficiency is assumed constant across all technologies but different for
each coal type. In actual practice, there would be a lower efficiency in

subcritical plants due to blow down. However as performance guarantee

figures have been used in the model, blow down has been taken as zero.
Condensing Steam Turbine

Condenser average vacuum 0.13 bar a
Generator efficiency 99.5%
In all cases 3 HP heaters and 4 LP heaters have been considered with a final
temperature of 270 °C and motor-driven boiler feed pumps
It is assumed that there are no steam cycle make up losses since the
performance guarantee conditions have been taken as the basis of
comparison with the modelling results.
No degradation of the gross heat rate is assumed in the first year.
The auxiliary power considered as 7.5 to 8.0 % for plants burning indigenous
coal.
An average cooling water temperature of 33°C has been considered.
Natural draft cooling towers and make up has been considered to replace
losses due to blow down and leakage in the cooling water cycle.
The performance modelling results are shown in Tables 6-6 to 6-9.
Coal Analysis
Singrauli coal from India has been considered.
The typical proximate and ultimate analysis (as received basis) for the
Singrauli coal are given in Table 6-3 and Table 6-4 respectively.
Table 6-28: Proximate Analysis for Domestic Coal

Item Unit Singrauli Coal
Fixed carbon % 34.50
Volatile matter % 20.00
Moisture % 9.55
Ash % 40.00
Grindability index HGI 50.00
Higher heating value (HHV) kCal/kg 3667.09
Higher heating value (HHV) MJ/kg 15.35
Lower heating value (LHV) MJ/kg 14.52
Table 6-29: Typical Ultimate Analysis (as received basis) for Domestic Coal
Carbon % 38.70


Oxygen % 8.67
Sulphur % 0.50
Hydrogen % 2.61
Nitrogen % 0.75
Water % 9.38
Ash % 39.39
Total % 100.00
Ambient Conditions
The selection of design ambient conditions was based upon the metrological
conditions at site shown below.
Table 6-30:Common Ambient Conditions

Item Unit Site Conditions
Mean daily maximum temperature (January) °C 24.3
Mean daily minimum temperature (January) °C 8.1
Mean daily maximum temperature (May) °C 42.0
Mean daily minimum temperature (May) °C 25.8
Average RH during morning % 66%
Average RH during evening % 49%
Site elevation M 280
On the basis of the information presented above, the following common

design site ambient conditions were selected for modelling the performance
of the coal fired plant options:
Ambient dry bulb temperature : 35.0°C
Ambient relative humidity : 60.0%
Ambient atmospheric pressure : 0.9802 bar.
Performance Modelling Results

With the above steam cycle parameters and for unit sizes chosen, modelling
and simulation studies have been carried out.
The simulation covered the following:
• Gross heat rate with lower Heating Value (LHV) of coal, and high Heating
Value (HHV) of coal
• Net heat rate with lower Heating Value (LHV) of coal, and high Heating
Value (HHV) of coal
• Gross efficiency with lower Heating Value (LHV) of coal, and high Heating
Value (HHV) of coal
• Net efficiency with lower Heating Value (LHV) of coal, and high Heating
Value (HHV) of coal
• Auxiliary power consumption
• Fuel consumption

• Ash production
• Water consumption (circulating water makeup, auxiliary circulating water
makeup)
In addition, the results of Ebsilon models for the boiler were verified by
manual calculations according to international codes (BS 2885) using the heat
loss method. For the turbine, the gross heat rates were calculated and
crosschecked with figures from existing sub critical, low supercritical and high
supercritical plants in India. Manufacturers’ data were used to cross check the
ultra-supercritical figures as also using manual calculations using ASME PTC
6)
For each of the power plant options, the results presented are on the basis of
a single gross output unit operating at 100% MCR at the design ambient
conditions.
• Table-6-6 shows the turbine performance estimates for coal fired power
plant and is applicable for domestic coals.
• Table-6.7 and Table-6.8 show the plant performance of coal fired power
plant options for domestic coal, and based on either Lower Heating Value
(LHV) or Higher Heating Value (HHV).
• Table-6.9 shows the coal, ash and water consumption or production
estimates for the three coal fired power plant for domestic coal.
Table 6-31: Turbine Performance Estimates (Domestic Coal, 100% MCR)

Item Unit Base Base High
Subcritical Supercritical Supercritical
Turbine gross output MW 500 660 800

Unit auxiliary power MW 40 52.8 60
Turbine net output MW 460 607.2 740
Turbine gross heat rate kcal/kWh 1920 1860 1820
Average turbine gross
% 44.79 46.24 47.25
efficiency
Boiler steam duty GJ/h 4.10 3.92 3.79
Table 6-32: Plant Performance Estimates using Domestic Coal

(LHV basis, 100% MCR)
Boiler efficiency, LHV % 92.5 92.50 92.50
Unit coal burn, LHV Kg/kwh 0.597 0.578 0.566
Unit gross heat rate, LHV kcal/kWh 2075.68 2010.81 1967.87
Unit gross efficiency, LHV % 41.43 42.71 43.71
Unit net heat rate, LHV kcal/kWh 2256.17 2185.66 2127.1
Unit net efficiency, LHV % 38.12 39.35 40.43
Table 6-33: Plant Performance Estimates using domestic Coal

(HHV basis, 100% MCR)
Base Base High
Item Unit
Boiler efficiency, HHV % 87.8 87.8 87.8

Base Base High

Item Unit
Unit coal burn, HHV Kg/kwh 0.597 0.578 0.566
Unit gross heat rate, HHV kcal/kWh 2186.79 2118.45 2072.89
Unit gross efficiency, HHV % 39.33 40.6 41.49
Unit net heat rate, HHV kcal/kWh 2376.94 2302.66 2240.97
Unit net efficiency, HHV % 36.18 37.35 38.38
Table 6-34: Coal, Ash & Water Consumption/Production

Estimates (relevant unit size, 100% MCR)
Item Base Subcritical Base Supercritical High
S
u
p
e
r
c
ri
ti
c
a
l
Unit coal consumption
298.74 382.02 453.09
(Singrauli coal)
Unit ash production
117.67 150.48 178.47
(Singrauli coal)
CW makeup 1150 1396.57 1589.24
ACW makeup 39.3 47.68 54.24
The impact of efficiency in Indian conditions and Indian coal

conditions- we can expect a deduction of 9%

DESIGN ISSUES

DESIGN ISSUES
LAYOUT AND CLEARANCES
Plant Layout
The main considerations in deciding plant layout are:
• There should be enough space for the placement of different
components in configurations decided by technical considerations.
• Enough space should be available for handling, placement and
removal of heavy and large size equipments.
• Convenient access for emergency services like fire-fighting should
be provided.
• Provision must be made for statutory requirements like green belt.
• In case of uneven land, the layout should conform to the
topography requiring minimum grading and levelling.
As the precise location of the proposed plant has not been decided as yet.
The plant layout proposed below is based on typical size and configuration of
main project components for a supercritical plant.
Sizing and area allocated for different sub systems is shown below, taking the
standard design features. Standard two unit layout is shown in figure below.
Figure 7-21: Standard two unit layout

Pipe Layout
Pipe layout can be created utilizing a 3 dimensional model as shown below.
Figure 7-22: Three dimensional model of pipe layout
Engineering of turbine hall is shown below:
Figure 7-23: Turbine hall
Typical Longitudinal Sectional View

Typical longitudinal sectional view of lower supercritical plant is shown in

Figure 7-4 below:
Figure 7-24: Longitudinal Sectional view
Typical plot allocation for such a plant is shown below:
Figure 7-25: Plot allocation

BOILER CONFIGURATION AND TECHNICAL FEATURES

The choice of boiler type is governed by the operational requirements of
generation which include substantial variations in load and quick start up
times.
Two path/Tower type

Furnace configuration for the boiler is derived from each plant manufacturer's
characteristics; two path types is favoured in Japan while tower type is
favoured in Europe.
No significant difference is observed in the adaptability of the two types to

different types of coal as the boiler design can be adjusted in accordance with
coal characteristics such as the abrasiveness of ash.
Constant Pressure / Sliding (Variable) Pressure Type

