Hebrew alphabet

Hebrew alphabet

Features: Variants: Numerals: Abjad Mater lectionis Begadkefat Cursive Rashi Braille Gematria Numeration

Ancillaries: Diacritics Punctuation Cantillation Translit.: Romanization of Hebrew Hebraization of English IPA ISO

Computers: Keyboard Unicode and HTML

Hebrew alphabet

Type

Abjad (for Hebrew, Aramaic, and Judeo-Arabic) True Alphabet (for Yiddish) Hebrew, Yiddish, Ladino, and Judeo-Arabic (see Jewish languages) 3rd century BCE to present

Languages Time period

Parent systems Egyptian hieroglyphs Proto-Sinaitic Phoenician alphabet Aramaic alphabet Sister systems Nabataean Syriac Palmyrenean Mandaic Brhm Pahlavi Sogdian Hebr, 125 Right-to-left Hebrew Hebrew alphabet

ISO 15924 Direction Unicode alias

Unicode range U+0590 to U+05FF [1], [2] U+FB1D to U+FB4F

[3]

v t e

Hebrew alphabet The Hebrew alphabet (Hebrew: [a], alefbet Ivri), known variously by scholars as the Jewish script, square script, block script, is used in the writing of the Hebrew language, as well as other Jewish languages, most notably Yiddish, Ladino, and Judeo-Arabic. There have been two script forms in use; the original old Hebrew script is known as the paleo-Hebrew script (which has been largely preserved, in an altered form, in the Samaritan script), while the present "square" form of the Hebrew alphabet is a stylized form of the Assyrian script. Various "styles" (in current terms, "fonts") of representation of the letters exist. There is also a cursive Hebrew script, which has also varied over time and place. The Hebrew alphabet has 22 letters, of which five have different forms when used at the end of a word. Hebrew is written from right to left. Originally, the alphabet was an abjad consisting only of consonants. Like other abjads, such as the Arabic alphabet, means were later devised to indicate vowels by separate vowel points, known in Hebrew as niqqud. In rabbinic Hebrew, the letters are also used as matres lectionis to represent vowels. When used to write Yiddish, the writing system is a true alphabet (except for borrowed Hebrew words). In modern usage of the alphabet, as in the case of Yiddish (except that replaces ) and to some extent modern Israeli Hebrew, vowels may be indicated. Today, the trend is toward full spelling with these letters acting as true vowels.

History
According to contemporary scholars, the original Hebrew script developed during the late second and first millennia BCE alongside others used in the region. It is closely related to the Phoenician script, which was also an abjad, and which itself probably gave rise to the use of alphabetic writing in Greece (Greek alphabet). A distinct Hebrew variant, called the paleo-Hebrew alphabet, emerged by the 10th century BCE,[4] an example of which is represented in the Gezer calendar. The paleo-Hebrew alphabet was commonly used in the ancient Israelite kingdoms of Israel and Judah, as well as by the Samaritans. Following the exile of the Kingdom of Judah in the 6th century BCE, in the Babylonian exile, Jews began using a form of the Assyrian script, which was another offshoot of the same family of scripts. During the 3rd century BCE, Jews began to use a stylized, "square" form of the Aramaic alphabet that was used by the Persian Empire (which in turn was adopted from the Assyrians), while the Samaritans continued to use a form of the paleo-Hebrew script, called the Samaritan script. After the fall of the Persian Empire, Jews used both

A Jewish stele near the archeological excavations of the early medieval walls of Serdica

Hebrew alphabet

3 scripts before settling on the Assyrian form. For a limited time thereafter, the use of the paleo-Hebrew script among Jews was retained only to write the Tetragrammaton, but soon that custom was also abandoned.[citation needed]

The square Hebrew alphabet was later adapted and used for writing languages of the Jewish diaspora such as Karaim, Judo-Arabic, Ladino, Yiddish, etc. The Aleppo Codex: 10th century CE Hebrew Bible with Masoretic pointing. Text of Hebrew alphabet continued in use for Joshua 1:1 scholarly writing in Hebrew and came again into everyday use with the rebirth of the Hebrew language as a spoken language in the 18th and 19th centuries, especially in Israel.

Description
General
In the traditional form, the Hebrew alphabet is an abjad consisting only of consonants, written from right to left. It has 22 letters, five of which use different forms at the end of a word.

Vowels
In the traditional form, vowels are indicated by the weak consonants Aleph (), He (), Vav (), or Yodh () serving as vowel letters, or matres lectionis: the letter is combined with a previous vowel and becomes silent, or by imitation of such cases in the spelling of other forms. Also, a system of vowel points to indicate vowels (diacritics), called niqqud, was developed. In modern forms of the alphabet, as in the case of Yiddish and to some extent modern Israeli Hebrew, vowels may be indicated. Today, the trend is toward full spelling with the weak letters acting as true vowels. When used to write Yiddish, vowels are indicated, using certain letters, either with or without niqqud-diacritics (e.g., respectively: "" ,"" or "" ,""), except for Hebrew words, which in Yiddish are written in their Hebrew spelling.
Hebrew script on the bustier of Jan van Scorel's Maria Magdalena, 1530.

To preserve the proper vowel sounds, scholars developed several different sets of vocalization and diacritical symbols called niqqud (, literally "applying points"). One of these, the Tiberian system, eventually prevailed. Aaron ben Moses ben Asher, and his family for several generations, are credited for refining and maintaining the system. These points are normally used only for special purposes, such as Biblical books intended for study, in poetry or when teaching the

Hebrew alphabet

language to children. The Tiberian system also includes a set of cantillation marks used to indicate how scriptural passages should be chanted, used in synagogue recitations of scripture (although these marks do not appear in the scrolls), called "trope". In everyday writing of modern Hebrew, niqqud are absent; however, patterns of how words are derived from Hebrew roots (called shorashim, or root letters) allow Hebrew speakers to determine the vowel-structure of a given word from its consonants based on the word's context and part of speech.

Alphabet
Hebrew Alphabet - souvenir from Israel Neither the old Hebrew script nor the modern Hebrew script have case, [c] but five letters have special final forms, called sofit (Hebrew: , meaning in this case "final" or "ending") form, used only at the end of a word, somewhat as in the Greek or in the Arabic and Mandaic alphabets[b]. These are shown below the normal form, in the following table (letter names are Unicode standard[5][6]). Hebrew is read and written from right to left. Alef Bet Gimel Dalet He Vav Zayin Het Tet Yod Kaf

Nun

Pe

Lamed Mem

Samekh Ayin

Tsadi Qof Resh Shin Tav

Note: The chart reads from left to right.

