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14 Myth,History,andDialecticinPlato'sRepublicandTimaeusCritias
CHRISTOPHERROWE Thepurposeofthispaperistoexplore,withthehelpofonecentralexample,someaspectsoftheinterplaybetweenthenotionsofmuthos,centredonthesenseofthe 'fictional',andlogos,orwhatevertermmightbeusedtodenotetheopposedcategoryofthenonfictional,inPlato.1MyexampleisonethatPenelopeMurrayalso referstoinhercontributiontothepresentvolume:theconstructionoftheidealcityoftheRepublic,andwhatseems2toberepresentedasthesamecity(exemplified, accordingtoCritias,byaprimitiveAthens),intheTimaeusCritias.Ininvitingustomakethisidentification,orinsofarasitdoesso,the
1

Thecontrasthereisthatbetweenwhatis,orisrepresentedasbeing(toagreaterorlesserextent),invented,constructed,orimagined,andwhatisnot,orisnotrepresentedas being,soinvented,constructed,orimagined.WhileIacceptmanyofChristopherGill'sstrictures(Gill(1993))againsttooeasyanattributiontoPlatoofmodemconceptsoffiction, itstillappearstomethatsuchacontrastisfundamentaltoPlato'scomplexdeploymentofthenotionofmuthos.

2

'Seems'isanecessaryqualification,becausethecharactersassembledforTim.Criti.,apartfromSocrates,aredifferentfromthoseinRep.However,thecoincidencesbetweenthe citySocratesdescribesinRep.andtheonewhosefeatureshesummarizesatthebeginningofTim.aresufficientlylargetomakeitunreasonabletosupposethatwearenotmeantto maketheconnection.Quitewhythenotionofphilosopherrulers,apparentlyfundamentaltoRep.,isomittedintheTim.summaryisadifficult,butseparate,question:seee.g.McCabe (1994),186,andRowe(1997).Butitisworthnoticingthat'thepoliteiawhosestorywearetellinginwords'atRep.501e4infactstrictlyreferstoapoliteiawithoutphilosopherrulers philosopherrulersareintroducedasthemeansbywhichthatpoliteiamightbeestablished.(True,itwasagreedatanearlierstagei.e.at375a376ccf.Tim.18a,19ethatthe 'guards'mustpossessa'philosophicalnature'.Butthis'philosophicalnature'willnotinitselfmakethemphilosophers,unlessdogstoocanreasonphilosophically.)PrimitiveAthens hasHephaestusandAthenaasfounders,andgetsitsinstitutionsfromthem,sothattheneedforphilosophersasopposedto'philosophicalnatures'isbypassed.Accordingto Rep.497cd,themaintenanceoftheappropriatelawswilldependonthepresenceofpeoplewhounderstandtheprinciplesonwhichtheyarelaiddown(cf.also412a)amongthe primitiveAthenians,theirinstitutionsandeducationalsystemseemtobeselfsustaining.Butthentheyareanidealrace,broughtintoexistencebythegodsthemselves.

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TimaeusCritiastreatswhatisatleastinparttheresultofaseriesofdialecticalargumentssimplyasafiction,i.e.aplastheismuthos, whilepresentingitsownfiction astruehistory(morestrictly,asapalaioslogos,Tim.21a7,whichisalsotrue:26d1,e45).WhatIproposetodoisfirstlytoinvestigatethedetailsofthisparticular instanceofthejumblingofotherwiseseeminglyrecognizableclassificationsofdiscourseandsecondlytoasktowhatextentthoseclassificationsremainasusefulpoints ofreferenceinthePlatoniccontext.Theultimateissueisaboutthedistinctionbetween'myth'and'logos',ormoregenerally,betweenthe'mythical'andthe'non mythical'.PlatoisbothawriterwhousesorplayswithsuchadistinctionmorethananyotherintheGreekcontext,andonewhoseemstoofferparticularly beguilingaccountsofit,intermsofthedifferencebetweennonrationalandrationaldiscourse,and/orthe(whollyorpartly)falseandthetrue.ThequestionImeanto raiseiswhether'myth'isaterma'name',asPlatowouldputitwhichsuccessfullypicksoutanyrealandpermanentcategoryinthePlatonicuniverse.Ishall suggestthatitdoesnot,or,alternatively,thatifitdoes,itdoessoonlyuncertainlyandfitfullyifso,thenourmainwaysofunderstandingthenatureof'themythical'will beunderminedanddestabilizedbywhatseemedtobeoneoftheexemplarysourcesforit. PartofthetaskIamproposinghasalreadybeencarriedoutbyPenelopeMurray.4Shepointsoutthatwhile'myths'aresometimesseparablefrom,andmarkedoff from,other,more'philosophical',elementsinthedialogues,PlatoorhisSocratesalsofrequentlyblursthedistinction,byinterweaving'[s]torytelling,imagery, myth'(p.261above)intotheverytextureofhisargument,andbyrecognizingthesimilaritiesbetweenhispositionasnarratorandthoseofthestoryteller.'Mythis essentialtoPlato'sconceptionofphilosophy'again,'[h]umanbeings,notbeinggods,canneverknowthetruth,hencemythmakingisan
3

Socratesat26e4,pickingupCritias'polinhenchthesheminhosenmuthoidieieisthasuat26c8.ThesameideaisofcoursepresentinRep.itself(seethepassageat501e4 referredtointheprecedingnote),buttheperspectiveinRep.,andthesenseofmuthos/muthologeinthere,ismorecomplex:seebelow.
4

Intheoriginalversionofthepresentpaper,aspresentedattheColloquium,IrespondedbrieflytosomepointsinDrMurray'sinthismoreconsideredversionItaketheopportunity ofextendingourconversation(continuedbycorrespondence),whichhasenabledmetoestablishmorepreciselywhatmyownpositionis.

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essentialhumanactivity',insofirasitcanprovide'anapproximationtothetruth'(p.260). Sofarsogood.ButthereseemtometobetwopossiblereadingsofthisperspectiveonPlato,onemoreradicalthantheother.Onthelessradicalversion,theidea willbethatthetellingofstoriesisanecessaryadjunctto,orextensionof,5philosophicalargument,onewhichrecognizesourhumanlimitations,andperhaps6the factthatournaturescombineirrationalelementswiththerational.Rationalargumentcanonlytakeus,andthephilosopherhimselforherself,sofarfromthenon,it mustnecessarilycooperatewithmyth,justasthespeakersinthedialoguesmayadoptastorytellingorimaginativemode.Butonamoreradicalinterpretationof Murray'sposition,thedistinctionbetween'thephilosophical'and'themythical'willatonelevelvirtuallydisappear.Onthisinterpretation,theuseofafictional narrativeform(thedialogue)willmeanthatanyconclusionsreached,bywhatevermethod(including'rationalargument'),maythemselvesbetreatedashavingthe statusofakindof'myth'.Thereaderisperpetuallyinvitedtoreflecton,andtomovebeyond,thetextas,onMurray'sview,thenarrativestructureofthePhaedo seemsdesignedtomakeusquestionitsveracity,andsotoinviteus'toengageinthekindofphilosophythatSocrateshimselfpractised'(p.261). ItisaversionofthissecondreadingthatIshouldmyself,inthefinalanalysis,wishtoadvocate.Inthiscase,asenseofthe'fictionality'ofhumanutterance,as provisional,inadequate,andatbestapproximatingtothetruth,willinfectPlatonicwritingatitsdeepestlevel,belowotherandmoreordinaryapplicationsofthe distinctionbetweenmythicalandnonmythicalformsofdiscourse.Thepointaboutthelimitationsofhumannaturewillwork,asitwere,fromfurtherbackthaninthe othercase:itisnotthat'myth'willfillinthegapsthatreasonleaves(thoughitmightdothattoo,aswellasservingspecialpurposesforparticularaudiences),butthat humanreasonitselfineradicablydisplayssomeofthefeatureswecharacteristicallyassociatewith
5 6

Betterthesecond,inthatDrMurrayinsiststhatmuthos(ase.g.attheendofRep.)isnotasecondbestto'rationaldiscourse'(pp.2578above).Cf.n.37below.

ThisIderivefromthepassagefromMarthaNussbaumquotedbyDrMurrayattheendofherpaperthepassagerestsonepistemologicalconceptionsthatDrMurrayherselfdoes notexplicitlyendorse.