Supercritical boilers can be classified in two basic design categories according
to their operating pressure regimes. For units designed for constant pressure
operation, supercritical pressures are maintained in both furnace walls and
superheater over the normal operating range. This type is suitable for the
base load mode thermal power plant.
On the other hand, for units designed for full sliding (variable) pressure, the
furnace walls and superheater pressures may vary with load, including
operation at subcritical pressure. This type is desirable for the middle load
mode thermal power plant which operates under system load variations.
Pressure program and fluid diagram of both types of constant pressure and
sliding (variable) are shown in Figure 7-6, 7-7 and Figure 7-8, 7-9
respectively.
Boiler manufacturers have developed their own fluid circulation systems, and
C-E type system has been adopted for this report as a typical example.
Constant pressure circulation system consists of the recirculating pump,

water separator and associated valves as shown in Figure 7-6 and 7-7. The
fluid system is kept as high as the rated pressure from the initial stage to full
load. The required minimum water flow is maintained by running of
recirculating pump and low pressure steam from separator is led to steam
turbine for warming. With subsequent rise of turbine load, recirculating pump
is stopped and once through operation starts.
Sliding (variable) pressure type is equipped with recirculating pump, water

separator, drains system and associated valves as shown in Figure 7-8.
For start up and low load operation below 30%, of maximum load the unit
utilizes pump recirculation system to provide an adequate mass flow through
the furnace wall tubes.
The once through design for supercritical boilers eliminates the boiler
throttling valves and adopts a full sliding (variable) pressure approach (Figure
7-9). The furnace walls are allowed to enter the subcritical pressure range
along with the superheater circuits by using the spiral structure of water wall

tube or rifled tube for vertical water wall. Supercritical pressure operation
begins in the higher load range.
Figure 7-26: Constant Pressure Program for C-E Type
Figure 7-27: Constant Pressure Diagram of C-E Type

Figure 7-28: Sliding (Variable) Pressure Program for C-E Type
Figure 7-29:Furnace Configuration

Figure 7-30: Basic Principle of Spiral-wall Furnace
Spiral Type
Spiral (plain/bare tube) wall and vertical (rifled/ribbed tube) wall types are in
use. Type both furnace configurations are shown in Figure 7-10.
The principal concern with a sliding (variable)-pressure supercritical pressure

design is the requirement for once-through operation. The mass flow in the
furnace-wall tubes must be sufficiently high to avoid overheating or departure
from nucleate boiling (DNB) while generating steam at subcritical pressures,
and to avoid excessive metal temperatures and uneven steam outlet
temperatures when operating at supercritical pressure at higher boiler loads.
To accomplish these objectives, the spiral-wall design has evolved. The

principle of the spiral- or helical-wail furnace is to increase the mass flow per
tube by reducing the number of tubes needed to envelop the furnace without
increasing the spacing between the tubes. This is done by arranging the
tubes at an angle and spiraling them around the furnace. For instance, the
number of tubes required to cover the furnace wall can be reduced to one
half by putting the tubes at a 30 degree angle (Figure 7-11). The centerline
spacing or pitch (P) is made the same as on a vertical wall to prevent fin
overheating. Additionally, by spiraling around the furnace, every tube is part
of all the walls, which means that each tube acts as a heat integrator around
the four walls of the combustion chamber.
The spiral-wall concept thus addresses two major challenges of the full-sliding
(variable) pressure supercritical pressure boiler:
• Achieving the required mass flows to avoid overheating and excessive

metal temperatures by reducing the number of tube circuits
• Minimizing differences in tube-to-tube heat absorption by exposing each
tube to all four furnace walls
Spiral-wall furnaces have been in operation in Europe and Japan for many
years and have given satisfactory performance.
As an alternative to the spiral-wall design for larger-size steam generators,

some manufacturers offer a tangentially fired unit with vertical walls
consisting of rifled tubes for ease of fabrication, erection, and maintenance. A
stable fireball is formed in the center of the furnace with tangential firing,
with essentially equal distribution of the lateral heat absorption on all furnace

walls. With this design unbalances are minimized and lateral heat-absorption
patterns are predictable over the entire load range.
TUBE LAYOUT
Typical tube layout is depicted below:
Figure 7-31: Tube layout
BFP & HP BY PASS SYSTEM

Special features to be incorporated in the design to improve the reliability
include – HP by pass with safety function, condensate preheating and 3 * 50
% BFP etc. shown below:

Figure 7-32: HP bypass
Figure 7-33: Vertical and spiral type boilers

Figure 7-34: Tubing in Once through and Drum type boilers
The heat transfer and temperature range of operation in different sections is

shown in the diagram below.
Figure 7-35: Heat transfer and temperature range

The heat transfer in vertical and spiral type boilers is depicted in Figure
below.
Figure 7-36: Heat transfer in vertical and spiral type boilers
IMPROVEMENT IN COMBUSTION SYSTEM

An important concern in combustion system is NOx reduction. An innovative
concept of in-flame NOx reduction, is the development of NR2 burner, having
strengthened the high temperature reducing flame to achieve extremely low
NOx emissions in addition to improved combustion efficiency. This enables a
small amount of excess air at the economizer outlet (15%) when firing various
kinds of imported coal. The NOx reduction principle is shown in Figure 7-17.
Another feature of the combustion system is the large capacity roller-type

pulverizers (MPS300) with rotating classifiers, which improve pulverized coal
finenesses. These combustion system technologies contribute substantially to
significantly higher boiler efficiency.

Figure 7-37: Frame Structure of Hitachi NR2 Burners
A third generation burner (NR3), which enhances the reaction of in-flame NOx
reduction, has been developed in response to needs for higher efficiency and
lower NOx combustion. The performance of the NR3 burner has been verified
at the Inkoo Thermal Power Station Unit No.3 of Imatran Voima Oy (IVO),
Finland. It was confirmed that the NR3 burner had approximately 25% lower
NOx level at the same UBC (unburned carbon) level, than the current NR2
burner. The NR3 burner equipped boiler is now in the construction stage and
will be in commercial operation in 2003.
The above descriptions relate to component design as available in published

documents. Different manufactures adopt designs which differ in detail. The
choice of different materials for different components has to satisfy the
design parameters and availability of materials, in turn, imposes limits on
units performance.
OPERATION IN INDIAN CONDITIONS

Increased operating pressure for SC boilers increases the medium
temperature and increased regenerative feed heating increases the inlet
temperature to economizer. This leads to high exit flue gas temperature from
economizer. Indian coal does not have much sulphur, so normally FGD for flue

gas cleaning is not required. Exit flue gas temp can be lower (125 deg) to
gain the boiler efficiency.
Indian coal has high ash content and low calorific value. In order to restrict
the flue gas velocity and attain required heat transfer, furnace area will be
larger. This will help in reducing the NOx and limit the operational furnace
temperature within limits of ash fusion temperature.
Due to high pressure operation, material thickness has to be more. Steam

piping material also changes due to the elevated operating temperature and
pressure.
Super heater and reheater tube metal temperature in final section increases
with the high operating parameters. This will lead to high temperature
corrosion and steam side oxidation which to be considered has in material
selection. High thickness requirement due to high pressure operation leads
higher to gradient across the walls.
New materials have been developed to achieve-greater long term rupture

strength and lower oxide film growth inside surface in high temperature zone.
Materials like T91/P91 have high creep strength compared to earlier ferritic
steels.
Lower thickness of tubes has resulted in design for higher strength to meet
transient temperature changes. Better materials like T 92/P92 having creep
rupture strength 20 to 30% higher at 600 deg C, will facilitate raising the
steam temperature. Even in sub critical boilers in India T91 is being used in
super heaters, restricting the metal temperature to 600 deg in place of earlier
570 deg in T22.
Use of T-92 increases the operation margin and reliability. T23 /T24 have
higher creep strength compared to T22- Some manufacturers have already
started using it for evaporator walls.
Materials used in Walsum power plant in Germany enable it to operate to

achieve high net efficiency. This is achieved as follows:
• Steam temperature upto 620°C are possible with new materials
adopted at Walssum

• Special alloys P91, P92 and VM12SHC have been extensively used
to ensure efficiency at high pressures and temperatures VM12SHC
was used for the first time in this plant
• Creep behaviour of these new materials is superior
The materials used in Walsum boiler are shown in diagram below.
Figure 7-38: Materials of Boiler
ELECTRO-STATIC PRECIPITATOR (ESP)

ESP is an important auxiliary to the boiler.
Ash properties effect precipitator sizing as shown in table below:
MILLS
New modified mill with dynamic classifiers for better fineness control is shown
in figure below.