Pronunciation of letter names

letter Name of letter MW Unicode Alef Bet Established pronunciation [7] in English /lf/, /lf/ /b/, /bet/ standard Israelipronunciation colloquial Israelipronunciation (if differing) Yiddish / Ashkenazipronunciation

Aleph Beth

/alef/ /bet/

/alf/ /bs/ /vs/

Gimel Daleth He Waw Zayin Heth Teth Yod

Gimel Dalet He Vav Zayin Het Tet Yod

/ml/ /dl/, /dlt/ /he/ /vv/, /ww/ /za.n/ /h/, /xet/ /t/, /tet/ /jd/

/imel/ /dalet/ /he/ /vav/ /zajin/ /et/ /tet/ /jod/ /jud/ /za.in/ /et/ /daled/ /hej/

/iml/ /dald/ /h/ /vv/ /zajin/ /s/ /ts/ /jud/

Hebrew alphabet

5
Kaf /kf/ /kaf/ /kf/ /f/ Final Kaf /kaf sofit/ /lmd/ /mm/ /lamed/ /mem/ /mem sofit/ /la f/ /lamd/ /mm/ /ls mm/

Kaph

Lamed Mem

Lamed Mem Final Mem

Nun

Nun Final Nun

/nun/

/nun/ /nun sofit/

/nun/ /la nun/

Samekh Samekh Ayin Pe Ayin Pe

/smk/, /smx/ /same/ /a.n/ /pe/ /ajin/ /pe/ /a.in/ /pej/

/sam/ /ajin/ /p/ /f/

Final Pe Sadhe Tsadi Final Tsadi Qoph Resh Shin Taw Qof Resh Shin Tav /kf/ /r/, /re/ /in/, /n/ /tf/, /tv/ /sd/, /sdi/

/pe sofit/ /tsadi/ /tsadi sofit/

/pej sofit/

/la f/ /tsdi/, /tsdik/, /tsadk/ /la tsadk/

/kof/ /e/ /in/ /tav/

/kuf/ /ej/

/kuf/ /r/ /in, sin/

/taf/

/tv/, /tf/ /sv/, /sf/

Stylistic variants
The following table displays typographic and chirographic variants of each letter. For the five letters that have a different final form used at the end of words, the final forms are displayed beneath the regular form. The three lettering variants currently in use are block, cursive and Rashi. Block and Rashi are used in books. Block lettering dominates, with Rashi lettering typically used for certain editorial inserts (as in the glosses of Isserles to the Shulchan Aruch) or biblical commentaries (as in the commentary of Rashi) in various standard literary works. Cursive is used almost exclusively when handwriting, unless block lettering is desired for stylistic purposes (as in signage).

Hebrew alphabet

Letter name (Unicode)

Variants Modern Hebrew Serif Sans- Mono- Cursive serif spaced Rashi Ancestral Phoenician Paleo-Hebrew Aramaic

Alef

Bet

Gimel

Dalet

He

Vav

Zayin

Het

Tet

Yod

Kaf

Final Kaf

Lamed

Mem

Final Mem

Nun

Final Nun

Samekh

Hebrew alphabet

7
Ayin

Pe

Final Pe

Tsadi

Final Tsadi

Qof

Resh

Shin

Tav

Yiddish symbols
Symbol Explanation These are intended for Yiddish. They are not used in Hebrew[d].

The rafe () diacritic is no longer regularly used in Hebrew. In masoretic manuscripts and some other older texts the soft fricative consonants and sometimes matres lectionis are indicated by a small line on top of the letter. Its use has been largely discontinued in modern printed texts. It is still used to mark fricative consonants in the YIVO orthography of Yiddish.

Numeric values of letters

Hebrew letters are used to denote numbers, nowadays used only in specific contexts, e.g. denoting dates in the Hebrew calendar, denoting grades of school in Israel, other listings (e.g. , "phase a, phase b"), commonly in Kabbalah (Jewish mysticism) in a practice known as gematria, and often in religious contexts.

Hebrew alphabet

letter numeric value letter numeric value letter numeric value 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900

The numbers 500, 600, 700, 800 and 900 are commonly represented by the juxtapositions , , ,, and respectively. Adding a geresh ("") to a letter multiplies its value by one thousand, for example, the year 5769 is portrayed as , where represents 5000, and represents 769.

Transliterations and transcriptions

The following table lists transliterations and transcriptions of Hebrew letters used in Modern Hebrew. Clarifications: For some letters, the Academy of the Hebrew Language offers a precise transliteration that differs from the regular standard it has set. When omitted, no such precise alternative exists and the regular standard applies. The IPA phonemic transcription is specified whenever it uses a different symbol from the one used for the regular standard Israeli transliteration. The IPA phonetic transcription is specified whenever it differs from IPA phonemic transcription. Note: SBL's transliteration system, recommended in its Handbook of Style,[8] differs slightly from the 2006 precise transliteration system of the Academy of the Hebrew Language; for "" SBL uses "" ( AHL ""), and for with no dagesh, SBL uses the same symbols as for with dagesh (i.e. "b", "g", "d", "k", "f", "t").
Click"show"toviewextendedtableincludingexamples.

Hebrew letter

example

Translation

Standard Israeli transliteration regular

example

standard Israeli transliteration precise

example IPAphonemictranscription

example

IPAphonetictranscription

example

[9]

consonantal, in initial word positions

if

none[A1]

im

[]

[im]

consonantal, in non initial word positions

asked

'

sha'l

shal

//

/aal/

Hebrew alphabet

9
rishn

silent

first

none[A2]

consonantal

son good roof

b v g

ben tov gag g ga

roach boiler

[B1][10]

uk dud d du

/d/

/duk/

echo

hed

silent

here

none[A3]

po

consonantal

hook

vav

waw

consonantal

he to him this jargon hot

u o z [B2] [C1]

hu lo ze argn am am // /x/ or // dialectical [] [am] /aron/ /xam/ [] [am] [o] or [] [lo, l]

tiny sea

t y

kat yam

ka /j/ /jam/

part of hirik male (/i/vowel)

in me

bi

part of tsere male (/e/vowel or /ei/diphthong)

information

med

md

/e/ or /ej/

/meda/ or /mejda/

[e] or /ej/

[meda] or [mejda]

Hebrew alphabet

10
k kh [C2] l m ko skhakh li mum nin sof
[A4]

, , , ,
in initial or final word positions

so branch-roofing to me defect

sa

/x/ or //

/sxax/

[]

[sa]

great-grandson n end s

Purim-parade

none

adloyda

adloyda

only in initial word position [] dialectical // /adlojada/ /moil/ /moil/

[adlojada]

in medial word positions

useful

'

mo'l

mol

// dialectical //

, , ,
[D]

tip

tip

missed bud

f ts [B3] k r

fisfs tsits rra kol ir q qol [] or [] dialectical [r] or [] [ir] or [i] [i] or [i] i /ts/ /t/ /tsits/ /ritrat/

zip sound city

there put strawberry

sh s t

sham sam tut

am am tu

//

/am/

Hebrew alphabet

11

Hebrew letter

Standard standard IPAphonemictranscription IPAphonetictranscription Israeli Israeli transliteration transliteration regular precise none[A1] []

consonantal, in initial word positions

consonantal, in non initial word positions

'

//

silent

none[A2]

consonantal

b v g g [B1] d d h /d/

silent

none[A3]

consonantal

u o z [B2] [C1] // /x/ or // dialectical [] [] [o] or []