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storytelling.ThatisoneimportantreasonwhyPlato,selfeffacingly,writesdialogueswhichatleastonthesurfaceexcludehimself(thatis,becauseheisawareof theprovisionalityofhisownwrittenoffspring)andthatiswhyhecanhaveSocrates,inthePhaedrus,treatallwritingaspaidiascharin('bywayofpastime',276d2), orascontainingpaidian...pollen('muchthatisfanciful',277e57).Atitsbest,itwillactasatreasurehouse,notofwisdomacquired,butof'reminders [hupomnemata]...foreveryonewhofollowsinthesametrack'(276d34),thatis,perhaps,remindersofthedirectionordirectionsinwhichthepathhasledsofar. Thepointisneverexplicitlyexpressedintermsofthenotionofmuthos,andcouldnot,ofcourse,beexpresseddirectlyatall(unlessinoneoftheLetters,ifanyof thesearegenuine).Butitis,Ithink,reflectedinoneormoreofseveralpassages,indifferentworks,inwhichmuthologeinandrelatedverbsappeareitherpaired with,orapparentlyasasubstitutefor,otherlesscolourfulwordsfor'examining'or'conversing(about)'.Ilistfoursuchpassages:Phd.61e12,whichcouples muthologeinwithdiaskopein(periteeapodemiastesekei)Phd.70b6,wherediamuthologeinseemstobetreatedasequivalenttodiaskopeisthai(70c3)Ap. 39e5,inwhichdiamuthologesai,accordingtoBurner,'meanslittlemorethandialechthenai'andPhdr.276e3('Averyfineformofamusement,'saysPhaedrus,'... thatofthemanwhoisabletoamusehimselfwithwords,tellingstoriesmuthologountaaboutjustice...').Inthefirst,third,andfourthcasestheuseof(dia) muthologeinmightbeexplainedwithoutreferencetoanytheoryaboutthenatureofphilosophicaldiscourse.7Butthesecondcaseismoredifficulttoexplainaway, becauseitintroducesthefirstofaseriesofargumentsiftheargumentbeginsfromapalaioslogos(70c5ff.),thereisnodearsenseofareferenceindiamuthologein tothat.MyownviewisthatthewordisrathercarefullychosentoindicateinadvancethekindofattitudeSocrates'listeners,andwe,shouldadopttowards
7

'Socratesregardsalldefinitestatementswithregardtothenextlifeasmuthoi',BurnetonPhd.61e2'theIonicsenseofmuthos(=Att.logos)hassurvivedinthecompound',id. onAp.39e2andhowbetterto'amuseoneself'thanbytellingstories(Phdr.276e)?LSJsimplygivesmuthologeinaspecialsenseinthefirstPhd.passage,andinthePhdr.('tell tales','converse')butthereseemslittletojustifysuchareductivistapproach(similarlywithBurnet'streatmentofdiamuthologeininAp.),giventheapparentselfconsciousness ofPlato'suseofthenotionofmuthoselsewhere.

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whatfollows:thatis,thatweshouldreceiveit,perhaps,withacertainreserve,aswewouldtheproductsofthestoryteller. Thereis(ItakePlatotobesaying)the samesortofissueabouttheseriousnesswithwhichanargumentshouldbetakeninthelightofthetruthofitspremissesand/oritsvalidityasthereisabouthowwe shouldtakestories.'Thisisthekindofstory',aswemightsay,'whichweshalltellfornow,anditmayormaynotbetrue,ortrueonlyinpart'9andasittumsout, SimmiasandCebesaredistinctlyunimpressedbytheargumentthatSocratesoffers.10 Intheend,ofcourse,suchpassageswillcountforlittlebythemselves.ThemainevidenceforattributingtoPlatothekindofattitudetowardshis'gardensofletters'that Ihaveproposedwilllieinthesignsofhisawarenessofhispositionasnarrator,incombinationwiththerepeated,andcharacteristic,stressthatislaidonthe provisionalityofanyresultsreached.11SointhecaseoftheaccountgivenofjusticeandthejustindividualinRepublicbook4:itwasundertaken'forthesakeofa paradeigma'(472c4),butwasnomorethanasketch(hupographe,504d6),whichwillneedtobesupersededbyamoreaccurateinvestigation.Giventhecontinuing interdependenceoftheargumentsaboutthecityandthoseabouttheindividual,andespeciallytheinitialclaimthattheessenceofjusticewillbethesameinboth,the samequalificationmayreasonablybetakentoapplyequallytothetreatmentofthejustcityandindeedtheideal'artistofpoliteiai',i.e.theideallegislatorwhowould actuallyfoundthebestcity,ishimselfdescribedasbeginningby'sketchingintheoutlineoftheconstitution'(hupograpsasthaitoschematespoliteias),andthen finishinghispicturepartlybyreferenceto'thejustbynatureandbeautifulandselfcontrolledandallsuchthings'(i.e.,presumably,theforms,whichonewouldguessto bethebasiswhateverprocedurethat
8 9

Itisthentemptingthoughperhapsnomorethanthattoreadtheotherpassagesinasimilarway.

Cf.Rowe(1993a ),n.onPhd.70b6.

10

SeeRowe(1993b ).HereIamconsciousofmakingalargeclaim,whichcutsacrosswholetraditionsofPlatonicinterpretationbutthechiefweightofmyargumentonthepresent occasionwillultimatelybeelsewhere,anditwilldonoharmtohavegivenanindicationofmygeneralposition,withoutthelargerargumentthatwouldbeneededtosupportit.

11

Notallconclusionsagreedtobycharactersinthedialoguesareexplicitlyhedgedwithqualifications,ortothesamedegreebuttheyarecertainlyfarmoreoftenqualifiedthannot.

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mightinvolveofany'moreaccurate'investigationofjustice). ButItakeitthattheprovocativewayinwhichSocratespresentshisproposals(ase.g.inthecaseof thediscussionofthepropertreatmentofwomen),andthesurely?obviouslyironictoneofsomeoftheproposalsthemselves(e.g.thatthelegislatormightstartby sendingawayeveryoneovertheageoften),13makesithardlynecessarytosaythattheyshouldnotberegardedasconstitutingthedefinitiveparadigm. Immediatelyafterthepassageaboutthelegislatoras'artistofpoliteiai',Socrateschangesthemetaphor.Hehasbeenarguingthatpeoplemaybepersuadedtoaccept philosophicalrule:'Thenwilltheystillrespondsavagelywhenwesaythatbeforethephilosophongenostakescontrolofacity,therewillbenorespitefromevils eitherforcityorforcitizens,norwillthepoliteiawhosestorywearetellinginwords[henmuthologoumenlogoi]achieveitsfulfilmentinpractice[ergoi]?'(501e2 5).ItisthisreferencetotheconstructionofthepoliteiaasmuthologeinwhichissowemightreasonablysupposebeingpickedupbyCritiasintheTimaeus(and possiblybyPhaedrusatPhdr.276e)14andthecontextseemstoshowushowtointerpretit:'ourstorytelling'istheequivalentofthesketchingofthelegislatorartist, whichwillbe'finished'bythemorecompleteinsightsoftheidealphilosopher.(Whatelsehasbeengoingoninthepreviousbooksifitisnota'sketch'ofaschema politeiasandwhy,apartfromacomparisonwiththatprocess,wouldthis'sketching'besingledoutasthefirststep15intheartist'screation?)16Justasthepainterwill rubthingsoutanddraw/paintthemafresh(501b9),sotoo,perhaps,theideallegislatorwillmodifyandimproveontheoutlineofthestorysofartoldbySocratesand hisinterlocutors,inordertoachievethefullrealizationoftheirgoals. Inthiscontext,then,Socrates'accountofthebestcityseems
12 13

12

501c45,2910,b13.

540e541a,with501a.Ifitisthecasethatthelegislatorneedsafleshcanvas,massexpulsionsarenottheonlymethodavailable,astheLawsshowsand,howeverlowanopinionof Platowemayhold,wecanscarcelysupposehimtobedeaftotheironyofthesuggestionthatthe'quickestandeasiest'wayofachievinga'happy'(eudaimon)cityistogetridofthe majorityoftheoriginalinhabitants(501a17).

14 15 16

Luther(1961). NBepeitaat501b1.Admittedly,anypaintermightstartwithanoutlinesketchbut504dsurelydemonstratesthatthisisnotamerelyaccidentalfeatureofthemetaphor.

Cf.543d1544a1'(youdescribedthegoodcityandthegoodman)althoughasitseems[i.e.aftertheaccountofthephilosopherandhis/hertraining?]youwouldbeableto describeastillfinercityandman'.

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tobeakindof'myth'insofarasitisamerelyprovisionaldescriptionwhichmayneedtobeamendedinthelightofbetterknowledge.Butthereisalsoanother,and moreobvious,wayinwhichitwillcountasa'myth'(andonewhichisalsoclosertothesenseofmuthosinTim.26ce):thatis,insofarasitdescribesanimaginary city,17onethatisnotpresentlyrealizedinpractice,andonethatatleast,inallitsdetailsmightneverbe.Thisisinfactthedominantsenseoftheideaofthe'cityin words'intheRepublicasawholeitisalsocertainlypresentherein501e,sincethecontextrepresentstheculminationofSocrates'extendedjustificationofthe proposalforphilosophicalrule,asawayofconvertingamerelytheoreticalidealintoactuality.Theoriginalquestion,raisedinbook5(471cff.),waswhetherthebest citycouldeverberealized.Well,Socratessaid,itisalwayseasiertodescribesomethingintheory(logoi)thantoachieveitinpractice(ergoi:473a56)ifwecan't showthatourcityisrealizableinallitsdetails,weshouldnotbeblamedandhereagainheusestheanalogyofthepainter,but(inaway)toreverseeffect:weshould notbeblamed,anymorethanapainterwouldbeblamedfornotbeingabletoshowthattheidealhumanbeinghehadpaintedcouldactuallyexist.Butsomethinglike ourcitycouldcomeintoexistence,ifpoliticalpowerwereputinthehandsofphilosophers... Thus,lookedatfromthepointofviewofordinaryexperience,the'bestcity'asdescribedisatheoreticalparadigm,animaginative'story'ofwhatoughttobe.18Atthe sametime,lookedat
17

Cf.Burnyeat(1992),whoemphasizesthat'thenonexistenceoftheidealcityisafactofhistory,notofmetaphysics...Ifthedescriptionoftheidealcityisanexercisein imaginativestorytelling,itmustbewrongtothink,withCornfordandPopper,thattheidealcitybelongstotheidealworldintheseineoftheworldofForms'(176).Myproposal thatthedescriptionoftheidealcityisalsoa'myth'inthatitfallsshortoftheidealdescriptionisconsistentwithBurnyeat'sposition.Ontheotherhand,IsuspectthatBurnyeatis goingtoofariiirulingoutthepossibilityofaFormofthecity:atanyratethephilosopherwillbeabletosaywhatacityshouldbelike,anditisnotcleartomewhatdifference therewouldbe,inprinciple,betweenthiskindofexerciseandtheonewhichwouldbeinvolvedinspecifyingwhatjustice(or,ifweprefer,Justice)reallyis.Seebelow.However Burnyeat'smainaimistoshowthatthedifficultiesinthewayofrealizingthebestcityhave'nothingtodowiththemetaphysicaldifferencebetweenFormsandtheir exemplifications'(ibid.),andinthatheissurelyright.