Figure 7-39: Modified mill
DESIGN FEATURES OF TURBINES

Turbine design features are developed to work for 300 bar pressure and 600
deg with size to accommodate the high pressure and temperature. The
design takes care of the metallurgical requirement of the selected material to
withstand high operating parameters to ensure flexibility in operation and
reduce overhauling frequency.
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4

7.5
7.6
7.7
7.8
7.9
Materials for High Temperature
9Cr - 1Mo forged steel is applied to the valves and the leading steam pipes
which are exposed to 600ºC steam and 12Cr cast steel is applied to the
internal casing of IP No.1. Cr-Mo-V-B cast steel is used for the HP internal
casing. 12Cr rotor and blade material for the HP and the IP turbine are also
applied.
Materials for High Temperature

New design criteria are applied along with the high temperature materials
described below.
(a) Overlay welding for the bearings

The overlay method is applied to the main bearings instead of the
usual sleeve method.
(b) Steam cooling technology

The structural welding between 9Cr-1Mo forged leading pipes and the
Cr-Mo-V casted outer casing are cooled by low temperature steam. The
cooling affect is confirmed by analysis and actual operation.
(c) High efficiency nozzle

An Advanced Vortex Nozzle (AVN) is used to improve turbine efficiency
for all the stages except for the first stage.
The new technologies as applied for 600ºC class high temperature plant, are
shown in Figure 7-20.

Figure 7-40: The new technology of the High Supercritical Steam turbine (HP & IP
Sections)
Continuous Cover Blade (CCB)

The last stage blade of a steam turbine is one of the most important
components to determine the overall turbine performance and reliability,
because it generates about 10 % of the entire output and is operated at
severe
centrifugal forces. The longer last stage blade yields higher velocity, larger
centrifugal force and a lower natural frequency, so a highly advanced design
technology is required to develop the last stage blade from the standpoint of
performance, strength and vibrational characteristics. Hitachi has been
developing long blades and adopting the CCB structure, having a high rigidity
and dampening effect at the specified rotational velocity, and incorporates
the latest aerodynamic blade profile based on three-dimensional stage flow
analysis. Figure 7-21 shows blade structure concept for CCB. Table 7-1 shows
the line-up of current last stage blades with the CCB structure, which
performed the rotational test.
Figure 7-41: Continuous Cover Blade (CCB) Structure

Table 7-35: Line-up of LSB with CSB Structure

Rotational Speed Last Stage Blade Length
3600 rpm 26 in., 33.5 in., 40 in., 46 in.
3000 rpm 26 in., 33.5 in., 43in.
1800 rpm 48 in.
Tandem-Compound High Supercritical STG

The correlation between unit output and turbine exhaust annulus area is
shown in Figure 7-22. The tandem-compound four-flow type with Ti-alloy 40-
inch or 46-inch last stage blades (TC4F-40 or TC4F-46) and improved high
strength 12Cr steel 43-inch last stage blade (TC4F-43) can be applied to 60Hz
and 50Hz operation respectively. The described machines are based on 3556
psig – 600ºC advanced steam condition design.
Figure 7-23 shows the sectional arrangement of TC4F-40, high supercritical

steam turbine for 60 Hz use.
Figure 7-24 shows the sectional arrangement of TC4F-43, high supercritical

steam turbine for 50 Hz use.
The tandem-compound high supercritical plant generator design has been

completed. The design of the large-diameter rotor was verified by performing
tests using an actual section sized model of the 60Hz machines, which
sustains
greater centrifugal forces compared to the 50Hz machines. The strength
against fatigue caused by the start-stop operation and extended running was
evaluated
to verify reliability. In addition, an improved ductility high-strength shaft
material was developed to further enhance the design.

Figure 7-42: Correlation between Unit Output and Turbine Exhaust Annulus Area
Figure 7-43: Sectional Arrangement of TC4F-40 high supercritical Steam Turbine for
60 Hz use

Figure 7-44: Sectional Arrangement of TC4F-43 high supercritical Steam Turbine for
50 Hz use
MATURITY OF SUPERCRITICAL TECHNOLOGY

8.0
9.0
10.0
10.1
The design features stated in this section indicate the development of
equipment of supercritical power plant by manufactures to take care of the
concerns of the owners. These concerns typically include high efficiency,
economic operation, ability to adopt in a fast manner to changes in load and
quick start up. Development of sliding pressure operation can take care of
load changes from 100% to 30% and load changes upto 10% per months can
be taken care of. Similarly high rank up rates involving short start up times
are not a problem now.
Another concern related to feed water chemistry which was related to the use
of the de-oxygenerated all volatile (AVT) chemistry in early super critical
boilers. The solution to these problems was a combination of the condensate
polishing unit with oxy generated treatment.
Different manufactures adopt designs, which are basically similar in concept

but differ in details. These details could be due to availability of materials
and technology as well as their own evolution of manufacturing practices. The
owner / developer needs to state his requirements with precision and in detail
and then depend upon manufacture’s performance guarantees.

IMPLEMENTATION ISSUES
IMPLEMENTATION ISSUES
INTRODUCTION
Existing coal fired power plants in India are all based on subcritical technology
(pressure up to 168 kg/cm2 and temperature of 538°C). Supercritical
technology has been advanced in India only within this decade. Technology
and implementation issues relevant to the deployment of supercritical or
advanced supercritical PC power plants in India are discussed in this section.
TECHNOLOGY ISSUES
Supercritical boiler technology has matured to a point such that the technical
risks associated with supercritical boilers are now similar to those of
subcritical boilers. However, as supercritical boilers are designed for higher
steam temperatures and pressures than subcritical boilers and also operate
using a once-through evaporator, designers and owners have to be aware of
certain issues in order to reduce technical risks to an acceptable level. These
include:
• Waterwall cracking

• Negative flow characteristic

• Slagging.
There is no reason to believe that all of these risks will appear in every
project. However, there remain some risks that should be addressed during
design and operation of the plant
Waterwall Cracking
Thermal fatigue cracking of waterwall tubes is believed to be the leading
cause of tube failures in supercritical boilers. It is not clear why supercritical
boilers are more susceptible to this type of cracking than subcritical boilers,
however possible reasons include higher metal temperatures and the use of
low alloy steel. Thermal fatigue cracking is caused by the combined action of
elevated metal temperatures and thermal cycling. Elevated metal
temperatures may be caused by the growth of internal tube deposits, high
heat flux, deterioration of fluid-side cooling or external fireside coatings.
Slagging and shedding, Scot blowing, water cleaning or other factors may
cause thermal cycling. Fireside corrosion is also believed to be a contributing
factor to thermal fatigue cracking. The use of oxygenated water treatment
may reduce the risk of waterwall cracking.
This phenomenon is currently under investigation by various organizations
and supercritical plant owners and operators should be aware of this problem,
which represents a potential risk to plant availability.
Negative Flow Characteristic