Hebrew alphabet

12

consonantal

t y

/j/

part of hirik male (/i/vowel)

part of tsere male (/e/vowel or /ei/diphthong)

/e/ or /ej/

[e] or [ej]/

, , , ,
in initial or final word positions

k kh[C2] l m n s none[A4] /x/ or // []

dialectical //

only in initial word position []

in medial word positions

'

// dialectical //

p
[D]

Hebrew alphabet

13

, , ,
Notes
A1^ 2^ 3^ 4^

f ts [B3] k r q [] or [] dialectical [r] or [] sh s t t // /ts/ /t/

In transliterations of modern Israeli Hebrew, initial and final (in regular transliteration), silent or initial , and silent are not transliterated. To the eye of readers orientating themselves on Latin (or similar) alphabets, these letters might seem to be transliterated as vowel letters; however, these are in fact transliterations of the vowel diacritics niqqud (or are representations of the spoken vowels). E.g., in ("if", [im]), ("mother", [em]) and ("nut", [om]), the letter always represents the same consonant: [] (glottal stop), whereas the vowels /i/, /e/ and /o/ respectively represent the spoken vowel, whether it is orthographically denoted by diacritics or not. Since the Academy of the Hebrew Language ascertains that in initial position is not transliterated, the symbol for the glottal stop is omitted from the transliteration, and only the subsequent vowels are transliterated (whether or not their corresponding vowel diacritics appeared in the text being transliterated), resulting in "im", "em" and "om", respectively.
B1^ 2^ 3^

The diacritic geresh "" is used with some other letters as well ( , , , , ,), but only to transliterate from other languages to Hebrew never to spell Hebrew words; therefore they were not included in this table (correctly translating a Hebrew text with these letters would require using the spelling in the language from which the transliteration to Hebrew was originally made). The non-standard "" and "" [e1] are sometimes used to represent /w/, which like /d/, // and /t/ appears in Hebrew slang and loanwords.
C1^ 2^

The Sound // (as "ch" in loch) is often transcribed "ch", inconsistently with the guidelines specified by the Academy of the Hebrew Language: /am/ "cham"; /sa/ "schach".
D^

Although the Bible does include a single occurrence of a final pe with a dagesh (Book of Proverbs 30, 6: " - :- -."), in modern Hebrew /p/ is always represented by pe in its regular, not final, form "", even when in final word position, which occurs with loanwords (e.g. /op/ "shop"), foreign names (e.g. /filip/ "Philip") and some slang (e.g. /arap/ "slept deeply").

Hebrew alphabet

14

Pronunciation
The descriptions that follow are based on the pronunciation of modern standard Israeli Hebrew.
Letters

[],

[b]

[v]

[]

[d]

[d]

[u]

,
(non-standard)[e2]

[j]

IPA
Letters

[] [h~], [v]~[w]

[o]

[w]

[z] [] []~[] [t]

[i]

[k] [] [l] [m] [n]

[f]

[ts] [t] [k]

[]~[r]

[] [s]

[t]

[]

IPA

[s] []~[], [p]

Shin and sin

Shin and sin are represented by the same letter, , but are two separate phonemes. They are not mutually allophonic. When vowel diacritics are used, the two phonemes are differentiated with a shin-dot or sin-dot; the shin-dot is above the upper-right side of the letter, and the sin-dot is above the upper-left side of the letter.
Symbol Name Transliteration IPA Example shin (right dot) sin (left dot) s /s/ sour sh // shop

Historically, left-dot-sin corresponds to Proto-Semitic *, which in biblical-Judaic-Hebrew corresponded to a voiceless alveolar lateral fricative //, as is evident in Greek transliteration of Hebrew words such as Balsam () (the ls - '') as is evident in the Targum Onkelos.[citation needed] Rendering of proto-semitic * as //, is still evident in the Soqotri language.[citation needed]

Dagesh
Historically, the consonants beth, gimel, daleth, kaf, pe and tav each had two sounds: one hard (plosive), and one soft (fricative), depending on the position of the letter and other factors. When vowel diacritics are used, the hard sounds are indicated by a central dot called dagesh (), while the soft sounds lack a dagesh. In modern Hebrew, however, the dagesh only changes the pronunciation of beth, kaf, and pe, and doesn't affect the name of the letter. The differences are as follows:
Name Symbol beth kaf [] pe With dagesh Without dagesh

Transliteration IPA Example Symbol Transliteration IPA Example b k /b/ /k/ bun kangaroo

/p/

pass

v kh/ch/x

/v/ //

van loch

f/ph

/f/

find

In other dialects (mainly liturgical) there are variations from this pattern. In some Sephardi and Mizrahi dialects, bet without dagesh is pronounced [b], like bet with dagesh In Syrian and Yemenite Hebrew, gimel without dagesh is pronounced [], as in "Job" In Yemenite Hebrew, and in the Iraqi pronunciation of the word "Adonai", dalet without dagesh is pronounced [] as in "these" In Ashkenazi Hebrew, tav without dagesh is pronounced [s] as in "silk"

Hebrew alphabet In Iraqi and Yemenite Hebrew, and formerly in some other dialects, tav without dagesh is pronounced [] is in "thick"

15

Identical pronunciation
In Israel's general population, many consonants have the same pronunciation. They are as follows:
Letters Transliteration Pronunciation (IPA) Usually when in medial word position: /./ (separation of vowels in a hiatus) When in initial or final word position, sometimes also in medial word position: silent alternatingly ' or // (glottal stop) /v/

Alef*

Ayin*

not transliterated

Bet (without dagesh)

Vav

Het

Kaf (without dagesh)

kh/ch/h

//

Tet

Tav

/t/

Kaf (with dagesh)

Qof

/k/

Samekh

Sin (with left dot)

/s/

Tsadi*

Tav-Samekh*

and

Tav-Sin*

ts/tz

/ts/

Tsadi (with geresh) * Varyingly

Tet-Shin*

and

Tav-Shin*

ch/tsh (chair)

/t/

Ancient Hebrew pronunciation

Some of the variations in sound mentioned above are due to a systematic feature of Ancient Hebrew. The six consonants /b d k p t/ were pronounced differently depending on their position. These letters were also called BeGeD KeFeT letters /bedkft/. The full details are very complex; this summary omits some points. They were pronounced as plosives /b d k p t/ at the beginning of a syllable, or when doubled. They were pronounced as fricatives /v x f / when preceded by a vowel (commonly indicated with a macron, p ). The plosive and double pronunciations were indicated by the dagesh. In Modern Hebrew the sounds and have reverted to [d] and [], respectively, and has become [t], so only the remaining three consonants /b k p/ show variation. resh may have also been a "doubled" letter, making the list BeGeD KePoReS. (Sefer Yetzirah, 4:1)

Hebrew alphabet

16

chet and ayin represented pharyngeal fricatives, tsadi represented the emphatic consonant /s/, tet represented the emphatic consonant /t/, and qof represented the uvular plosive /q/. All these are common

Semitic consonants. sin (the /s/ variant of shin) was originally different from both shin and samekh, but had become /s/ the same as samekh by the time the vowel pointing was devised. Because of cognates with other Semitic languages, this phoneme is known to have originally been a lateral consonant, most likely the voiceless alveolar lateral fricative // (the sound of modern Welsh ll) or the voiceless alveolar lateral affricate /t/ (like Nhuatl tl).