18

Fromthisperspectivetoo,asfromtheother,itcanbe,orbecome,akindof'play'.See536c1,whereSocratescorrectshimselfforbeginningtotreathisconstructionasifitwerea reality:'Iforgotthatwewereamusingourselves[epaizomen]...'Theconnectionbetweenimaginaryconstructions,logoi,and'storytelling'ismadeasearlyas376d910:'Wellthen,let useducatethemenlogoi,asifweweretellingitinastory,atourleisure'(wheninfactitwillbeinearnest,nomerestorytelling:seebelow).

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fromthepointofviewoftheperfectphilosopher,itisalsoaprovisional'story'ofwhatbothoughttobeandcouldbe.Theshiftbetweenthetwoperspectives,orthe overlayingofthefirstbythesecond,isexplainedbythewayinwhichtheargumentdevelops.In4713,thequestioniswhethertheradicalchangessuggestedwould bepossibleatall.Yes,saysSocrates,ifwegivepowertophilosophers.Theimmediateobjectiontothatisthatphilosopherslookratherunlikelycandidatesfor politicalpower,andin521heiswindinguphisanswertotheobjection:thetruephilosophercaninfactbeshown,onrationalgrounds(whicheveryonemightbe broughttoaccept),tobetheonlypersonwhoiscapableofseeingwhatneedstobedone,insofirasheorshewillpossesstherelevantknowledge.Referencetothat (perfect)knowledgetakesusontoalevelbeyondanythingthathasbeenachievedinthepresentconversation,whichistherebyreducedtoa'sketch'.The philosopher,throughhisorherinsight,wouldbeabletoachieveinpractice(ergoi)whatwehaveoutlinedinwords(logoi).19Thesketchisstillitselfanapproximation tothetruth,asketchofthetruth,andonewhichwillbenolesssosimplybecauseitcannotbedemonstratedtobepracticablejustaswehavedrawnit:so,at473a1 3,evenwhileheisemphasizingthedifferencebetweenparadigmscreatedlogoiandwhatispossibleergoi,Socratesclaimsthatitisneverthelessthenatureofpraxis to'havelessofagraspoftruth'(hettonaletheiasephaptesthai)thanlexis,'evenifsomeonedeniesit'.20Butitwillbepartofthetaskofthephilosopherlegislator himself,orherself,tonegotiatethedifferencebetweenlexisandpraxis,totransformtheoryintopractice.21Meanwhile'ourcity',theonedescribed,willremaina
19

Theclaimthatpeoplegenerallywilllistentotheargumentandbepersuadedtoacceptphilosophersasrulersisitselfapartofthecaseforthepossibilityofthe'good city'(thoughhowimportantapartisnotdearifphilosophicalruleissupposedtobebyconsentofthegoverned(book4),stilltheabsenceofconsentwouldsurelynotbe sufficientgroundsforabandoningit:so,atanyrate,accordingtotheargumentofthePoliticus).

20

Inthatcase'myth'willbetruerthan'reality'butofcourseitwillmorenearlyrepresenttruereality.Socrates'insistencethatthestoryaboutthejudgementofthedeadintheGorgias isalogosforhim,evenifitismuthosforCallicles,hassimilarimplicationsfromtheordinaryperspective,thestoryisastory,andyetitcontainstruthsthattakeusbeyondordinary conceptions.

21

Unfortunatelythetextappearstobecorrupt,atacrucialpoint(501b34).ButNBc1,eishosonendechetaiandpresumablythe'rubbingoutandredrawing/painting'willbein referencebothtotheformsandtowhathumannatureallows.Toanextent,thismeans (Footnotecontinuedonnextpage)

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muthos(henmuthologoumenlogoi,501e4)becauseitisnotbasedonperfectknowledge,andpartlyinvirtueofthatispurelyattheleveloflexis. InowmmtotheTimaeusCritias.WhateverwemayfinallydecideaboutthespecificmeaningofmuthologeininitsowncontextatRep.501,CritiasatTim.26c8 mustsurelybetalkingaboutCallipolisquaimaginary,insofarasheopposesit,assomethingdescribedhosenmuthoi,towhatistrue,i.e.somethingthatactually happenedanditisthisaspectofmuthologein,thecreationofimaginaryconstructs(Socrates'plastheismuthos),intheintersectionbetweenRepublicandTimaeus Critias,thatwillconcernmeintherestofthepaper.(Butthefinalmoral,abouttheshiftingnatureofthe'mythical'inPlato,willbethesame.) IbeginfromtheformofwordsatTim.26c8:Critias'polinhenchthesheminhosenmuthoidieieisthasu.PenelopeMurrayfollowsTaylorinsupposingthathosen muthoiintroducesaqualification('asitwereinmyth'Taylor,'asinafable'),whileShoreyiscontenttotranslate'infiction'.ThestoryofthegoodcityintheRepublic isinanycaseanunusual'myth'.Thisisnotbecauseithas'somegraspoftruth',whichanymythorfictionmaydo.Ratheritisbecauseofthewaythepiecesofthis 'myth'are,mostly,putinplaceonthebasisofhardargument,asthoseofother(Platonic)mythsarenot.Platonicmythicalnarrativesfrequentlycontainargumentsofa kind,buttheseareusuallyonlyhypothetical,inthesenseofworkingwithintheframeworkofthefiction:ifweimaginethistobethecase,thenthattoomustfollow.22 ThiskindofhypotheticalnecessityishardlyoperativeinthepoliticalargumentoftheRepublic.23Thereasonsadvanced,forexample,inRepublic5forparityof treatmentbetweenthegenders,orforthe'communityofchildren'andtheabolitionofthenuclearfamily,arenotdependentonanypriorfictional
(Footnotecontinuedfrompreviouspage) thatSocrates'answertothequestion'isitpossible?'is'yes,ifpeopleareputinplacewhocanworkouthowtoimplementit'whichhardlyseemstotakeusforward.However,the realpointisthatthegoodcitywillbepossibleifpowerisgiventothosewhohavethesame(rational,philosophical)conceptionofsocietyandthewayitshouldberunas Socratesandhispartnersintheconversation(cf.497cd).
22

TheargumentforimmortalitycontainedwithinSocrates'secondspeechinPhdr.mightbeoneexceptionbutitisnotwhollyclearthatthemuthikostishumnosof265c1ismeantto includeit(seeCalame,thisvolume,p.139above).
23

Thereasonforthisis,Ithink,thatSocratesis(explicitly)notworkingwithapurelyfantasticcity.Seebelow.

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assumptions(eventhoughtheyareadvancedinafictionalframework,ofakind),butwouldretainwhatevervaliditytheyhaveinanyconceivablepoliticalcontext. Indeeditisafeatureofthedescriptionofthe'beautifulcity'ingeneralthatitcontinuallyinvitesthereadertoreflectonhisorherownassumptions.(Thatmayalsobe true,inaway,ofthosestretchesofthedialogueswetraditionallymarkoffascountingamong'Plato'smyths',likethestoryofErinRepublic10,orSocrates'storyof thesoul'stravelsinthePhaedrusbutitwillrarelybetrueoftheindividualelementsoutofwhichthestoryiswoven.) AfurtherpeculiarityoftheRepublic's'story'isthatitmight,conceivably,turnout,atsomepointinthefuture,tobeadescriptionofarealcity,for,asSocrates (mostly)insists,itorsomethinglikeitisnotanimpossibledream.Thisisacrucialelementinhisaccount,andonethatiscloselyconnectedwiththepreviouspoint.As hesaysat457e458a,hemeansnottobeindulginginmeredaydreaming,talkingtohimselflikesomeoneonasolitarywalk.Thereisnothingmerelyfabulous,or fantastic,aboutwhatheisputtingforward.Andyet,forthemoment,itisnomorethanaparadeigmacreatedinwords(472d9e1),onewhichisneitherpresently realizednor,perhaps,realizableasitstands,inallitsdetailsandassuchitwillretainitsquasimythicalstatus. Isay'quasimythical':yetbyacomplicatedmanuvre,theTimaeusCritiastransformsthecityoftheRepublicintoagenuinemyth,ofarecognizabletype(Penelope Murray's'chartermyth').Thisisthroughitsidentification,byCritias,withtheprimitiveAthensthatoncedefeatedAtlantis.Critiasrepresentshisaccountashistorical:it isawelldocumentedaccountofwhatactuallyhappenedinthedatablepast.Butweknowthatitisneverthelessafictionitislikethoseotherfoundingmythsonwhich Athensprideditself,andwhichitcolludedwithitselfintreatingashistory,simultaneouslyerasingthedifferencesbetweenpast,present,andfuture.24WhatAthenians oncewere,byimplication
24

Cf.Loraux(1986).Thedegree,ifany,towhichanyactualAthenianmighthaveunderstoodsuchmythsasfictionsisirrelevanttomyargumentatanyrateweasreadersnot onlyknowthatCritias''history'isfiction,butaremeanttoknowit.IfCritiasandhisaudiencearerepresentedasbelievingitauthentic,thatisitselfanecessarypartofPlato's fiction(forthepurposesofwhichitisequallyirrelevantwhethersuchpeoplewouldreallyhavebelievedthestory).