Most modem supercritical boilers operate using sliding pressure. When the
boiler is operating at part-load the pressure is subcritical and the furnace acts
as a once through evaporator. This design requires a high mass flux through
the tubes to avoid departure from nucleate boiling (DNB) and subsequent
overheating of the tube metal. A high mass flux design has an undesirable
feature referred to as a negative flow characteristic. This feature causes
tubes that experience higher than average heating to draw lower than
average fluid flow. Subcritical boilers that operate using natural circulation
have a positive flow characteristic whereby tubes that experience higher than
average heating tend to draw higher than average fluid flow.
If the furnace heal flux distribution is non-uniform due to slagging or other

factors, the negative flow characteristic can lead to a non-uniform fluid
temperature profile and high fluid temperatures at the outlet of the

waterwalls. This can result in possible overheating of tubes in the upper

furnace, DNB at high heat flux areas and differential thermal expansion of the
waterwalls.
Some supercritical boiler suppliers are now offering low mass flux designs
with internally rifled tubing to overcome this problem.
Slagging
Supercritical boilers are typically designed with a spiral tube configuration in
the furnace to produce a high fluid mass flux in the tubes. The spiral
configuration requires the tubes to be installed at an inclined angle typically
between 10 to 15 degrees from the horizontal. The inclination of the tubes is
thought to increase the propensity of slag and clinker to form on the
waterwalls compared to vertical tubing, which is typically used in subcritical
boilers. The higher fireside metal temperatures of supercritical boilers may
also contribute to increased slagging.
The risk issues stated above are observed in some supercritical plants. There
are over 600 such plants operating around the world. In order to mitigate
these risks, the following aspects need to be considered in the design and
operation of the plant:
• use of oxygenated water chemistry

• use of non-slagging coal in the boiler
• selection of coal to avoid fire-side corrosion
• consider rifled furnace tubes and possibly vertical tube furnaces with rifled
tubing.
Welding of Special Materials

The development of special steels and alloys to ensure technically sound and
safe operation of the plant has been dealt with in detail in Section 5. The
major components are manufactured at the works of the manufacturer who
have developed the materials either themselves or can procure them in the
market. However, substantial fabrication work is required to be done at the
site of the project and this involves welding of different pieces and
components.
Welding of dis-similar pieces i.e. two pieces fabricated out of different

materials is a difficult process, in itself. The difficulty increases when the
metals, out of which the pieces to be welded are fabricated, are newly

developed and not conventional. The best alternative, if available, will be to

avoid the necessity of welding pieces of dis-similar metals. This may,
however, not be possible and special welding techniques required for such
jobs will need to be learnt at the workshops of original equipment
manufacturers.
Special welding equipment will need to be procured by the EPC/ Non-EPC

contractor responsible for implementation.
Tube Spacing to Handle Indian Coal

It is known that Indian coal has high ash content and lower calorific value as
compared to coals available in other countries such as Australia and South
Africa. The designs of supercritical boilers developed by foreign
manufacturers are based on the superior type of coals and have to be
adopted to suit Indian coals.
The tubing has to ensure that steam parameters required for the supercritical
steam cycle are maintained. The materials used for fabrication of tubing will
affect their diameter and spacing. Ultimately, it is the responsibility of the
manufacturer to design and fabricate tubing for the most efficient operation
of the steam generator.
Height of Structure
It will be convenient and economical to restrict the height of the boiler
structure. The height of the boiler will be governed, however, by design
considerations.
The height of the smoke stack (Chimney) is governed by environmental

considerations.
OTHER ISSUES ASSOCIATED WITH DEPLOYMENT OF SC TECHNOLOGY

IN INDIA
Transportation of Major Equipment
The transportation requirement will depend on the fact whether the major
equipment is imported or is indigenous. The imported equipment will require
facilities at a port close to project site and thereafter transport by rail or road.
Route survey including load bearing capacity of bridges involved (rail or road)
will need to be determined and carriers designed accordingly.

Material Handling
Material handling involves handling of equipment received from
manufacturers and suppliers for erection and commissioning and of
consumables including coal and fuel.
Material handling involves lifting and handling of heavy pieces including

assembly of boiler, steam turbine and generator. The heaviest single piece
for a 800 MW plant will be the generator weighing about 275 tonnes. In
addition to overhead cranes, use of modern erection techniques like jack and
winch system should be considered for lifting of water wall, tube bundles,
reheater and economizer panels.
The coal handling system should be designed for the coal available. The
milling system, conveyors etc should be designed accordingly. The ash
handling system should be designed for the ultimate objective of “no ash” to
be disposed of beyond the plant boundary. Storage of coal and fuel oil should
be provided for.
Grid Code
The plant should operate as a base load station in order to ensure efficient
operation. This may not be possible at all times on account of fluctuations in
power demand in the system of which the plant is a part. It might be
necessary under low demand conditions in the region to back down the
unit/units to partial load or even shut down the plant.
In view of these grid conditions, the boiler procured for the plant should be
capable of fast adaptation to load changes from 100% to say 30%. It should
be capable, also, of fast start ups and high ramp up rates. Provision of these
capabilities could result in increase in the initial price of equipment but would
be unavoidable under grid conditions likely to prevail over the near future.
Skilled Manpower
As mentioned earlier, there is enough experience and skill available for the
erection and commissioning of coal based power plants upto 500 MW
capability. The erection and commissioning of a 660 MW/ 800 MW
supercritical plant will not be different materially. However, it is advisable
that some senior technical persons who will actually be incharge of erection
and commissioning of the supercritical plant are trained at such plants
already under construction in India as also in other countries.
Coal Quality and Boiler Performance

Coal properties affect PC plant beat rates and boiler size. Indian coal is known
as low grade with high ash content (as high as 45%). Therefore, the furnace
and the pulverizes need to be designed to work satisfactorily for this high ash
coal, Sub-bituminous fuels generally have alkaline ashes with low ash
softening temperatures, which require large PC furnaces. This is primarily
because the PC furnace heat transfer area must be increased in order to

reduce furnace exit gas temperature as the ash softening temperature drops,
and thereby prevent slagging of the convective pass. The gas velocity needs
to be low in the convective pass of the boiler, which will require an increased
area of the back pass of the boiler. The pulveriser throughput needs to be
higher as the same boiler will handle a significantly larger quantity of coal for
the same power output when compared with an imported high-grade coal.
The boiler efficiency is expected to reduce due to the lower calorific value of
the coal.
Indian coal would require increased soot blowers in the boiler and frequent
soot blowing during operation.
The ash plant capacities should be appropriately designed to handle the large
quantity of ash generated from the boiler.
The quartz content in Indian coals is high. The use of Indian coals shall require
frequent maintenance of the pulverisers. A better option could be to blend
these coals with an imported coal.
The advantage of using Indian coal is that the sulphur content is low which
avoids the use of FGD plants. The choice of fabric filter or electrostatic
precipitator will depend upon the type of coal to be used (i.e. Indian coal or
imported coal or a blend of both), and the particulate emission limits for plant.
Fireside corrosion may not be an issue with the Indian coal as the sulphur
content is very low (0.5%). Although corrosion can happen due to other
chemicals in coal (eg chlorine), this may not be an issue for this type of coal.
Environmental Benefits
India has large coal deposits and the country has virtually no other option
but to use this large coal resource for electricity generation. India classifies
is a host country for CDM development but does not have a legally binding
cap for its CO2 or equivalent emissions under the Kyoto Protocol. India is a
member of the Asia-Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate,
popularly known as AP6, which is another international forum for climate
change. Other countries in this forum are China, Japan, Republic of Korea,
Australia and the United States. The vision statement of this forum says:
"The Partners have come together voluntarily to advance clean

development and climate objectives, recognizing that development and
poverty eradication are urgent and overriding goals internationally. By
building on the foundation of existing bilateral and multilateral initiatives,
the Partners will enhance cooperation to meet both our increased energy
needs and associated challenges, including those related to air pollution,
energy security, and greenhouse gas intensities, in accordance with
national circumstances. The Partners recognize that national efforts will also
be important in meeting the Partnerships shared vision."
India has therefore committed to working together with other countries to

reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The deployment of supercritical
technology may be seen as an essential step in reducing greenhouse gas
emissions.

Socio-economic Benefits
A large number of supercritical plants are being considered by many
agencies as mentioned in Section 3. It is expected that new manufacturing
plants will be built and plants of Indian manufacturers like BHEL and L&T
expanded in near future to facilitate fabrication of these plants. This will
obviously lead to new investment opportunities and job opportunities. New
job opportunities will also be created during construction of these plants.
A new technology often means new job opportunities. The manufacturers of

these plants in other countries are expected to make licensing
arrangements with the existing Indian companies or engage Indian
companies or consultants for design purposes. This will potentially increase
new job opportunities for Indian technologists and engineers.

OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE ISSUES

OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE ISSUES

SUPER CRITICAL TECHNOLOGY IN INDIAN AMBIENT CONDITIONS and
INDIAN COALS
There are a number of issues pertaining to Indian ambient conditions and
Indian coals. Indian ambient conditions are different from those of other
countries and the heat rates achieved there may not be achieved under
Indian conditions. The Indian coals have higher moisture content, have low
calorific value and have high ash content. The ash also has a high silica
content giving it a higher abrasive character.
The ambient conditions are the same for sub critical or supercritical plants
and therefore the differential improvement in heat rate between the two
technologies shall remain the same in India as elsewhere. The techno-
economic viability of supercritical and ultra supercritical technology is not
altered under different ambient conditions in India and in other countries.
With respect to Indian coal, there is some drop in efficiency due to higher
moisture content and due to a higher requirement of auxiliary consumption.
There would also be a higher capital cost due to larger furnace size required
and lower flue gas velocities. In addition there are technology risks associated
with use of imported coal also. Imported coal generally has high sulphur
content. Though the current regulations ask for only the provision of space for
FGD in the plant layout, with increasing use of imported high sulphur coals,
FGD may become a regulatory requirement. Secondly, the international coal
costs are also likely to go up in the future if the oil prices go up. On the other
hand if the Indian plants have captive coal mines the cost of coal would
remain largely stable. Thus, the risks with imported coals are higher than with
Indian coal.
The risks with Indian coal and possible remedial measures that can be taken
are given below.
(i) Indian coal typically has higher moisture content, low CV and
high ash content. This can lead to lower boiler efficiencies than
with imported coal.
Remedial Measures:
• High furnace volume, better boiler tube materials with more
design margins
• Smart soot blowing system and online performance optimization
software
(ii) Low volatile matter in Indian coal leads to high-unburnt carbon

loses. Remedial Measure are:
• Higher capacity milling system to achieve better fineness and
more retention time in the boiler.
• Higher capacity of boiler in Indian condition to meet more steam
consumption due to low vacuum in Indian ambient condition
(iii) Higher erosion of the boiler tubes due to high ash content and
quartz particles in the ash Remedial measures are:
• Lower flue gas velocities to reduce erosions
• Better shielding of the tubes and other erosion prone areas
• High capacity 60% capacity for HP/LP by pass to deal with grid fluctuations

OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE ISSUES FOR SUPER AND ULTRA SUPER

CRITICAL TECHNOLOGY IN INDIA
Design and manufacture of components for supercritical coal fired
plants in developing countries
The issues regarding use of supercritical and ultra supercritical technology
are as follows:
• The ability of the Indian electricity sector to absorb new supercritical and
ultra supercritical technology.
• The availability of skill set to set-up such plants.
• The ability of the plant personnel to operate and maintain such plants.
• The availability of spares etc., in the Indian market.
• The techno economic viability of such plants given that under Indian
ambient conditions, the heat rate and efficiency figures would be lower
than those obtaining abroad.
• The techno-economic viability of such plants in India taking into
consideration higher capital costs and lower efficiencies if Indian coal is
used.
The Indian electricity sector has matured over the years. The teething
troubles and the stabilization period required are no longer as significant as
they were earlier. The 660 MW unit sizes are expected to stabilize much
quicker than the lower capacity units. The Indian manufacturers are also able
to adapt the technology received from others to suit Indian conditions.
Significant adaptations have been carried out in boiler designs and the milling
systems to address the problems with Indian coal. Further, the Indian market
today has much more depth in terms of manufacture of components and use
of newer materials. Special steels are also being manufactured in India and
therefore there is much more experience available in the country to absorb
new technology than earlier.
The other reason to believe that supercritical and ultra supercritical

technology can be absorbed reasonably quickly is that India has already
chosen to introduce sufficient number of such plants. This means that there
would be sufficiently large number of units to build up the requisite
manufacturing and support infrastructure. Therefore, introduction of super
critical units does not introduce any major technology risk.
Availability of contractor for maintenance

Supercritical and ultra supercritical technologies introduce only a small
number of special components requiring specific skills for maintenance. By
and large O&M operations for the supercritical and ultra supercritical plants
are the same as for sub critical plants. Maintenance persons are familiar with
new materials used in supercritical plants as they are already in use in Indian
plants. The operational flexibility with super critical technology is more than
for subcritical units and should pose no major problems. Therefore, the ability
of the Indian electricity sector to absorb supercritical and ultra supercritical
technology should pose no major hurdle for its introduction. However, as a
necessary measure, it is important to provide extensive training to the plant
personnel using similar facilities abroad and also using training simulators.
Availability of Critical Spare, Tools and Tackles in India

No major problems can be foreseen on this count. Given the number of such
plants and projects to be set up, the availability of critical spares, tools and
tackles are unlikely to be a constraint on the introduction of supercritical ultra
supercritical technology in India.
Status of super and ultra super critical boiler manufacturers / suppliers

In terms of local manufacturing capability, BHEL and L&T in India are entering
into supercritical technology. BHEL has obvious core strength in power plant
manufacture and should be able to absorb new technology quite easily. Its
collaboration with Siemens for the turbines can be easily scaled up to cover
supercritical technology. It is also tying up with Alstom for the boiler
technology. Similarly L&T, which has worked on the power plant cycle for
some time including nuclear power plants, has an extensive experience of
engineering, fabrication and installing of such equipment. With their
collaboration with Mitsubishi Heavy Industries (MHI), L & T will provide a
second manufacturer of supercritical and ultra supercritical plants.
Apart from this, major international companies such as ABB, Alstom, GE, TPE,
Skoda and Doosan are also active in India. They are involved in supply of
boilers and turbines to the Indian market. Chinese companies such as Harbin,
Dongfeng and Shanghai Electric are also active in India. Therefore, apart from
the two Indian companies, who have manufacturing presence in supercritical
plants, there are also other manufacturers of supercritical plants who are
active in India and also have some manufacturing presence.

ENVIRONMENT ISSUES

ENVIRONMENT ISSUES
INTRODUCTION
The prescribed environmental standards and guidelines for pollution control
measures are described below.
INDIAN STANDARDS
Ambient Air Quality Standards
Ministry of Environment & Forests (MoEF), Government of India, have, established
the National Ambient Air Quality Standards for the various categories, which
are followed by State Pollution Control Boards. These are given in the following
Table:
Table 10-36: Ambient Air Quality Standards

Time & weighted average
Industrial area Residential area & Sensitive area
Pollutants (µg/m3) other areas (µg/m3) (µg/m3)
Annual 24 Annual Annual 24
24 hours
average hours -average average hours
S02 80 120 60 80 15 30
NOx 80 120 60 80 15 30
SPM 360 500 140 200 70 100
(Source: Air Prevention & Control of Pollution Act. I981 Dt. April 11. 1994)
Since Thermal Power Station falls in the category of industrial area, the
standards followed for industrial category will be applicable to the plant.
Flue Gas Emission Standards

The present emission standards prescribe Particulate Matter emission limits and
stack height criteria in coal-fired thermal power stations in India. Table 10-2
provides the prescribed standards for stack height and particulate matter
emission applicable to thermal power plants. However, no specific emission
values of S02 and NOx are prescribed.
Table 10-37: Flue Gas Emission Standards

Parameter Standard
1. Sulphur dioxide (SO2) Stack Height limit in meter
500 MW and above 275
200 MW/2I0 MW and above to less 220
than 500 MW
Less than 200 MW/210 MW H = 14 (Q)0.3
Where Q is emission rate of SO2
in kg/hr, and H is slack height
in meters.