Vowels
Matres lectionis

alef, he, vav and yod are letters that can sometimes indicate a vowel instead of a consonant (which would be, respectively, //, /h/, /v/ and /j/). When they do, and are considered to constitute part of the vowel designation in combination with a niqqud symbol a vowel diacritic (whether or not the diacritic is marked), whereas and are
considered to be mute, their role being purely indicative of the non-marked vowel.
Letter Name of letter Consonant Vowel Name of Indicated indicated designation vowel designation Vowel when letter consonantal // /h/ /v/ , , , , , , , ,

alef he vav

yud

/j/

olm mal shurq irq mal tser mal

Vowel points
Niqqud is the system of dots that help determine vowels and consonants. In Hebrew, all forms of niqqud are often omitted in writing, except for children's books, prayer books, poetry, foreign words, and words which would be ambiguous to pronounce. Israeli Hebrew has five vowel phonemes, /i e a o u/, but many more written symbols for them:
Name Symbol IPA Israeli Hebrew Transliteration English example mandi

Hiriq Zeire

[i]

men, main [e], ([ej] with e, (ei with succeeding yod) succeeding yod) [e] [] e a a, (or o) men father father

Segol Patach Kamatz

[], (or [o])

Hebrew alphabet

17
Holam Haser Holam Male [o] o o over over

[o]

Shuruk Kubutz

[u] [u]

u u

moon moon

Note 1: The symbol "" represents whatever Hebrew letter is used. Note 2: The pronunciation of zeire and sometimes segol - with or without the letter yod - is sometimes ei in Modern Hebrew. This is not correct in the normative pronunciation and not consistent in the spoken language. Note 3: The dagesh, mappiq, and shuruk have different functions, even though they look the same. Note 4: The letter (vav) is used since it can only be represented by that letter.

Meteg By adding a vertical line (called Meteg) underneath the letter and to the left of the vowel point, the vowel is made long. The meteg is only used in Biblical Hebrew, not Modern Hebrew. Sh'va By adding two vertical dots (called Sh'va) underneath the letter, the vowel is made very short.
Name Symbol IPA Israeli Hebrew Transliteration English example h as pronounced in herb

Shva

[e] or

apostrophe, e, or nothing e a o

Reduced Segol Reduced Patach Reduced Kamatz

[e] []

men father father

[o]

Comparison table
Vowel comparison table[citation needed] Vowel Length (phonetically not manifested in Israeli Hebrew) Long Short Very Short IPA Transliteration English example

Wikipedia:Disputed statement

Wikipedia:Disputed statement

[] [e] [o]

a e o

spa temp Congo

n/a

[u] [i]

u i

soon ski

Hebrew alphabet

18
Note I: By adding two vertical dots (sh'va) the vowel is made very short. Note II: Note III: The short o and long a have the same niqqud. The short o is usually promoted to a long o in Israeli writing for the sake of disambiguation The short u is usually promoted to a long u in Israeli writing for the sake of disambiguation

Note IV:

Gershayim
The symbol is called a gershayim and is a punctuation mark used in the Hebrew language to denote acronyms. It is written before the last letter in the acronym. Gershayim is also the name of a note of cantillation in the reading of the Torah, printed above the accented letter.

Sounds represented with diacritic geresh

The sounds [t], [d], [], written "", "", "", and [w], non-standardly sometimes transliterated or [e3], are often found in slang and loanwords that are part of the everyday Hebrew colloquial vocabulary. The apostrophe-looking symbol after the Hebrew letter modifies the pronunciation of the letter and is called a geresh. (As mentioned above, while still done, using to represent [w] is non-standard; standard spelling rules allow no usage of whatsoever[e4]).
Hebrew slang and loanwords Name Gimel with a geresh Zayin with a geresh Tsadi with a geresh Vav with a geresh or double Vav Symbol IPA Transliteration [d] [] [t] [w] w nun kol upr (treat) Example [danun] [kola] [tupar]

or

awnta (boastful act) [awanta]

(non standard)[e5]

The pronunciation of the following letters can also be modified with the geresh diacritic, the represented sounds are however foreign to Hebrew phonology, i.e., these symbols only represent sounds in foreign words or names when transliterated with the Hebrew alphabet, and never loanwords.
Transliteration of non-native sounds Name Symbol IPA Arabic letter Dhl () Dh Voiced th al-ijjah ( ) Th () Thurston Voiceless th Example Comment

Dalet with a geresh Tav with a geresh

[]

* Also used for English voiced th * Often a simple is written.

[]

Hebrew alphabet

19
[] Kh () Sheikh ()

et with a geresh

* Unlike the other sounds in this table, the sound [] represented by is indeed a native sound in Hebrew; the geresh is however used only when transliteration must distinguish between [] and [], in which case transliterates the former and the latter, whereas in everyday usage without geresh is pronounced [] only dialectically but [] commonly.

Resh with a geresh

[] or

Ghayn () Ghajar ()

Sometimes an ayin with a geresh () is used to transliterate inconsistently with the guidelines specified by the Academy of the Hebrew Language

A geresh is also used to denote acronyms pronounced as a string of letters, and to denote a Hebrew numeral. Geresh also is the name of one of the notes of cantillation in the reading of the Torah, but its appearance and function is different.

Religious use
The letters of the Hebrew alphabet have played varied roles in Jewish religious literature over the centuries, primarily in mystical texts. Some sources in classical rabbinical literature seem to acknowledge the historical provenance of the currently used Hebrew alphabet and deal with them as a mundane subject (the Jerusalem Talmud, for example, records that "the Israelites took for themselves square calligraphy", and that the letters "came with the Israelites from Ashur [Assyria]");[11] others attribute mystical significance to the letters, connecting them with the process of creation or the redemption. In mystical conceptions, the alphabet is considered eternal, pre-existent to the Earth, and the letters themselves are seen as having holiness and power, sometimes to such an extent that several stories from the Talmud illustrate the idea that they cannot be destroyed.[12] The idea of the letters' creative power finds its greatest vehicle in the Sefer Yezirah, or Book of Creation, a mystical text of uncertain origin which describes a story of creation highly divergent from that in the Book of Genesis, largely through exposition on the powers of the letters of the alphabet. The supposed creative powers of the letters are also referenced in the Talmud and Zohar.[13][14] Another book, the 13th-century Kabbalistic text Sefer HaTemunah, holds that a single letter of unknown pronunciation, held by some to be the four-pronged shin on one side of the teffilin box, is missing from the current alphabet. The world's flaws, the book teaches, are related to the absence of this letter, the eventual revelation of which will repair the universe.[15] Another example of messianic significance attached to the letters is the teaching of Rabbi Eliezer that the five letters of the alphabet with final forms hold the "secret of redemption". In addition, the letters occasionally feature in aggadic portions of non-mystical rabbinic literature. In such aggada the letters are often given anthropomorphic qualities and depicted as speaking to God. Commonly their shapes are used in parables to illustrate points of ethics or theology. An example from the Babylonian Talmud (a parable intended to discourage speculation about the universe before creation):
The four-pronged Shin

Why does the story of creation begin with bet?... In the same manner that the letter bet is closed on all sides and only open in front, similarly you are not permitted to inquire into what is before or what was behind, but only from the actual time of Creation. Babylonian Talmud, Tractate Hagigah, 77c

Extensive instructions about the proper methods of forming the letters are found in Mishnat Soferim, within Mishna Berura of Yisrael Meir Kagan.