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theyarenow,andmaybeagain.InCritias''history',fictionalpastbecomesidenticalwithpossiblefutureallthatismissingisthelinkwiththepresentbecause,after all,ancientAthenswasutterlydestroyed,andanyfuturerecreationofitwillrequireacompleterestructuringofsociety.Insteadofservingtoreinforcepresentaims andvalues,mythbecomesameansofreconsideringandreplacingthem. OnemightobjectthatsuchareadingmissesoutanessentialpartofCritias'versionofthestory:theoverlapbetweenthepicturehepaintsofanearlierAthensandthe realachievementsofthegenuinearticle.TheparallelbetweenhisAthens'defeatofthemassivepowerofAtlantisandhistoricalAthens'actualroleinthedefeatofthe massivelysuperiorforcesofPersiaissoobviousthatitmaybetemptingtoreadtheTimaeusCritiasstoryjustasanimaginativerewritingofrealhistoryonewhich infactvalidatesapastAthens,bypicturingherashavingapproximatedtothegoodcityoftheRepublic.Inthiscase,Plato'sappropriationofthecharteror foundationmythwouldbelesscomplete:hewouldbetalkingasifwhatenabledAthenstoachievewhatshedidwasbecauseofherRepublictypeinstitutions,justas thefuneralspeechtendedtogroundherachievementinthenatural,autochthonic,virtueofthecitizens.Themoralwouldbethesameasintheothercase,thatvirtueis somethingthathastobeworkedfor,onthebasisofatotalreformofstateinstitutions,andofeducationonlythemoralwouldbeaccompaniedbya(partly)positive evaluationofwhatAthensoncewas,anddidperhapswhentheoriginalSolonianconstitutionobtained,beforeitwaswreckedbythediseaseofextremedemocracy asexcoriatedintheRepublic.25 ThecontrastbetweenthesetwopossibleinterpretationsoftheTimaeusCritiasismirroredintwodifferentkindsofinterpretationoftheMenexenus.TheMenexenus iseitherwritteninpraiseof
25

Afterall,kwasSolonwhorecoveredtheaccountofearlyAthensfromEgyptmightwenottheninferthatheappliedhisknowledgeofthismodelinhisroleaslegislator? However,Tim.21cdsuggestsratherthathispreoccupationwithimmediatepoliticalproblemsledhimtoneglecthisnewlyacquiredknowledgeatanyrateheneglectedhis poetry,andnever'completedthelogoshebroughtbackherewithhimfromEgypt'.Asitis,apartfromthememoryofthetimeSolontolditinperson,ithasbeenobliteratedbythe lapseoftimeandthedeathoftheoriginalprotagonists,theearlyAtheniansthemselves(20e,21d).Hereandelsewhere,itisthediscontinuity,notthecontinuity,betweenhistory andprehistorywhichisemphasized.

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Athensassheoncewas(i.e.atthetimeofMarathon),butisnolongeroritisaparodyofafuneraloration,inwhichMarathonitselfisasmuchapartoftheparody astheselfdeludingconsciousnessofgreatnessthatisbuiltuponit.ThefirsttypeofinterpretationisrepresentedbyCharlesKahn:
This[i.e.intheMenexenus]istheonlytimeweknowofthatPlatospokeoutpubliclyonamatterofAthenianpolicy.Andasusualhechosetospeakanonymouslyandindirectly, intheguiseofadialoguewhereSocratespretendstodeliverafuneralorationcomposedbyAspasia'fromthescrapsleftoverfromthefuneralorationshecomposedfor Pericles'(236b).ThecriticismofAthenianpolicyisitselfindirect,conveyedbyironicalpraiseoftheAtheniansforthecourageandloyaltytheynolongerdisplayedin386BCE. ButthemessagemusthavebeenunmistakableforPlato'scontemporaries.26

Ontheotherhand,theMenexenuscanbereadasillustratingPlato'sviewofthefuneralorationaswhatNicoleLorauxtermsa'narcissisticecstasy':
Ajourneyoutsidetime,alossofself:theecstasyinducedbythefuneralorationisverylikethatexperienceofthetimelessthatPlatocallsanamnesis.Butthiscaricatured resemblanceconcealsaprofoundopposition:itisnotenoughtoescapetime,foronemustalsoknowhowtouniteone'ssoulwiththedivineandnotwithsomesuchdeified simulacrumastheAthenianideal.Farfrombeingidentifiedwithsalvationbringinganamnesis,thenarcissisticecstasyis,inPlato'sview,adrugforwhichthereisnoremedy exceptareturntoreality,themostprimaryformofreminiscence.Moreover,thisreturnisnoteasy,forthefuneralorationpossessesaformidablecapacitytoinduceoblivion,that is,forthephilosopher,death.Althoughtheorationsaysagreatdealaboutimmortality,theeternalglorypromisedbythecityismerelyaparodyofthe'finerisk'ofthePhaedo.27 EveryepitaphiosmisleadstheAtheniansbyconcealingfromthemtheirconditionaslivingbeings...28

TheMenexenus,onthisreading,isasubtleanddismissivetreatmentofthewayinwhichtheorators/politiciansconstructtheAthenians'viewofthemselvesandby implicationtheparodywillincludetheusesuchconstructionsmakeofMarathonitself.
26 27 28

Kahn(1996),54cf.Kahn'searlieressay(1963).

Inafootnote,LorauxsuggeststhatMenex.234c1isa'sarcasticecho'ofPhd.114d6. Loraux(1986),266.

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Whichofthesetwointerpretationsshouldweprefer?ShouldwesupposePlatotobeaccepting,orrejecting,thatpartoftheAthenianselfimagewhichrejoicesinthe solidachievementofitssinglehandeddefeatofthePersians?Loraux'smarshallingoftheargumentsfortreatingtheMenexenusfrombeginningtoendasaparody orpastiche29seemstometobeconclusive.But,giventheimpossibilityofcertaintyonsuchissues,Ishallforthemomentcontentmyselfwithworkingonthebasisthat herreadingofthedialogueisatleastpossible(andtheonethatIthinkmorelikely).ItisingeneralhardtofindunqualifiedpraiseofAthens'past,oranyaspectofit,in thedialogues.TheclosestthatwecometoitisperhapsinthenarrativeofAthenianhistoryinbook3oftheLaws.Hiscityreachedherhighpoint,sotheAthenian says,withMarathonandPlataeaandwhatallowedhertodosowasacombinationbetweentwokindsoffearfearoftheenemy,combinedwith'fear'ofthe establishedlaws.Thesecondkindoffearseems,initially,tobegivenprideofplacebutintheend(thoughthetextinthecrucialpassageat699cisdifficultand perhapsuncertain30)theoutcomeseemstoberatherlessthanafullendorsementoftheAtheniancharacter.Theyhadestablishedlaws,towhicheverycitizenmustbe subject,andwhichenjoinedtherightresponsetothesituationyetifithadnotbeenfortheirfearforthemselves,theywouldneverhavecometogethertofightforthe city.TheAtheniansoftheearlyfifthcenturyserveheretoillustratethekindofsocialcohesivenessunderlawthatacityneeds.Buttheultimatediagnosisseemstobe, ineffect,thattheywereterrorizedintofraternity.ThepassagerecallssomethingthattheVisitorfromEleasaysinthePoliticus:thatevencitieswhichgovern themselvesinanorderlyway,stickingtoestablishedlaw,areliableintheendtoberuined.Heremarksontheextraordinarynaturalstrengthoftheinstitutionofwhat wecallacity,whichallowsitsometimestosurvivedespitetheweaknessofitsfoundationsintraditionallaw'however,weseemanyinstancesofcitiesgoingdown likesinkingshipstotheirdestruction.Therehavebeensuchwrecksinthepastandtheresurely
29 30

Ibid.30427.

WithBurnet'stext,thesenseof699c67mustapparentlybethattherewereatanyratesignificantlylargenumbersofcowardsamongthecitizens,whowouldnothavejoinedin defenceofthecityhaditnotbeenforthesizeoftheexternalthreat(hon[sc.hodeilos]eitotemedeoselaben,oukanpotesunelthonemunato).