Parameter Standard
3
2. Particulate Matter (PM) mg/m N (concentration not to
exceed)
Generation capacity 210 MW or 150
more
Generation capacity less than 210 MW 350
th
(Source: 1. EPA Notification [G.S.R. 742 (E), dated 30 August 1990]
2. EPA Notification [S.O.8(E), dated 3rd January 1989])
Wastewater Quality Standards

The wastewater discharge norms pertain to the use of the respective source(s)
of discharge. Table 10-3 provides the wastewater quality standards applicable to
thermal power plants.
Table 10-38: Wastewater Standards

Concentration not to
Source Parameter
exceed, (mg/l)
Suspended Solids 100
Boiler blow Oil & Grease 20
down Copper (total) 1.0
Iron (total) 1.0
Free available Chlorine 0.5
Zinc 1.0
Cooling tower Chromium (total) 0.2
blow down Phosphate 5.0
Other corrosion inhibiting Limit to be established on
material case by case basis
pH 6.5-8.5
Ash Pond
Suspended Solid 100
Effluent
Oil & Grease 20
(Source: EPA Notification [S.O. 844 (E), dated 19th November 19861)

Noise Standards
Table 10-4 provides the noise level standards applicable to thermal power
plants. Since thermal power plant site falls in the category of industrial area, the
standards followed for industrial category will be applicable in the power plant
premises.
Table 10-39: Noise Standards
Category Day Time (dB) Night Time (dB)
Industry 75 70
Commercial 65 55
Residence 55 45
Silence 50 40
th
(Source: EPA Notification [Gazette, dated 14 February 2000])
EMISSIONS RESULTS
CO2 Emissions Results
The CO2 emission estimates for the three coal fired power plant options for
domestic coal are presented below. The figures given in the table are based
on the conversion of all the carbon in the coal to CO2 during the combustion
process.
Table 10-40: CO2 Emission Estimates (100% MCR)
CO2 emission rate t/h 425 406 390
(Domestic coal)
Gross CO2 emission kg/MWh 850 812 779
intensity (Domestic coal)
Net CO2 emission kg/MWh 904 864 829
intensity (Domestic coal)
The CO2 emission reduction percentage estimates relative to the base

subcritical plant as compared to the high efficiency coal fired plant options
considered in this report are presented below.
Table 10-41: CO2 Emission Reduction % Estimates Relative to Base Subcritical

Plant (100% MCR)
CO2 Emission Reduction Compared to the
Coal Fired Plant Option
Base Subcritical Plant (%)
Base subcritical 0.0%
Base supercritical 4.4%
High supercritical 8.3%
Other Emission Results

The following emissions are discussed:
• NOx emissions
• SOx emissions
• Particulate emissions
For each of these types of emissions, the following information is discussed:

• production of the emission
• control technologies to reduce the emission

• licence limits for the emission
The emissions listed above are by-products of the fuel and gas cycle, which is
largely independent of the steam cycle. As such, the emission performance
of subcritical, supercritical and advanced supercritical power plants is
comparable when measured as a function of fuel consumption. However, as
subcritical plants are less efficient than supercritical and advanced
supercritical power plants, the emissions generated per unit of electrical
energy produced is greater in the case of the subcritical plant than that for
the supercritical and advanced supercritical power plants.
Nitrogen oxides Emissions

Oxides of nitrogen (NOx) are a by-product of the combustion of coal in air.
The production of NOx is dependent on the type of burners installed, excess
air conditions, and the furnace flame temperature. The following
technologies can be used to minimize the production or emission of NOx
emissions:
• low NOx burners (LNB)
• over-fire air (OFA)
• flue gas recirculation (FGR)
• selective catalytic reduction (SCR)
• selective non-catalytic reduction (SNCR)
The NOx emission limits set by Governments, or organizations around the

world for new coal fired power stations vary. The NOx emission limits for new
coal fired power stations are presented below. Typical control technologies
that could be employed to comply with the stated emission limits are also
included in table below.

Table 10-42: NOx Emission Limits for New Coal Fired Power Stations
Region or Organisation SOx Emission Limit Control Technology
3
World Bank 750 mg/m at 6% O2 dry basis LNB and OFA
India No limits at present LNB
European Union 200 – 500 mg/Nm3 at 6% O2 LNB, OFA and SCR
LNB : Low NOx Burner
OFA : Over Fire Air
SCR : Selective Catalytic Reduction
Sulphur oxides Emissions

SOx is a by-product of the combustion of the sulphur in the coal. The
quantity of SOx produced during combustion is directly proportional to the
quantity of sulphur in the fuel entering the furnace. It is possible to minimize
the emission of SOx emissions through pre-treatment of the coal or post-
treatment of the flue gases. The following technologies can be used to
minimize the production or emission of SOx emissions:
• selection of low sulphur coals
• flue gas desulphurization (FGD)
The sulphur content of the domestic coal considered in this study is 0.5%.
The amount of SOx emissions produced by these coals without post-
treatment of the flue gases is estimated as 1,880 mg/Nm 3 at 6% O2 dry basis
for domestic coal.
The SOx emission limits set by Governments, or organizations around the

world for new coal fired power stations vary. The SOx emission for new coal
fired power stations by region or organization are presented below. Typical
control technologies that could be employed to comply with the stated
emission limits are also included in table below.
Table 10-43: SOx Emission Limits for New Coal Fired Power Stations
Region or
SOx Emission Limit Control Technology
Organisation
World Bank • 0.20 t/d/MW of capacity for the first 500 MW Low sulphur coal
• 0.10 t/d/MW of capacity for the each additional and FGD (as
megawatt of capacity above 500 MW. required)
• The concentration of SO2 in the flue gas should not
exceed 2,000 mg/m3 at 6% O2 dry basis.
• Maximum emission level of 500 t/d
• Construction of two or more separate plants in the
same airshed to circumvent the maximum emission
level of 500 t/d is not acceptable.
European 200 – 400 mg/Nm3 at 6% O2 Low sulphur coal

Union and FGD
India No limits at present Low sulphur coal
Particulate Emissions
Particulates are non-combustible mineral particles that enter the furnace in
the fuel stream and leave the furnace entrained in the flue gas (fly ash). The
quantity of particulate emissions produced is related to the ash content of the
coal. Particulate emissions have been proven to be successfully controlled by

the use of both electrostatic precipitators and fabric filters. Electrostatic

precipitators can provide collection efficiencies up to 99.5% but are highly
dependent on the electrical resistivity of the fly ash. Low sulphur coals and
coals with high silica/ alumina compositions generally result in fly ash with a
high electrical resistivity that reduces collection efficiency. Fabric filters are
capable of achieving particle collection efficiencies of up to 99.95%.
The particulate emission limits set by governments or organizations around

the world for new coal fired power stations vary. The particulate emission for
new coal fired power stations are presented below. Typical control
technologies that could be employed to comply with the stated emission
limits are also included in table below.
Table 10-44: Particulate Emission Limits for New Coal Fired Power Stations
Region or Organisation Particulate Emission Limit Control Technology
World Bank 50 mg/Nm3 Fabric filter

European Union 30 mg/Nm3 at 6% O2 Fabric filter
India 150 mg/Nm3 Electrostatic precipitator, or

fabric filter
APPLICABILITY OF STANDARDS AND COMPLIANCE

The proposed supercritical project will need to comply with prescribed
standards as described below:
The domestic coal fired thermal power plants are normally designed at
subcritical technology and operate at 33% thermal efficiency. As the
Supercritical Technology Project shall be provided with Supercritical boiler
with higher thermal efficiency (40.2%), the coal consumption and the
greenhouse gas emission per kW generation will be reduced.
As for as discharge of particulate matters (PM) is concerned, the project will

be required to meet the limit of 100 mg/m3N as per Charter on Corporate
Responsibility for Environmental Protection which is an agreement signed
between the related authorities including the Power and Environment
Ministries. The installation of an electrostatic precipitator (with dust collection
efficiency of 99.8 % or more), will be able to reduce the PM at the ESP outlet
to a maximum of 100 mg/m3N.
Regarding SO2 discharge, a 275m high stack per unit will be installed as per
statutory requirement. Besides, low sulfur coal will be mainly used in this
Project. The sulphur content is about 0.3% to 0.5%, representing SO2 emission
in this case of 400-700 ppm (average values), which is not high. There is no
proposal for the installation of Flue-gas Desulphurization (FGD) plant for SO 2

removal; however, adequate space will be provided behind the stack for future
stricter control measures.
Regarding NOx discharge, coal usually contains 1% to 3% of N and results in