Hebrew alphabet

20

Mathematical use
In set theory letter aleph is used to mark infinite cardinality of a set, for example "number" of all natural numbers is . Similarly beth is used for infinite ordinals. See aleph number and beth number.

Unicode and HTML

The Unicode Hebrew block extends from U+0590 to U+05FF and from U+FB1D to U+FB4F. It includes letters, ligatures, combining diacritical marks (niqqud and cantillation marks) and punctuation. The Numeric Character References is included for HTML. These can be used in many markup languages, and they are often used in Wiki to create the Hebrew glyphs compatible with the majority of web browsers.

Notes
a^

"Alef-bet" is commonly written in Israeli Hebrew without the maqaf (, "[Hebrew] hyphen"), , as opposed to with the hyphen, .
b^

The Arabic letters generally (as six of the primary letters can have only two variants) have four forms, according to their place in the word. The same goes with the Mandaic ones, except for three of the 22 letters, which have only one form.
c^

In forms of Hebrew older than Modern Hebrew, , and can only be read b, k and p, respectively, at the beginning of a word, while they will have the sole value of v, kh and f in a sofit (final) position, with few exceptions. In medial positions, both pronunciations are possible. In Modern Hebrew this restriction is not absolute, e.g. /fizikaj/ and never /pizikaj/ (= "physicist"), /snob/ and never /snov/ (= "snob"). A dagesh may be inserted to unambiguously denote the plosive variant: = /b/, = /k/, =/p/; similarly (though today very rare in Hebrew and common only in Yiddish) a raf placed above the letter unambiguously denotes the fricative variant: = /v/, = // and = /f/. In Modern Hebrew orthography, the sound [p] at the end of a word is denoted by the regular form "", as opposed to the final form "", which always denotes [f] (see table of transliterations and transcriptions, comment[D]).
d^

However, (two separate vavs), used in Ktiv male, is to be distinguished from the Yiddish ligature - (also two vavs but together as one character).
e1^ e2^ e3^ e4^ e5^

The Academy of the Hebrew Language states that both [v] and [w] be indistinguishably represented in Hebrew using the letter Vav.[16] Sometimes the Vav is indeed doubled, however not to denote [w] as opposed to [v] but rather, when spelling without niqqud, to denote the phoneme /v/ at a non-initial and non-final position in the word, whereas a single Vav at a non-initial and non-final position in the word in spelling without niqqud denotes one of the phonemes /u/ or /o/. To pronounce foreign words and loanwords containing the sound [w], Hebrew readers must therefore rely on former knowledge and context.

References
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] http:/ / www. unicode. org/ charts/ PDF/ U0590. pdf http:/ / www. unicode. org/ charts/ PDF/ UFB00. pdf http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ w/ index. php?title=Template:Alphabet& action=edit Ancient Scripts.com: Old Hebrew (http:/ / www. ancientscripts. com/ old_hebrew. html) Chart of Hebrew glyphs at unicode.org (http:/ / www. unicode. org/ charts/ PDF/ U0590. pdf) Unicode names of Hebrew characters at fileformat.info (http:/ / www. fileformat. info/ info/ unicode/ block/ hebrew/ list. htm). Merriam Webster's Collegiate Dictionary (http:/ / www. merriam-webster. com/ table/ dict/ alphabet. htm) Resources for New Testament Exegesis Transliteration Standards of The SBL Handbook of Style (http:/ / www. viceregency. com/ Translit. htm)

[9] Transliteration guidelines (http:/ / hebrew-academy. huji. ac. il/ hahlatot/ TheTranscription/ Documents/ taatiq2007. pdf) by the Academy of the Hebrew Language, November 2006 [10] Transliteration guidelines preceding 2006-update (http:/ / hebrew-academy. huji. ac. il/ hahlatot/ TheTranscription/ Documents/ ATAR1. pdf), p. 3 Academy of the Hebrew Language

Hebrew alphabet
[11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] Jerusalem Talmud, Tractate Sanhedrin 21b Babylonian Talmud, Tractate Pesach 87b, Avodah Zarah 18a. Babylonian Talmud, Tractate Berachot 55c Zohar 1:3; 2:152 The Book of Letters. Woodstock, Vermont: Jewish Lights Publishing, Woodstock. 1990 issued by the Academy of the Hebrew Language.

21

Bibliography
Gesenius' Hebrew Grammar,5 ff. Hoffman, Joel M. 2004. In the Beginning: A Short History of the Hebrew Language. New York: New York University Press. (http://www.newjewishbooks.org/ITB) Saenz-Badillos, Angel. 1993. A History of the Hebrew Language. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. (http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0521556341) Steinberg, David. History of the Hebrew Language. (http://www.adath-shalom.ca/history_of_hebrew.htm) Mathers table Hebrew Alphabet Guide (http://www.hebrewlanguageguide.com/hebrew-alphabet/)

External links
General
The Hebrew alphabet, meanings, and spiritual symbolism (http://www.inner.org/hebleter/index.htm) How to draw letters (http://www.levsoftware.com/alefbet.htm) Official Unicode standards document for Hebrew (http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0590.pdf) Transliterate your English name into Hebrew Letters (http://www.kabalahyoga.com/name) Hebrew Alphabet Charts (http://www.jr.co.il/alef-bet.htm) Interactive Hebrew Alphabet Lesson (http://www.makorehebrew.com/lesson/plan/1439/Consonants) Mobile OCR Hebrew Dictionary (http://www.cymraeg.ru/daoulagad.html)

Keyboards
LiteType.com (http://litetype.com/?lang=hebrew&style=moon) Virtual & Interactive Hebrew Keyboard Hebrew calligraphy alphabet (http://www.script-sign.com) Model Hebrew calligraphy Alphabet Mikledet.com (http://www.mikledet.com) For typing Hebrew with an English keyboard (Hebrew keyboard|Hebrew layout) Hebrew Writing (http://hebrew-keyboard.com) Typing Hebrew and Nikud using extended English keyboard (Hebrew keyboard|Hebrew Writing layout) Prize Find: Oldest Hebrew Inscription (http://www.bib-arch.org/bar/article.asp?PubID=BSBA& Volume=36&Issue=2&ArticleID=9) Biblical Archaeology Review