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willbeothersinthefurore...'(302a).ThecontinuationofthenarrativeinLaws3picturesAthensherselfsinking,asthelawsincreasinglylosttheirhold. Itis,Isuggest,thedifferencebetweenCritias'AthensandtherealAthensofMarathon,andPlataea,thatmattersmorethanthesimilarities.Mostimportantly,the primitiveAthensoftheTimaeusCritiaswasabletoachievewhatitdidbecauseoftheexcellenceofitscitizens,instilledsystematicallybyadivinelyinspired educationalsystem.31IfwesupposethatAthens'defeatofAtlantiswasanachievementonroughlythesamescaleasthedefeatofPersia,stillitwas(asCritias emphasizes)onlyoneifthegreatestofherachievements32shedidmanygreatthings,anditwasonlythemisfortuneofnaturaldisasterwhichinterruptedherproud course.Bycontrast,thevictoryofthereal,historicalAthenswasahighpoint,followedbyeventualdecline.ThereisadelightfulpassageintheLaws,whichreferstoa sayingthat'whenanAthenianisagoodman,heisexceptionallygood.ItisonlyatAthensthatgoodnessisanunconstrained,spontaneousgrowth,agenuine''giftof God''inthefullsenseoftheword.'33WhenAtheniansdidgetthingsright,theydidsospectacularlythetroubleisthatbecausetheyfailtogivesystematicattentionto thethingthatreallymatters,theproductionof'goodness'orvirtueinthecitizens,theycouldnot,andcannot,becountedontogetitrightinanyconsistentway. Critias'Athens,then,isacityofvirtuouspeople.That,ofcourse,iswhattherealAthensclaimstobeaclaimthattheMenexenus,parodyingPericles,treats(I propose)withsardonicwit.Socrates/AspasiadescribesAtheniandemocracylikethis:'Thenasnow,andindeedalways,fromthattimetothis,speakinggenerally,our governmentwasanaristocracyaformofgovernmentwhichreceivesvariousnames,accordingtothefanciesofmen,butisreallyanaristocracyorgovernmentof thebestwhichhastheapprovalofthemany.'34Somethinglikethesameidea,aboutthequalityofthecitizensunderAtheniandemocracy,appearsinProtagoras' GreatSpeechintheProtagoras,whereSocratesgivesitequallyshortshrift.WhattheTimaeusCritiasoffersisastoryofwhatAthenswouldhavetobeinorderfor itscitizensactuallytoacquirethekindofexcellenceonwhichits
31 32 33 34

Tim.24d.e.

Tim.23ceCriti.112e. 642cd,trans.Taylor. Menex.238c5d2,trans.Jowett.

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presentdaycitizensalready,complacently,imaginethemselvestopossess.Itreplacesonestorywithanother,truerone,transposingfuturepossibilityintoquasi history,orquasiprehistory.35 ButtheimplicationsofthemuthosofAthensandAtlantisarenotrestrictedtoAthensherself.WhatAthensfictionallywasisatleastinoutlinehoweverycityoughtto be,orthemodeltowhicheverycityoughttoapproximate.InPlato'sterms,itrepresentswhatacityhastobeinordertobecalledacityatalljustas,accordingto thePoliticus,onlythetrue'constitution',orpoliteia,reallycountsasaconstitutionatall,andonlythetrue,knowledgeable,politikoscountsasapolitikos.Anyother socalledpoliteia,orpolitikos,past,present,orfuture,will(strictlyspeaking)benobetterthananimpostor.Similarly,Isuggest,inthecaseofthepolis.SofarasI know,Platonowhereexplicitlydrawssuchaconclusion,butitwouldbequiteconsistentwithwhatseemstobeageneralpatterninhisthinkingnotonlyinthepolitical butintheethicalandaestheticspheres.Inshort,whatisbeingdescribed,howeverprovisionallyandsketchily,intheAthensoftheTimaeusCritiasandinthe 'beautifulcity'oftheRepublicisjustwhatacityis.36Inthisway,bothmyths(thoseoftheTimaeusCritiasandoftheRepublic)becometimeless,mimickingthe timelessnessofthecity'sownstoryofitself.ItisamatterofcompleteindifferencetoPlatowhetherhelocateshismuthoiinthepast,thefuture,orindeed(asinthe caseofhiseschatologicalmyths)thepresent.Thesoleconnectionwithtimewillbetotheextentthatwemaybejudgedtohavefailed,ortobefailing,toadapt ourselvestotheideal,andmightsucceedindoingsointhefuture.'Myth',inthissense,appearspeculiarlyadaptedtoaPlatoniccontextthatis,insofaras,orif, mythtypicallydescribesorreferstothingsatadistancefromordinaryexperience,whetherthingsintheremotepast(perhaps),and/orthings
35

Eventhe'history'theaccountoftagenomenainLaws3appearstocount,untilitisanalysedanditslessonslearned,asakindofmuthologia:see699d8.Lorauxherself seemstoseetheresemblancebetweenTim.Crifi.andMenex.asproblematic,andasevidencethatPlatohimselfwas(perhaps)unableto'resistthetemptationof"theeulogyofan unrealpast"...Perhapstheonlywayofriddingoneselfofthefuneralorationwouldbetoputitatadistance,byshowing[asMenex.does]behinditsfinewordstheinanityof certaingrandiloquentpropositions...'(Loraux(1986),3034).Rather,Ithink,Tim.Criti.deliberatelyappropriatestheformofthechartermythbutthisisintheendnotmuchmore thanadifferenceofemphasisfromLoraux'saccount.

36

ItisthemicrocosmiccounterpartofTimaeus'treatmentofthecosmosasawhole,withthedifferencethatatthe(macro)cosmiclevelthenecessarycompromisebetweenreasonand unreasonisanestablishedfact,notsomethingawaitingnegotiation.

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imaginedbutalwayswiththequalificationthat,forPlato,thingsthataresaid(lexis)mayhaveagreater'grasponthetruth'thanthemorefamiliar(praxis). Wemayask,finally,whatremainsofthedistinctionbetweenthemythicalandthenonmythicalinPlato.Ifhecontinuallyplayswiththatdistinction,blurring,obscuring, andtransgressingit,mustitnotneverthelesssomehowsurvive,batteredbutintact,ifwearetobeabletoattachanysensetotheplay?Theanswer,Ithink,isthatwhat survivesisabroadcontrastbetweenstorytelling,or(moreorless)imaginativediscourse,andthosesortsofdiscoursewhicharecomparativelyatleastlackingin animaginativedimension.TotheextentthatPlatoenvisagestheuseofmuthoiasanalternativetorationalargument,inordertoinculcatebeliefsandattitudesinthe nonphilosophical,thereisalsoaclearsenseinwhichthecontrastbetweenmythicalandnonmythicalcorrespondstothatbetweenrationalandirrational.Butthat doesnotmeanthat'themythical'issimplydefinedbyirrationalityitissimplythatstorytelling,byvirtueofthesimplicityanddirectnessofitsappeal,maybeusedasa meansofcontrolinthecontextofpeopleforwhomothermeansareinappropriatebyvirtueoftheirowninadequatedegreeofrationality.Inadifferentcontext,myth canactuallybeatoolofdialectic,asitisinthecaseofthePoliticusstoryaboutthereversaloftheworld,whichisintroducedinordertoillustratemistakesmadein theprecedingprocessofdivision.Justas,then,therationalmayinawaybetransformedintothemythicalthroughitspresentationasanarrative,sothemythical mayitselfbecomeanelementinthephilosopher'sprogresstowardsthetruth.Story,imagery,metaphor,simile:allmayserve,ifperhapsonlyforthemoment,37to indicatesomethingthatistrueof'thethingsthatare'.
37

'Onlyforthemoment',inthesensethatthephilosopher'sprogresswillalwayscontinue(sohehopes),inthedirectionoftruth,andthethingsthemselves.Insomeparticular contexts,ase.g.inthecaseofthesimilesofRep.67(seeesp.506ce),imagesandlikenessesmayappearasakindofsecondbestbuttheyremainingeneralasauseful,even perhapsnecessary,partofphilosophicaldiscourseitself.AstheVisitorfromEleasaystotheyoungerSocratesatPlt.277d12,'itisahardthingtodemonstrateanyofthegreater subjectswithoutusingmodels[paradeigmata]':if'myths'arenotquiteparadeigmataasthePoliticusunderstandsthese,neverthelesstheymay,anddo,servethesamepurpose, ofhelpingto'demonstratethegreatersubjects'.