NOx emissions of 500-800 ppm (average values). The actual N content of the
major coal used in the Project is about 1%. Measures to improve combustion
process including Low NOx burners will be able to reduce the NOx emission to
around 400 ppm.
Wet bottom ash disposal to the exiting ash pond and dry fly ash collection/storage
will be adopted in ash handling system. The fly ash will be reused for making ash
bricks and aggregates, and also for cement manufacturing.
Plant effluent from Clarification plant & Demineralizing (DM) plant will be
treated in waste water treatment system and discharged after meeting the
stipulated norms. The treated waste water will be re-circulated and reused as
much as possible.
Coal Storage yard, Water Spray sprinkler system will be installed for
suppressing the coal-dust from the coal storage/handling areas.
CDM ISSUES
Methodology
This CDM project benefits envisage a coal plant that is more efficient and
thus emits less greenhouse gas emissions as compared to a conventional
plant. Coal plants come in various categories, such as subcritical, supercritical
and ultra supercritical. This project shall be a new (not-yet-built) coal plant
that would normally be constructed by the developer according to a less
efficient but chapter technology is accordance with the developer’s financial
capabilities. The incentive of CDM, shall enable the developer to build a more
efficient power plant instead. Clear and transparent documentation shall be
furnished to establish that in the absence of a CDM project, the less efficient
plant would be constructed.
The key measure to compare more and less efficient plants will be overall
efficiency. Typical coal plants range from 35-45% efficiency, as measured on
an energy (joule) basis. In other words, if a power plant is 37% efficient, only
37% of the joules contained in the coal fuel end up producing useful joules

worth of electricity. The rest of the joules are lost in the fuel combustion and
electricity generation process. This project would take a power plant that
would have been only 37% efficient and build a plant instead that is 40%
efficient with CDM benefit contribution.
While the efficiencies of older power plants in developing countries are still
around 35-36% lower heating value (LHV), modem subcritical cycles have
attained efficiencies close to 40% (LHV). Further improvement in efficiency
can be achieved by using supercritical steam conditions. These plants can
have efficiencies above 45% (LHV).
Coal-fired power stations using "supercritical" boilers produce hotter steam to

run the turbines: around 600°C compared to around 540°C in an older
technology plant. Supercritical plants make more efficient use of the energy
created by coal's combustion, so less carbon is emitted — around 5-15% less
than the average coal plant per unit of electricity generated.
Applicability Conditions
The methodology which will render a new coal fired plant eligible for
obtaining CDM benefits will need to establish that the new coal plant would
be built normally using a conventional technology, which is standard in the
country. With the incentive of CDM, a more efficient coal plant would be built
instead (eg: instead of a subcritical plant, a supercritical or ultra supercritical
plant will be constructed). If construction of a coal plant using standard
technology has not commenced, it shall be made clear that a new, standard-
efficiency coal plant would be built in that location. This can be confirmed
through clear and transparent documentation, such as utility
expansion/investment plans, feasibility studies, licenses and approvals
granted, power purchase agreements signed, financing/investment/loan
process underway, etc. These documents need to make clear that the power
plant that would be built has the standard efficiency level).
A baseline efficiency should be clearly established through comparisons with

other coal plants in the country.
The "standard efficiency" coal plant and the new, more efficient plant should
have the same capacity. If a more efficient plant is built, which has a larger
capacity, the overall emissions would be higher than if the plant were of the

same size as the standard coal plant but emission per KW of electricity
generated shall be lower.

COST IMPLICATION OF TECHNOLOGY IN INDIA

COST IMPLICATION OF TECHNOLOGY IN INDIA

1.5 COST ESTIMATE OF SUPER CRITICAL PLANTS IN INDIA
The tables below gives the cost implications of super critical plants in India.
They take into account the following:
• The capital costs for supercritical and high super critical plants using
Indian coals.
• The impact of higher auxiliary power consumption in Indian plants
• Slightly poorer heat rates due to higher ambient temperatures
• Some loss of efficiency in the boiler due to higher moisture content of
Indian coals
For the purpose of computing the costs of subcritical, supercritical and high
super critical units, the costs for each unit size have been scaled up using
scaling factors. We have carried out study for cost comparison for using super
critical technology on domestic coal. The tables below summarise the
calculations for the above.
It might be noted that the costs computed here are based on prices of
projects already executed or under execution. The prices however are
sensitive to steel prices, both of which have seen sharp variations in recent
times.
There would be some increase in the capital cost of plants if Indian coals are
used. The impact of Indian coals on the cost of the boiler is due to higher
furnace size in order to burn lower calorific value fuel and also the need for
lower flue gas velocities for preventing erosion. Though the manufacturers
indicate that the price difference for using Indian coals is of the order of 2.5%,
we have used a slightly higher figure. The other additional costs for Indian
coals are in the coal handling, milling and ash handling systems. These have
been addressed in the cost calculations based on our estimates.
Table 11-45: Plant Characteristics

Indian Coal / Pithead site
Steam cycle Units Base Sub- Low super-critical High super-critical
parameters critical
Pressure bar 166 247 247
MST Deg C 538 538 565
RST Deg C 538 565 593
Unit size MW 500 660 800
Construction and months 36 48 52
start up time
Table 11-46: Plant equipment capital costs per unit

Low super- High super-
Units Base Sub-critical
critical critical
Boiler & auxiliaries Rs. million 8035 13850 20025
Steam turbine Rs. million
generator & auxiliaries 4287 6772 9900
Electrical Equipment Rs. million 1199 1782 2475
Plant control system Rs. million 277 446 540
Balance of plant Rs. million 2470 3483 3960

Buildings & common Rs. million

structures 1188 1620 1800
Site preparation, roads Rs. million
and general
infrastructure 619 770 990
Total Rs. million 18076 28723 39690
Table 11-47: Other Capital Costs

Base Sub- Low super- High super-
Units
critical critical critical
Land costs Rs. million 270 360 383
Rs. million
EPC contractor
engineering &
management (10%) 1807 2553 3175
Spares, tools & training Rs. million 454 612 720
Site accommodation Rs. million 540 540 540
Insurance (1%) Rs. million 181 287 397
Owner's engineer & Rs. million
approvals (2.5%) 452 718 992
Owner's contingency Rs. million
(2%) 362 575 794
Table 11-48: Capital and Specific Capital Cost for Each Unit Size
Units
Total Unit Cost Rs. million 22141 34368 46690.7
Total unit capital Rs. million
specific cost /MW 44 52 58

Table 11-49: Capital and Specific Capital Cost for two units
Units Base Sub- Low super- High super-
Total Capital Rs. million 41264 65113 89735
Cost
Specific Rs.million/MW 41 49 56
capital cost
Table 11-50: O&M Costs – Fixed and Variable for Each Unit Size
Units
Rs.
Fixed O&M Cost million /yr 608.4 690.3 844.2
Variable O&M cost Rs./MWh 116 136 150.87
1.6 BASIS
Supercritical technology based power plants are not very common in India.
Only two plants are in advanced stages of construction namely Barh (3x660
MW) and Sipat stage – I (3x660 MW). The capital cost (as approved by CEA
and also mentioned in Central Regulatory Commissions order of Oct25, 05) is
given below and can be used as a benchmark for the proposed project.
Particulars Sipat STPS Stage – I Barh STPS

Capacity 3 x 660 MW 3 x 660 MW
Hard cost
Foreign component (US $ million) 827 (Rs. 3515 Crores) 905 (Rs. 4208 crores)
Domestic component (Rs. Crore) 3780 3079
Total Hard Cost excluding IDC and 7295 7287
FC charges (Rs. Cr.)
Hard cost (Rs. Crore/ MW) 3.68 3.68
IDC & FC
Foreign component (US$ million) 165 (Rs.701 crores) 166 (Rs. 770 crores)
Total project cost
Foreign component (US$ million) 992 (Rs. 4216 crores) 1070 (Rs. 4977 crores)
Total capital cost (Rs. crore ) 9013 9093
Total capital cost (Rs. Crore/MW ) 4.55 4.59
1.7 LIFE CYCLE COSTS OF SUPERCRITICAL COAL FIRED POWER

PLANTS
The life cycle costs of supercritical coal fired power plants are lower than
those of subcritical plants. Current designs of supercritical plants have
installation costs that are only 2% higher than those of subcritical plants. Fuel
costs are considerably lower due to the increased efficiency and operating
costs are at the same level as subcritical plants. Specific installation cost i.e.
the cost per megawatt (MW) decreases with increased plant size. For
countries like India and China, unit ratings from 500MW up to 900MW are
possible due to their large electrical grids. In countries with smaller grids, unit
sizes of 300MW are more appropriate and the specific installation cost will be
higher than that of larger plants.