Article Sources and Contributors

22

Article Sources and Contributors

Hebrew alphabet Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=599050067 Contributors: 1297, 334a, 4pq1injbok, ActiveSelective, Adjwilli, Adrian.benko, Aeusoes1, Ageku, Aharon, Al-Andalus, Alansohn, Aleph1, AlexanderKaras, AlexanderWinston, Alexandre-Jrme, Allens, AlphAlphA, Altenmann, Ami hertz, Amire80, Ams627, AnieHall, AnonMoos, Antandrus, Ariel., Arthena, Assyrio, Astein1, Augurr, Avitohol, Avrum84, Azaghal of Belegost, Babelfisch, Benwing, Bgates1, Big Adamsky, Blanu, Bluewind, Bo Basil, Boboroshi, Branddobbe, Brando130, Brion VIBBER, Bronsin, Bryan Derksen, Bumm13, Bus stop, C0N6R355, CRGreathouse, CWesling, Calbaer, CalebWilson, Carolina wren, Cbogart2, Champson1035, ChanochGruenman, CharlesMartel, Chenlev, CheskiChips, Ck lostsword, Clinkophonist, CommandoJack, CommonsDelinker, Conversion script, Cprompt, Crissov, Csernica, Cubfanpgh, Curb Chain, Cybercobra, DH85868993, DOSGuy, DVD R W, Dahveed323, Dan Pelleg, DanBLOO, Daniel il, Danitudos, Danny, DarkFantasy, DavidConrad, Davidl, Davidsteinberg, Dbachmann, Debresser, Deflective, Denelson83, DerBorg, Dhirsbrunner, Dimpan, DionysiusThrax, Dispenser, Docu, Dodiad, DopefishJustin, Doron waf, Dovi, Drift chambers, Drilnoth, DwightKingsbury, E=MC^2, Edal, Eddau, Edenc1, Editor2020, Eequor, Eisenstadt, Elendil's Heir, Eliyak, Ellywa, Emrrans, Epicgenius, Epson291, Ericbg05, Erinn, Error, Erutuon, Etams, Ewawer, FilipeS, FisherQueen, Fitzburgh, Flapdragon, Foobaz, Gabbe, Gaius Cornelius, Garzo, Ghewgill, Gilabrand, Gilgamesh, Glenn L, Glossaquepasa, Gogo Dodo, Gritchka, Grubbmeister, H92, Haakanbaarman, Hairy Dude, Hakeem.gadi, Haldrik, Happybunny95, Heronbythesea, Hertz1888, Hippietrail, Hmains, Howcheng, Hyacinth, IZAK, Ian Pitchford, Ian.thomson, Ichwan Palongengi, Ijon, Ikiroid, Imeriki al-Shimoni, Inbetweener, Indexheavy, Infantom, Informator, Iridescent, It Is Me Here, Itai, Ixfd64, Izzedine, J. 'mach' wust, J58660, Jallan, James Arthur Reed, Jaqeli, Java7837, Jayjg, Jbabrams2, Jediknightelectro1997, Jeeny, Jesdisciple, Jestus 13, Jfdwolff, Jheald, Jimhoward72, Jklamo, Jnate19, Jndrline, Jni, Jnothman, Johanna-Hypatia, Johnman239, Jonathan48, Jonathanrcoxhead, Joshdboz, Judaeosemitist, Julian Mendez, Kaaveh Ahangar, KathrynLybarger, Keeves, Kenneth Alan, Khoikhoi, Klparrot, Koavf, Korenyuk, Krzyp, Kwamikagami, Kwork2, KylieTastic, Lady Aleena, Largoplazo, Lasunncty, Ldoron, LeaHazel, Lee-Anne, Leegee23, Leybl goldberg, Lfdder, LilHelpa, Lincmad, Lindum, LittleDan, Llusiduonbach, Lockesdonkey, Lotje, Lowellian, Luckynumbers, MacedonianBoy, Maelnuneb, Mahmudmasri, Malhonen, Malik Shabazz, Maltin75, Marek69, Marysunshine, Matt1957, Mausy5043, Max, Mbz1, McGeddon, Mdotley, Meaghan, Melaen, Metallurgist, Mgenuth, Mhss, Mild Bill Hiccup, Mitch3000, Mlang.Finn, Mo-Al, Monedula, Mournserve, Mrdice, Munci, Mustafaa, Muu-karhu, MuzikJunky, NHRHS2010, NSH001, NachMS, Naddy, Neatnate, Neelix, Nibblet, Nickshanks, Nixeagle, No such user, Nohat, Number 57, Olve Utne, OneTopJob6, Ordinary Person, Ori.livneh, OwenBlacker, Pasquale, Per Honor et Gloria, Phil Boswell, Philip Trueman, PhilosophicalNinja, Pjacobi, Plastikspork, Porges, PretoriaTravel, Protagor, Pseudomonas, PuckSmith, Pyrop, R'n'B, RK, Ready, Redaktor, Redrose64, Reinyday, Renata, RetiredUser2, Rjwilmsi, RosenneJ, Ross Burgess, Rossnixon, Rotem Dan, Roybb95, Ruakh, Samuel, Samuels18, Saperaud, Sardanaphalus, Serafn33, Sethoeph, Sfan00 IMG, Sh33pl0re, Shaul avrom, Shirulashem, Shlomke, Simetrical, Sirmylesnagopaleentheda, Smoothhenry, Soccerfun99, Solarix, Sonlarge, Sotakeit, Sputnikcccp, StOlaf12, Starjsr, Stephen C. Carlson, Stephen Gilbert, Stevertigo, Sumerophile, Summer Song, Suruena, TShilo12, Tassedethe, Tcherser, The Obento Musubi, The Rogue Penguin, The Thing That Should Not Be, Threeafterthree, Throttleryn, Tiamut, Tim Long, Timwi, Tobias Conradi, Toby Bartels, Tomerfiliba, Tommy2010, Trafford09, TreasuryTag, Truthanado, Ukexpat, Uriber, Uriyan, Vcohen, VeryVerily, Vincent Ramos, Viriditas, Vishahu, W. P. Uzer, Wakantanka, Wavelength, Wbm1058, Wereon, Westonmr, Wikinger, William Avery, Xolom, Xyz7890, YUL89YYZ, Yamamoto Ichiro, Yms, Ynhockey, Yoninah, Yossarian, Youssefsan, Ypediag, Yseewald, Yurik, Yym, Zabek, ZanderSchubert, Zerida, Zero0000, Zidonuke, Zundark, ZxxZxxZ, . , , , , 518 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