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15 MythandLogosinAristotle
THOMASK.JOHANSEN LetmestartwithafamiliarpictureofAristotle.Aristotleinventedlogic,theartofvalidreasoning.Healsoinventedthenotionofempiricalscience,beingthefirstto insistthattheoriesofnatureshouldbebasedonsystematicobservation.Aristotlebroughttogetherhistwoinventions,empiricalscienceandlogic,inhistheoryof demonstrativeunderstanding(episteme).Accordingtothistheory,wehaveunderstandingwhen,throughaprocessofinductionfromsenseperception,wecometo graspdefinitionsthatareintelligible,necessarilytrue,explanatory,andunambiguous,andwhenweareabletousethesedefinitionsaspremissesinsyllogismsthat demonstratetheirconclusions.InthiswayAristoteliansciencecombinesobservationwithlogicsoastorepresentaparadigmofempiricalandrationalknowledge. IfthisistheonlypictureyouhaveofAristotelianscienceyouwillnotexpecttofindroominitformuthoi.Howcouldmuthoi,understoodasfictional,imaginary, ambiguous,andsetindistanttimeorspace,contributetoamodelofscientificreasoningthatonlyacceptslogoithatarenecessarilytrue,unambiguous,andderived fromobservationoffacts? ThispictureofAristoteliansciencecomesnaturallywithacertainviewofhowAristotleandotherGreekphilosophersatthetimeusedthelogos/muthosdistinction. Accordingtothisview,expressedbyGeoffreyLloydinhisDemystifyingMentalitiesandinhiscontributiontothisvolume,thedistinctionbetweenlogosandmuthos arisesinthepolemicbetweendifferentstylesofenquiry.Callingsomebody'saccount'muthos'isawayofdismissingitasmerefiction.Bycontrast,callingone'sown account'logos'istomakeaclaimforitasfactual,reliable,andtruthful.AsLloydputsit:'[I]norigin,thedistinctionbetweentheliteralandthemetaphoricallikethat betweenmyth(asfiction)andrational

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accountwasnotjustaninnocent,neutralpieceoflogicalanalysis,butaweaponforgedtodefendaterritory,repelboarders,putdownrivals.' However,because thedistinctionisusedpolemicallyittendsalsotodisguisethecontinuitybetweentheaccountoftheselfstyledrationalistandtheaccountofhisallegedly'mythical'rival. Onetendsnottoacknowledgedebtsatthesametimeasoneistryingtoestablishone'sownindependence. ThispolemicaluseofthedistinctioniswellattestedinThucydidesandotherGreekhistorians.Butitisalsofoundamongstthephilosophers.PenelopeMurrayargues inthisvolumethatPlatotendstoregardthetraditionalmythsofthepoetsaswhollyfalse,whereasthestatusofthemythsthatPlatohimselfusesismuchmore complex.InthispaperIshallfirstshowthatAristotletoousesthedistinctionpolemicallyinthemannersuggestedbyLloyd.ButIshallthengoontoshowthat Aristotlealsousesmuthoiaspositiveevidenceindevelopinghisowntheories.Finally,Ishallarguethatthisconstructiveuseofmuthoicanbeseenascompatible withthepolemicaluseofthemuthos/logosdistinctionifweconsiderAristotle'sphilosophicalmethodandhisviewofhistory.Ihopethereforetoshowinthispaper thatthepictureofAristotlethatexcludesmythsisfartoorestrictive. IshallbasemydiscussionofAristotle'sviewsonmythonhisusesoftheterm'muthos',inordertoavoidprejudginganyquestionsaboutwhathemightormightnot haverecognizedas'mythical'.Under'muthos',H.BonitzinhisIndexAristotelicusliststwogroupsofentries:(1)fabula,'fable',asopposedtoaletheia('truth')and logosand(2)specificsensesofmuthosinthePoetics,suchas'asubjectofpoetry'or'plot'.InwhatfollowsIshalldisregardthePoeticsandfocusonthefirstgroup ofpassages,sinceitisthisgroupthatpromisestogiveustheexamplesofthepolemicaluseofthemuthos/logosdistinctionthatwearelookingforinthefirstinstance. Asweshallsee,however,Bonitzwaswrongtoseemuthosasopposedtotruthandlogosinsomeofthepassagesheusesasexamplesofmuthosasfable. IbeginwithsomepassagesfromAristotle'sbiologicalworks.AtHA597a7ff.Aristotlewritesconcerningcranesthat:
theymigratefromthesteppesofScythiatothemarshlandssouthofEgyptwheretheNilehasitssource.Anditisinthisregionthatthe
1

G.E.R.Lloyd(1990),23.

Page281 Pygmieslive.Forthisisnotamyth,butthereistrulyaraceofsmallmen, andthehorsesarelittleinproportionandthemenliveincavesunderground.

2

HereAristotleclearlydrawsacontrastbetweenamuthosandatrueaccount. However,whenweconsiderthesourceofAristotle'saccountofthePygmieshisuseofthecontrastappearsproblematic.ThestoryofthePygmiesisofcourse common.InIliad3.6,forexample,wearetoldthattheCranesmigrateeverywintertoalandneartheOceanwheretheybringbloodshedanddestructiontothe Pygmieswholivethere.However,thefactthatAristotle,atthesametimeashetellsthestory,alsoidentifiesthesourceoftheNileasthemarshessouthofEgypt suggeststhatheisdrawing,inparticular,onHerodotus2.32.6.Ifso,thisissignificant,sincewewouldnotnormallyexpectAristotletorelyonHerodotusfor scientificevidence.ThusHerodotusinGA756b414isdenouncedasamuthologos,afableteller,whosubscribestothesimplemindedandmuchrepeatedclaim thatfishconceivebyswallowingthemilt,thatistheseminalfluidofthemalefish.Aristotlepointsouttworeasonswhythisclaimiswrong.First,whatpassesintothe stomachcanonlycontributetonutritionandnottoconception.Secondly,theuterusofthefemalefishisfulloffertilizedeggsbuthowdidtheygetthereifconception tookplacethroughthemouth?Herodotusseemsheretobedismissedasamuthologosbecausehesimplyrepeatsanoldstorywithoutcheckingitsufficientlyagainst observation.Aristotle'sownaccount,bycontrast,ispresentedasbasedoncloseobservationandrationalinference.3 However,threepointsmightseemtoundermineAristotle's
2 3

GA756b414:'Thefishermendonotnoticethis[sc.thatfishcopulatebyplacingthemselvesalongsideeachother]buttheydonoticetheswallowingofthemiltandeggsbythe female,andsotheyjointhechorusandrepeatthesameoldstupidtale[toneuethelegousilogonkaitethrulemenon]thatalsoHerodotusthefableteller[homuthologos]tells,tothe effectthatfishconceivebyswallowingthemilt.Itneverstrikesthemthatthisisimpossible,butofcourseitis,becausethepassagewhoseentranceisthroughthemouthpasses downintothestomach,notintotheuterus,andwhatevergoesdownintothestomachmustofnecessitybeturnedintonourishment,becauseitundergoesconcoction.Theuterus, however,aswecanseeisfullofeggs:soweask,howdidtheyfindtheirwaythere?'

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attackonHerodotushere.First,Herodotusisingoodcompanywhenhesaysthatfishconceivebyswallowingthemilt.AsAristotlesays,itisabeliefheldalsoby fishermen,andfishermenareelsewhere,becauseoftheirfirsthandexperience,anauthorityforAristotleonfish.4Secondly,ifAristotlecanusethepresenceofeggsin theuterusasevidenceforhisclaimthatconceptiontakesplacethere,thenHerodotusandthefishermen,bythesametoken,mightuseasevidencefortheirclaimthat thefemalefishconceivebyswallowingthemilttheobservationthatmanyfishcarrythefertilizedeggsintheirmouths.Finally,Aristotlefindstheaccountofhowfish conceiveinHerodotus2.93,thesamebookwhichheseemstobequitehappytodrawonforhisaccountofthePygmies. ThepassagesshowthatAristotleusesthewords'muthos'and'muthologos'todenouncecompetingaccountsasfictionalandfalse.Theyalsobringoutperfectlythe otherpointwhichLloydmakes,namely,thatthepolemicaluseofthedistinctionbetweenmuthosandlogoshidesconsiderablecontinuitybetweenHerodotusand Aristotle.Aristotleseemstoborrow,withoutacknowledgement,fromHerodotuswithonehandandrepelhimwiththeother.However,itisalsosignificantthatwhat decideswhichaccountAristotlepicksoutasmuthosseemstobenotsomuchthedegreeofempiricalevidenceavailablefortheaccountaswhetherornotthe accountfitswithAristotle'stheoreticalpresuppositions.InthecaseofthePygmiesandtheirdiminutivehorsesitisunlikelythateitherAristotleorHerodotushadmore thanhearsayasevidencefortheirexistence.WhatmakesbothAristotleandHerodotusacceptthestoryissurelyrathertheiragreementonthetheoretical presuppositionthattheextremesoftheworld,suchasScythiaandAfrica,tendtobeinhabitedbypeopleandanimalsthatrepresentextremesinrelationtotheGreek mean.5Inthecaseoftheparturitionoffish,however,itis
4 5

Cf.HA533b10ff.:fishermenknowthatfishhavehearingfortheyusenoisetohuntthemdown.