REFERENCE
1 High-efficiency Supercritical Alstom

Technology
2 Advance Boiler design Alstom
3 The supercritical difference Alstom
4 Supercritical & Ultra supercritical PowerGen Asia 2004
Technology
5 Steam Generator for the next Siemens AG, Power Generation
generation of power Plant Group Kwu
6 Material for Boilers in Ultra Proceeding of 2000
Supercritical Power Plant international Joint Power
Generation Conference Miami
Beach, Florida, July 23-26,2000
7 India’s Ultra Mega Power Projects The use of Carbon Financing,
exploring MottMacdonald
8 Analysis of Technological risks Evonik Energy Services, India
associated with using Super and
Ultra critical technology in India
9 Feasibility study report, Anpara E, Electric Power Development
2007 Company Ltd.
1 Defining the materials issues and Natural Energy Technology
0 research for ultra-supercritical Laboratory, Morgantown
steam turbines
1 Development of gCrW tube, pipe Nippon Steel, Technical Report
1 and forging for ultra supercritical
power plant boilers

LIST OF ABBREVIATION
APH AIR PRE-HEATER

APGENCO ANDHRA PRADESH GENERATION CORPORATION
ASME AMERICAN SOCIETY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS
AVT ALL VOLATILE CYCLE CHEMISTRY
AVN ADVANCED VORTED NOZZLE
BHEL BHARAT HEAVY ELECTRICALS LIMITED
BMCR BOILER MAXIMUM CONTINUOUS RATING
BMS BURNER MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
BS BRITISH STANDARDS
BTU BRITISH THERMAL UNIT
C&I CONTROL AND INSTRUMENTATION
CDM CLEAN DEVELOPMENT MECHANISM
CO2 CARBON DIOXIDE
CR CHROMIUM
CV CALORIFIC VALUE
CU COPPER
CEA CENTRAL ELECTRICITY AUTHORITY
CERC CENTRAL ELECTRICITY REGULATORY COMMISSION
CRH COLD REHEAT LINE
DM DE MINERAL
DNB DEPARTURE FROM NUCLEATE BOILING
DSS DAILY START STOP
EPRI ELECTRIC POWER RESEARCH INSTITUTE
EPC ENGINEERING, PROCUREMENT AND CONSTRUCTION
EPMS ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATOR MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
ESP ELECTRO STATIC PRECIPITATOR
FGD FUEL GAS DESULPHURISATION PLANT
GW GIGA WATT
HHV HIGH HEATING VALUE
HP HIGH PRESSURE
HR HOUR
HRH HOT REHEAT LINE
HV HIGH VOLTAGE
HZ HERTZ
IBR INDIAN BOILER REGULATIONS
ID INDUCED DRAFT
IP INTERMEDIATE PRESSURE
IS INDIAN STANDARDS
KG KILOGRAM
KW KILOWATT
KWH KILOWATT HOUR
LHV LOWER HEATING VALUE
LNB LOW NOX BURNER
LP LOW PRESSURE
LV LOW VOLTAGE
L&T LARSON & TOUBRO

MAHAGENC MAHARASHTRA GENERATION CORPORATION

O
MCR MAXIMUM CONTINOUS RATING
MG MILLIGRAM
MHI MITSUBISHI HEAVY INDUSTRIES LIMITED
MOEF MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT AND FORESTS
MPA MEGA PASCAL
MSP MAIN STEAM PRESSURE
MST MAIN STEAM TEMPERATURE
MT METRIC TONNE
MV MEDIUM VOLTAGE
MVA MEGA VOLT AMPERES
MW MEGA WATTS
NI NICKEL
NM3 NEWTON CUBIC METRE
NOX OXIDES OF NITROGEN
NTPC NATIONAL THERMAL POWER CORPORATION
O&M OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE
PC PULVERISED COAL
PLF PLANT LOAD FACTOR
PM PARTICULATE MATTER
PSEB PUNJAB STATE ELECTRICITY BOARD
PSI PRESSURE SQUARE INCH
PWHT POST WELD HEAL TREATMENT
RH REHEATER
RST REHEAT STEAM TEMPERATURE
SCAPH STEAM COIL AIR PRE-HEATER
SEB STATE ELECTRICITY BOARD
SERC STATE ELECTRICITY REGULATORY COMISSION
SH SUPERHEATER
SO2 SULPHUR DIOXIDE
T TONNE
TMCR TURBINE MAXIMUM CONTINUOUS RATING
UMPP ULTRA MEGA POWER PROJECT
VGB VERBAND DER GROBKESSEL BESITZER
VN VANADIUM
WBPDCL WEST BENGAL POWER DEVELOPMENT CORP. LTD

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Analysis of Supercritical technology in Indian Environment

and Utilizing Indian coal

E040/ REPORTBoben Anto C

OPERATIONAL FLEXIBILITY AND PERFORMANCE OF

E040/ REPORTBoben Anto C

E040/ REPORTBoben Anto C

Table 3-9: Steam Parameters of Supercritical Plants in USA...29

E040/ REPORTBoben Anto C

Table 6-33: Plant Performance Estimates using domestic Coal

E040/ REPORTBoben Anto C

Figure 5-7: Evaluation of authentic steels for boiler..............49

E040/ REPORTBoben Anto C

Figure 7-31: Tube layout....................................................123

E040/ REPORTBoben Anto C

E040/ REPORTBoben Anto C

The primary purpose of the study is to assess whether supercritical thermal

1. Evaluation of the current state of supercritical technology with

2. Design related issues that differentiate supercritical technology

3. Adaptability of technology to Indian conditions. Effect of use of

4. Operational issues, breakdowns, outages in Indian conditions,

5. Suggest range of parameters to be adopted for proposed plant.

7. Availability of plants from Indian and foreign manufacturers

8. Ability of supercritical technology in meeting Indian environmental

APPROACH AND METHODOLOGY

E040/ REPORTBoben Anto C

Data shall be collected for supercritical plants under construction in India.

Choice of supercritical technology

The reasons for developers in India now preferring supercritical technology

Typical design related issues that differentiate supercritical technology from

The progressive improvement in materials of construction of supercritical

Other problems faced in maintenance and operation such as lack of

E040/ REPORTBoben Anto C

The benefits of the proposed supercritical plants in terms of saving in coal

E040/ REPORTBoben Anto C

Development of Simulation Models

E040/ REPORTBoben Anto C

E040/ REPORTBoben Anto C

"Supercritical" is a thermodynamic expression describing the state of a

The water-steam cycle is sub-critical up to an operating pressure of around

Table 2-1: Classification for Coal Fired Plants

E040/ REPORTBoben Anto C

Low supercritical 660 MW 247 bar 538°C 565°C

Comparative efficiencies for typical steam parameters and temperatures are

The gradual evolution of increasing efficiencies of coal fired thermal power

Figure 2-1: Efficiency Performance in Germany TPS

A Committee was set up by the Central Electricity Authority in 2003 to

E040/ REPORTBoben Anto C

DEVELOPMENT OF SUPERCRITICAL TECHNOLOGY

These problems reduced the availability of the then operating supercritical

1924 First reheat generating unit – Philo Plant

E040/ REPORTBoben Anto C

1966 First control room simulator to train plant operating personnel –

The Department of Energy (DOE) of U.S.A. proposed three power generation

Technology evolution in Europe and Japan

The historical development of increases in operating pressures and

Country Year Pr (kg/cm2) Temp ºC

E040/ REPORTBoben Anto C

Denmark 1991 254.92 540 /540

E040/ REPORTBoben Anto C

1.1.1 Technology evolution in China

Development of supercritical technology in India

An important problem faced by power generation systems is the substantial