File:Alefbet ivri.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Alefbet_ivri.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Dan Pelleg File:Jewish-stone.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jewish-stone.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Edal File:Aleppo Codex Joshua 1 1.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Aleppo_Codex_Joshua_1_1.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: see ; scanned by http://www.aleppocodex.org File:Mariamagdalena grt.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mariamagdalena_grt.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Adamt, Aiko, Boo-Boo Baroo, Jan Arkesteijn, Jane023, Mattes, Mr.Dantes, Picasdre, Pierpao, Rudolphous, Shakko, Stilfehler, Vincent Steenberg, 1 anonymous edits File:Hebrew Alphabet Souvenir.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hebrew_Alphabet_Souvenir.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Bluewind File:Hebrew letter Alef handwriting.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hebrew_letter_Alef_handwriting.svg License: unknown Contributors: Dan Pelleg, Pymouss, Sarang File:Hebrew letter Alef Rashi.png Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hebrew_letter_Alef_Rashi.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Dan Pelleg File:phoenician aleph.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Phoenician_aleph.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Ch1902 File:Early Aramaic character - Alaph.png Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Early_Aramaic_character_-_Alaph.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Aharon (talk). Original uploader was Aharon at en.wikipedia File:Aleph.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Aleph.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: User:Cronholm144 File:Hebrew letter Bet handwriting.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hebrew_letter_Bet_handwriting.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Dan Pelleg File:Hebrew letter Bet Rashi.png Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hebrew_letter_Bet_Rashi.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Dan Pelleg File:phoenician beth.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Phoenician_beth.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Ch1902 File:Early Aramaic character - Beth.png Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Early_Aramaic_character_-_Beth.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Aharon (talk). Original uploader was Aharon at en.wikipedia File:Beth.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Beth.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: User:Cronholm144 File:Hebrew letter Gimel handwriting.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hebrew_letter_Gimel_handwriting.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Dan Pelleg, Imz, Pymouss, Sarang File:Hebrew letter Gimel Rashi.png Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hebrew_letter_Gimel_Rashi.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Dan Pelleg File:phoenician gimel.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Phoenician_gimel.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Ch1902 File:Early Aramaic character - gimmel.png Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Early_Aramaic_character_-_gimmel.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Aharon (talk). Original uploader was Aharon at en.wikipedia File:Igimel.png Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Igimel.png License: GNU General Public License Contributors: Imz, Meno25, Ori~, File:Hebrew letter Daled handwriting.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hebrew_letter_Daled_handwriting.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Dan Pelleg File:Hebrew letter Daled Rashi.png Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hebrew_letter_Daled_Rashi.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Dan Pelleg File:phoenician daleth.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Phoenician_daleth.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Ch1902 File:Early Aramaic character - daled.png Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Early_Aramaic_character_-_daled.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Aharon (talk). Original uploader was Aharon at en.wikipedia File:daleth.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Daleth.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: User:Cronholm144 File:Hebrew letter He handwriting.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hebrew_letter_He_handwriting.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Dan Pelleg File:Hebrew letter He Rashi.png Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hebrew_letter_He_Rashi.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Dan Pelleg File:phoenician he.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Phoenician_he.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Ch1902 File:Early Aramaic character - heh.png Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Early_Aramaic_character_-_heh.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Aharon (talk). Original uploader was Aharon at en.wikipedia File:he0.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:He0.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: User:Cronholm144 File:Hebrew letter Vav handwriting.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hebrew_letter_Vav_handwriting.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Dan Pelleg File:Hebrew letter Vav Rashi.png Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hebrew_letter_Vav_Rashi.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Dan Pelleg File:phoenician waw.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Phoenician_waw.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Ch1902 File:Early Aramaic character - vav.png Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Early_Aramaic_character_-_vav.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Aharon (talk). Original uploader was Aharon at en.wikipedia

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

File:waw.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Waw.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: User:Cronholm144 File:Hebrew letter Zayin handwriting.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hebrew_letter_Zayin_handwriting.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Dan Pelleg File:Hebrew letter Zayin Rashi.png Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hebrew_letter_Zayin_Rashi.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Dan Pelleg File:phoenician zayin.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Phoenician_zayin.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Ch1902 File:Early Aramaic character - zayin.png Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Early_Aramaic_character_-_zayin.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Aharon (talk). Original uploader was Aharon at en.wikipedia File:zayin.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Zayin.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: User:Cronholm144 File:Hebrew letter Het handwriting.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hebrew_letter_Het_handwriting.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Dan Pelleg File:Hebrew letter Het Rashi.png Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hebrew_letter_Het_Rashi.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Dan Pelleg File:phoenician heth.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Phoenician_heth.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Ch1902 File:Early Aramaic character - khet.png Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Early_Aramaic_character_-_khet.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Aharon (talk). Original uploader was Aharon at en.wikipedia File:heht.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Heht.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: User:Cronholm144 File:Hebrew letter Tet handwriting.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hebrew_letter_Tet_handwriting.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Dan Pelleg File:Hebrew letter Tet Rashi.png Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hebrew_letter_Tet_Rashi.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Dan Pelleg File:Phoenician teth.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Phoenician_teth.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Ch1902 File:Early Aramaic character - tet.png Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Early_Aramaic_character_-_tet.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Aharon (talk). Original uploader was Aharon at en.wikipedia File:teth.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Teth.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: User:Cronholm144 File:Hebrew letter Yud handwriting.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hebrew_letter_Yud_handwriting.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Dan Pelleg, Man vyi, Pymouss, Sarang File:Hebrew letter Yud Rashi.png Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hebrew_letter_Yud_Rashi.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Dan Pelleg File:phoenician yodh.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Phoenician_yodh.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Ch1902 File:Early Aramaic character - yud.png Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Early_Aramaic_character_-_yud.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Aharon (talk). Original uploader was Aharon at en.wikipedia File:yod.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Yod.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: User:Cronholm144 File:Hebrew letter Kaf handwriting.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hebrew_letter_Kaf_handwriting.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Dan Pelleg, Man vyi, Pymouss, Sarang File:Hebrew letter Kaf-nonfinal Rashi.png Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hebrew_letter_Kaf-nonfinal_Rashi.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Dan Pelleg File:phoenician kaph.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Phoenician_kaph.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Ch1902 File:Early Aramaic character - khof.png Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Early_Aramaic_character_-_khof.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Aharon (talk). Original uploader was Aharon at en.wikipedia File:kaph.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kaph.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: User:Cronholm144 File:Hebrew letter Kaf-final handwriting.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hebrew_letter_Kaf-final_handwriting.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Dan Pelleg File:Hebrew letter Kaf-final Rashi.png Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hebrew_letter_Kaf-final_Rashi.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Dan Pelleg File:Hebrew letter Lamed handwriting.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hebrew_letter_Lamed_handwriting.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Dan Pelleg File:Hebrew letter Lamed Rashi.png Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hebrew_letter_Lamed_Rashi.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Dan Pelleg File:phoenician lamedh.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Phoenician_lamedh.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Ch1902 File:Early Aramaic character - lamed.png Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Early_Aramaic_character_-_lamed.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Aharon (talk). Original uploader was Aharon at en.wikipedia File:lamed.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lamed.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: User:Cronholm144 File:Hebrew letter Mem handwriting.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hebrew_letter_Mem_handwriting.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Dan Pelleg File:Hebrew letter Mem-nonfinal Rashi.png Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hebrew_letter_Mem-nonfinal_Rashi.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Dan Pelleg File:phoenician mem.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Phoenician_mem.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original: User:Udzu SVG: User:Bryan Derksen File:Early Aramaic character - mem.png Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Early_Aramaic_character_-_mem.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Aharon (talk). Original uploader was Aharon at en.wikipedia File:mem.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mem.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: User:Cronholm144 File:Hebrew letter Mem-final handwriting.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hebrew_letter_Mem-final_handwriting.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Dan Pelleg File:Hebrew letter Mem-final Rashi.png Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hebrew_letter_Mem-final_Rashi.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Dan Pelleg File:Hebrew letter Nun handwriting.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hebrew_letter_Nun_handwriting.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Dan Pelleg File:Hebrew letter Nun-nonfinal Rashi.png Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hebrew_letter_Nun-nonfinal_Rashi.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Dan Pelleg File:phoenician nun.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Phoenician_nun.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Ch1902 File:Early Aramaic character - nun.png Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Early_Aramaic_character_-_nun.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Aharon (talk). Original uploader was Aharon at en.wikipedia File:nun.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nun.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: User:Cronholm144 File:Hebrew letter Nun-final handwriting.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hebrew_letter_Nun-final_handwriting.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Dan Pelleg File:Hebrew letter Nun-final Rashi.png Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hebrew_letter_Nun-final_Rashi.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Dan Pelleg File:Hebrew letter Samekh handwriting.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hebrew_letter_Samekh_handwriting.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Dan Pelleg File:Hebrew letter Samekh Rashi.png Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hebrew_letter_Samekh_Rashi.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Dan Pelleg File:phoenician samekh.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Phoenician_samekh.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Ch1902 File:Early Aramaic character - samekh.png Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Early_Aramaic_character_-_samekh.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Aharon (talk). Original uploader was Aharon at en.wikipedia File:samekh.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Samekh.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: User:Cronholm144 File:Hebrew letter Ayin handwriting.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hebrew_letter_Ayin_handwriting.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Dan Pelleg File:Hebrew letter Ayin Rashi.png Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hebrew_letter_Ayin_Rashi.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Dan Pelleg File:phoenician ayin.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Phoenician_ayin.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Ch1902 File:Early Aramaic character - ayin.png Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Early_Aramaic_character_-_ayin.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Aharon (talk). Original uploader was Aharon at en.wikipedia File:ayin.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ayin.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: User:Cronholm144 File:Hebrew letter Pe handwriting.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hebrew_letter_Pe_handwriting.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Dan Pelleg