Cf.Hdt.3.10616andArist.Pol.1327b1937.NoticealsothedoseparallelsbetweenHA8.28,whereAristotlediscussestheimpactofthelocalityonanimals'physiognomy,and Herodotus4.2830ontheanimalsofScythia:'Horsesstandthewinterwell,butmulesanddonkeyscannotstanditatall...Ithinkthecoldmayexplainthefactthatthecarteinthis partoftheworldhavenohorns:averseinHomer'sOdyssey[4.85]supportsthisview,wherethepoetspeaksofLibya,wherehornsgrowquicklyontheforeheadsoflambsa sensibleremarkindicatingthatahotclimatefavourstherapidgrowthofhornswhereas (Footnotecontinuedonnextpage)

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clearthatHerodotus'accountrunscountertotheAristotelianviewexpressedinGA3.56thatdigestionandconceptionarediscretefunctionsthatareservedby discreteorgans.Insum,Aristotle,likeHerodotus,iswillingtoacceptanaccountfrom'whatissaid'withoutanyempiricalevidenceifitisconsistentwithhistheoretical presuppositions.Ontheotherhand,heisalsowillingtodiscountfirsthandempiricalevidencesuchasthatofthefishermenifitdisagreeswithhistheory.Onthispoint, atleast,notmuchseemstoseparateAristotle,'thescientist',fromHerodotus,'thefableteller',despiteAristotle'srhetoric. IturnnowtotwopassagesinwhichAristotlementionsmuthoinotsimplytodismissthembuttohighlightapuzzlingobservation.Themuthoshererepresentsan attempttoexplainapuzzlingfactwhichAristotletoobelievesstandsinneedofexplanation.InHA579b28Aristotledismissesassillythemuthostoldaboutthe lionessdischargingherwombintheactofparturition.However,healsosaysthatthemuthos

wasinventedtoaccountfortherarityoflions,becausethepersonwhoinventedthemuthoswasatalossastoitsexplanation[aitia]fortheanimalisrare,andisnotfoundin many,placesinthewholeofEuropeitisfound[andonlyfound,cf.606b16]inbetweentheriversAchelousandNessus.

NoticeagainthatAristotle'ssourceofinformationonthehabitatoftheEuropeanlionmaywellbeHerodotus(7.126.4).6However,whatisnewisthatthepassage showsthatAristotle
(Footnotecontinuedfrompreviouspage) inseverecoldcattledonotgrowthematall,orhardlyatall'(trans.A.deSlincourt).Arist.HA607a18606b6:'inLibyathehomedramshavehornsatbirthnotonlythemales[ ]buttheotherstoo.AndinthePontusnearScythiatheopposite:theyoccurhornless....Inmanyplacestheclimatetooisacause,forexampleinIllyriaandThraceandEpirus thedonkeysaresmall,whileinScythiaandtheCelticcountry[i.e.Gaul]theydonotoccuratallfortheseanimalswinterbadly'(trans.D.Balme).J.Gould'sdescription(1989)of Herodotus'symmetricalmodelofaworldinwhich'ScythiaistheantithesisofEgypt'(p.100)and'thingsbecomeprogressivelymorestrangeasonemovesoutwardfrom(Greek) normalityatthecentre'(98)couldalsobeappliedtoAristotle.(SeealsoLenfantinthisvolume.)
6

Hdt.7.126:'Theboundaryofthelions'countryistheriverNestus[sic]whichflowsthroughtheterritoryofAbderaandtheriverAchelouswhichflowsthroughAcarnania'.Ithas beenarguedthattherewerenolionsinnorthernGreeceinClassicaltimescf.Brown(1960),1667.(IamgratefultoLinFoxhallfordrawingmyattentiontothis.)Ifso,andifHerodotus isoneofAristotle'ssourcesontheEuropeanlion,thenwewouldhavetheinterestingcaseofAristotle,'thescientist',beingmisledbyHerodotus,'thefableteller'.

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recognizesthattheintentionofamuthosmaybetoexplainapuzzlingobservation.Similarly,atHA580 17themythaboutLeto'sassumingtheformofashewolfis saidtohavebeenintroducedtoexplaintheparturitionperiodofthewolf.7Aristotlerecognizesthatthemythmayberootedinthesameworldofexperienceasscience andmayattempttoexplainthesamepuzzlingfactsasscience. NowtheaetiologicalintentionofsomemythtellinggoessomewaytowardsexplainingwhyAristotlesometimesmentionsmuthoiinhisscientificworks.ForAristotle theaimofscienceistoprovideexplanationsorcauses(aitiai):'Wesaythatweknowsomethingwhenweknowitsaitiai'(Metaph.983a2426).Soamyth,ifitis tryingtoexplainapuzzlingobservation,hasthesameobjectiveasscience.InMetaph.982b1122,havingsaidthatmenbegantophilosophizeoutofwonder,headds that'eventheloverofmythinasenseisaloverofwisdom,formythiscomposedofwonders'.Mythlikephilosophyandscienceisanexpressionofthewonder generatedinusbythenaturalworld.Mythcanthereforebeseenasanattempttoanswerthesamequestionsasscience.Mythsareourpredecessors'answerstothe samepuzzlesthatwescientificallyorphilosophicallyarenowtryingtosolve.ItshouldcomeasnosurprisethereforethatAristotlemakesuseofmythtellersandpoets suchasHomer,Hesiod,andMusaeusinhisscientificworksaswellasrecognizednaturalphilosopherssuchasEmpedocles,Anaximander,andDemocritus.8Thatis ofcoursenottosaythatAristotlealwaysagreeswiththemythtellersanymorethanhealwaysagreeswiththenaturalphilosophers.ThepointisratherthatAristotle seesthemythtellersassufficientlyinvolvedwiththeexplanationofnaturalphenomenafortheiropinionstoberelevant. Theaetiologicalintentionbehindsomemythsdoesnotof
7

HA580a1423:'Thereisanaccount[logos]givenoftheparturitionoftheshewolfthatbordersonamyth.Foritissaidthatallwolvesgivebirthwithintwelvedaysoftheyear. Andtheygivethereasonforthisintheformofamuthos,namelythatwhilsttheytransportedLetoinsomanydaysfromthelandoftheHyperboreanstotheislandofDelos,she assumedtheformofashewolfbecauseshewasafraidofHera.Whethertheperiodofparturitionisthisornothasnotyetbeenestablishedbyobservation,Igiveitmerelyasitis told.Thecommonclaimthattheshewolfbearsonlyonceinherlifetimeisclearlyuntrue.'(OnthispassageseeR.Buxton,'WolvesandWerewolvesinGreekThought',inBremmer (1987),6079,at667.)

8

ForHomer,cf.e.g.Mete.351b35Dean.427a24HA513b27,578b1,615b9,618b25,629b22forHesiod,cf.Ph.208b29Cael.298b28HA601b2forMusaeus,cf.HA563a18.

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courseinitselfensurethatthosemythsareeversuccessfulinexplainingpuzzlingdata.Wecanseeamythasanearlyexpressionofthesameexplanatoryinstinctas sciencewithoutthinkingthatwecanlearnanythingtodayfrommyth.Mythsmaybeprotoscience,butaslongastheemphasisremainsfirmlyon'proto'theremaybe noneedtotakethemseriously.However,Iturnnowtotwotexts,thefirstofwhichshowsAristotledrawingonmythtodevelophisowntheory,andthesecondof whichexplainswhythisisso.AtMA699a2732Aristotlediscussesthequestionwhetherwhatmovestheentireuniversemustitselfbeimmovableormovable.His ownansweristhatitmustbeimmovable.Butbeforedrawingthisconclusionheintroducesamyth:

Nowthosewhomythically[muthikos]makeAriasstandwithhisfeetontheearthwouldseemtohavearationalbasis[apodianoias]forpresentingthemythinsofarasheislike adiameter[hosperdiametrononta],9whirlingtheheavensroundthepoles.Thiswouldhappeninaccordancewithreason[katalogon]sincetheearthremainsstill.Butifthey givesuchanaccounttheymustconcedethattheearthisnopartoftheuniverse.

TounderstandAristotle'suseofthemythofAriasinthispassageweneedtokeepinmindAristotle'sdistinctivephilosophicalmethod.SinceG.E.L.Owen'spaper 'Tithenaitaphainomena'10ithasbeenwidelyacceptedthatAristotleusesendoxa,thatis,'reputableorreceivedopinions',ormoregenerallyphainomena, 'appearances',toestablishhisownphilosophicalandscientificprinciples.Aristotle'smethodprescribesthatweshouldfirstlaydowntheendoxaonagiventopicthen discussthedifficulties(aporiai)involvedintheendoxa,trying,ifpossible,todefendthemagainstobjectionsandfinally,ifitisimpossibletopreservealltheendoxa, weshouldpreserveasmanyaspossibleor

9

Tomakesenseoftheexampleitmaybethatby" WalterBurkertonthispoint.)
10

,ifhespecificallywantsustounderstandtheradiusratherthanthediameter,thereforeremainspuzzling.(Iamgratefulto

FirstpublishedinMansion(1961),83103=Owen(1986),23951.