23

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

File:Hebrew letter Pe-nonfinal Rashi.png Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hebrew_letter_Pe-nonfinal_Rashi.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Dan Pelleg File:phoenician pe.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Phoenician_pe.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Ch1902 File:Early Aramaic character - pey.png Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Early_Aramaic_character_-_pey.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Aharon (talk). Original uploader was Aharon at en.wikipedia File:pe0.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pe0.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: User:Cronholm144 File:Hebrew letter Pe-final handwriting.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hebrew_letter_Pe-final_handwriting.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Dan Pelleg File:Hebrew letter Pe-final Rashi.png Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hebrew_letter_Pe-final_Rashi.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Dan Pelleg File:Hebrew letter Tsadik handwriting.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hebrew_letter_Tsadik_handwriting.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Dan Pelleg File:Hebrew letter Tsadik-nonfinal Rashi.png Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hebrew_letter_Tsadik-nonfinal_Rashi.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Dan Pelleg File:phoenician sade.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Phoenician_sade.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Ch1902 File:Early Aramaic character - tzadi.png Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Early_Aramaic_character_-_tzadi.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Aharon (talk). Original uploader was Aharon at en.wikipedia File:sade 1.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sade_1.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: User:Cronholm144 File:sade 2.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sade_2.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: User:Cronholm144 File:Hebrew letter Tsadik-final handwriting.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hebrew_letter_Tsadik-final_handwriting.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Dan Pelleg File:Hebrew letter Tsadik-final Rashi.png Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hebrew_letter_Tsadik-final_Rashi.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Dan Pelleg File:Hebrew letter Kuf handwriting.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hebrew_letter_Kuf_handwriting.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Dan Pelleg File:Hebrew letter Kuf Rashi.png Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hebrew_letter_Kuf_Rashi.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Dan Pelleg File:phoenician qoph.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Phoenician_qoph.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Ch1902 File:Early Aramaic character - quf.png Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Early_Aramaic_character_-_quf.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Aharon (talk). Original uploader was Aharon at en.wikipedia File:qoph.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Qoph.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: User:Cronholm144 File:Hebrew letter Resh handwriting.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hebrew_letter_Resh_handwriting.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Dan Pelleg File:Hebrew letter Resh Rashi.png Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hebrew_letter_Resh_Rashi.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Dan Pelleg File:phoenician res.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Phoenician_res.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Ch1902 File:Early Aramaic character - resh.png Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Early_Aramaic_character_-_resh.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Aharon (talk). Original uploader was Aharon at en.wikipedia File:resh.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Resh.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: User:Cronholm144 File:Hebrew letter Shin handwriting.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hebrew_letter_Shin_handwriting.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Dan Pelleg File:Hebrew letter Shin Rashi.png Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hebrew_letter_Shin_Rashi.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Dan Pelleg File:phoenician sin.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Phoenician_sin.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Ch1902 File:Early Aramaic character - shin.png Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Early_Aramaic_character_-_shin.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Aharon (talk). Original uploader was Aharon at en.wikipedia File:shin.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Shin.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: User:Cronholm144 File:Hebrew letter Taf handwriting.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hebrew_letter_Taf_handwriting.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Dan Pelleg File:Hebrew letter Taf Rashi.png Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hebrew_letter_Taf_Rashi.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Dan Pelleg File:phoenician taw.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Phoenician_taw.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Ch1902 File:Early Aramaic character - tof.png Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Early_Aramaic_character_-_tof.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Aharon (talk). Original uploader was Aharon at en.wikipedia File:taw.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Taw.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: User:Cronholm144 File:Hebrew Hiriq.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hebrew_Hiriq.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Danil Satria File:Hebrew Zeire.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hebrew_Zeire.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Danil Satria File:Hebrew Segol.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hebrew_Segol.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Danil Satria File:Hebrew Patah.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hebrew_Patah.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Danil Satria File:Hebrew Holam.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hebrew_Holam.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Hebrew_Minus_Holam.svg: Danil Satria derivative work: Dan Pelleg (talk) File:Hebrew Equal Shuruk.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hebrew_Equal_Shuruk.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Danil Satria File:Hebrew Backslash Qubuz.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hebrew_Backslash_Qubuz.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Danil Satria File:Tilde Schwa.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tilde_Schwa.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Danil Satria File:Hataf Segol.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hataf_Segol.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Danil Satria File:Hataf Patah.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hataf_Patah.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Danil Satria File:Tefillin.JPG Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tefillin.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: Chesdovi Image:wikisource-logo.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wikisource-logo.svg License: logo Contributors: Guillom, INeverCry, Jarekt, Leyo, MichaelMaggs, NielsF, Rei-artur, Rocket000

24

License
Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 //creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/