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themostauthoritative. DevelopingOwen'sargument,MarthaNussbaumobservedthat'ithasoftenbeennotedwithalarmthattheHistoryofAnimals,Aristotle's databook,mentionsbeliefsandstoriessidebysidewiththerecordsofthefieldwork.Properlyunderstood,thisshouldnotalarmus.'12Thestoriesandgeneralbeliefs areendoxathatAristotle,alongsidemoredirectobservation,usestoderivehistheories.13 NowourpassagefromMovementofAnimalsprovidesaperfectexampleofhowamuthoscanbeprocessedbytheendoxicmethod.Firstofalltheopinionsare summoned,oneofwhichisthemythofArias.Aristotlethengoesontodefendthemythbysayingthatitisspokenonthebasisofreason(dianoia)andkatalogon. ThereasonwhyitiskatalogonisthatitfollowsfromsayingthatitisAtlaswhomovestheuniversethatAtlas,orratherthediameteroftheearthalongthepoles,must remainstill.AndAristotleagreeswiththisview,forhehimselfinsiststhattheearthisunmoved.However,themythalsoinvolvesadifficulty,forjustasamancannot pushaboatwhilestandinginsideit,sowhatmovestheuniversecannotitselfbeinsidetheuniverse.Sothediameteroftheearthandhencetheearthitselfmustbe outsidetheuniverse,aconclusionwhichAristotlefindsunacceptable.WeseetheninthispassagehowAristotle'sendoxicmethodallowsanaccountexplicitlyreferred toasmuthostocontributepositivelytohisenquiry.However,thepassagealsoshowsthatbeforethemuthoscanbeusedasanendoxonitmustbetranslatedinto thetermsappropriatetotheenquiry,inthiscasethelanguageofgeometrywhichAristotleusestoanalysemotion.Thusredescribed,themythconstitutesatheoretical positionthatcantakepartinthecriticalinterchangewithotherviewsthroughwhichAristotlearrivesathisowntheory.Inthiscriticalinterchangepartofthetheoryis saved(thattheearthremainsstill),
11 12 13

11

EN1145b27cf.Barnes(1980).

(1986),479n.13.

CompareR.L.Fowler'sdescriptionofHerodotus'methodology(1996:80):'Onefirstobtainswhatever [logoi]areavailable,andthenteststhembyvariousmeans:bygauging theirinherentprobabilitybydetectingtheirbias,ifanybycomparingthemtosimilarstoriesbyappealingtoeverydayexperiencebycomparingtheevidenceofsurviving monumentsorpracticesbyapplyingelementarylogic,forexamplebyfindingcontradictions.'ThesimilaritybetweenHerodotus'andAristotle'smethodsliesbothinthewiderangeof phainomenaandlegomenatheyconsiderandinthewaytheirenquiriesprocessthosedata.Weshouldnotbesurprised,therefore,iftheirhistoriaisometimes,asinthecaseofthe Pygmiesandthehomedlambs,deliverthesameresults.

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partisrejected.Inthisrespectthetreatmentofthemuthosisexactlyparalleltothatofearlierphilosophicaltheories. Themuthosispartoftheendoxicmaterialout ofwhichAristotlebuildshisowntheories. Thisconclusion,however,raisestwoquestions.First,howisitpossibleforAristotletoacceptthatanelementofthemuthosiskatalogonwhenhenormallyuses 'muthos'tocontrastwith'logos'?Secondly,whydoesAristotlethinkhimselfentitledtoattributetohispredecessorsaninsightexpressedinhisownterms(suchas 'diameter')ratherthaninthetermsofthemuthos(suchas'Atlas')?IsAristotlenaivelyignorantofthedistinctionbetweenactors'andobservers'categoriesordoeshe deliberatelyfloutit?15 Mynexttextprovidesanswerstobothofthesequestions.InMetaph.1074b114,Aristotlewantstoarguethattheheavenlybodiesareeternalanddivine.Forthis purposehecallsontheendoxa:

Ourforefathersinthemostremoteageshavehandeddowntous,theirposterity,atradition,intheformofamyth,thatthese[i.e.theheavenlybodies]aregodsandthatthedivine containsthewholeofnature.Therestofthetraditionhasbeenaddedlaterinmythicalformwithaviewtothepersuasionofthemultitudeandtoitslegalandutilitarian expedience.Theysaythatthesegodsareintheformofmenorlikesomeoftheotheranimals,andtheysayotherthingsconsequentonandsimilartothesewhichwehave mentioned.Ifweweretoseparatethefirstpointfromtheseadditions,however,andtakeitalonethattheythoughtthefirstsubstancestobegodswemustregardthisasan inspiredutterance,andreflectthat,whileprobablyeachartandsciencehasoftenbeendevelopedasfaraspossibleandhasagainperished,theseopinionshavebeenpreserved likerelicsuntilthepresent.Onlythusfar,then,istheopinionofourancestorsandourearliestpredecessorscleartous.

14

Therearehintsofearlier'rationalist'critiquesofmythinthispassage.16Butitisexactlyinthepresenceofsuchcritiquesthat
14 15 16

AnotherexampleisMetaph.1071b2272a4,wherethemythologistsarealignedtothenaturalphilosophersandintheendshowntobehalfright. Cf.G.E.R.Lloyd,p.146inthisvolume,and(1990),7.

Inparticular,Xenophanes'andPlato'scritiqueofanthropomorphicgodscf.Xenoph.frs.11,14,15,16,23DKPl.Rep.377d383c.Theideathatthemythicalelementshavebeen addedtopersuadethemassesrecollectsthenoblelieinRep.414b415d(referredtoasamuthos,415a2,c7),inventedtopersuadetheentirecitizenbodyoratleastthenonruling masses(414b8c2).

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Aristotle'spositiveuseofthemythstandsout.Themythhasbeenconstructedaroundtheinsightthatthefirstsubstancesaregods.Therestofthetraditionhasbeen addedtothisinsighttopersuadethemanyorforotherutilitarianreasons.Aristotlejustifieshisbeliefthatthereissuchaninsightthroughthedoctrineofperiodic cataclysms.Themythisarelicfromtheperiodbeforethelastcataclysmwhenscienceandartswereasperfectaspossible.17AsMylesBurnyeathasstressed, Aristotle'sendoxicmethodmustbeseeninthecontextofhiscyclicalviewofhistory.18Accordingtothisview,eachartandeachscienceisrediscoveredinnumerable timesafterperiodiccataclysmswith'thesameopinionsrecurringinrotationamongstmennotonceortwicebutinfinitelyoften'.19ThereasonwhyAristotlethinksthat mancanrepeatedlycomeupwiththerighttheoriesisthathebelievesthatmanbynatureisapotentialknowerandthatnaturalpotentialitiesgenerallyarerealized.The truthsgraspedbyourpredecessorshavebeenpreservedforusintheformofendoxa.Thatiswhywecangraspthetruthadequatelyifweattendcorrectlytothe endoxa.20AsAristotlesaysinthePolitics,'weshouldmakethebestuseofwhathasbeenalreadydiscoveredandtrytosupplythedefects'(1329b345). Heretheneedtoattendcorrectlyto('makethebestuseof')theendoxashouldbeemphasized.Theendoxicmethoddoesnotprescribeapassivereceptionofthe endoxawherebyweautomaticallyassimilatetheinsightsofourpredecessors.Weneedtoputinthesortofcriticalquestioningandconceptualanalysisshownby Aristotleinsomanyofhisintroductorychaptersbeforetheendoxawillyieldtheirinsights. Thecorrectmethodologyisperhapsparticularlyimportantwhendealingwithmythicalmaterialbecauseofitsobscurity.Aristotlethusobjectstothosewho sophisticallyusemuthoitogeneratespuriousexplanations:
17 18 19 20

Cf.Pl.Tim.22b24d,whereastronomyhasbeenpreservedfortheAthenianssincethelastcatastropheintheformofamyth(toutomuthoumenschemaechonlegetai,22c7). Burnyeat(1986). Cael.270b1920.

Cf.Rhet.1355a1518:'Toseethetruthandwhatissimilartoitbelongstothesamefaculty.Atthesametime,peoplearebynaturesufficientinrelationtothetruth,andinmostcases theyreachitthatiswhysomeonewhoislikelytohitonthereputableopinions[endoxa]isalsolikelytohitonthetruth'.

Page289 Onepuzzle[aporia]whichisasgreatasanyandwhichhasbeenneglectedbothbythepresentandthepreviousthinkersisthequestionwhethertherearethesameprinciples [archai]forthingsthatareperishableasforthingsthatareunperishableorwhethertheyaredifferent.Foriftheyarethesame,howaresomethingsperishableandothersnot,and whatisthereason[aitia]?Hesiodandhisfollowersandallthosewhowroteaboutthegods[theologoi]concernedthemselvesonlywithwhatwasplausibletothemselvesand hadlittleregardforus.Formakingtheprinciplesgodsorfromgods,theysaythatthosethatdidnottastenectarandambrosiabecamemortals.Itisclearthattheyareusingthese wordsinawayfamiliartothemselvesandyettheyhavespokenaboveourheadsconcerningtheapplicationofthesecauses.Forifthegodstastethenectarandtheambrosiafor thesakeoftheirpleasure,thenthenectarandambrosiaarenotthecauseoftheirbeing,butifitisthecauseoftheirbeinghowcouldgodsbeimmortalwhentheyneed nourishment?Butitisnotworthwhilepayingseriousattentiontothosewhopurveymythicalsophistries[muthikossophizomenon].21

ThepeopleAristotlehasinmindarethesortofcleverpeople(sophoi)criticizedbySocratesatPhaedrus229ce,whotrytocorrect(epanorthousthai)mythical sayings(muthologemata,229c5)byfindingnaturalexplanationsforthem.Forexample,theyexplainthestoryoftherapeofOreithyiabyBoreasbysayingthatthe northwindblewthegirloffarock.LikeAristotle,Socratesdescribesthissortofpersonassophizomenos,'purveyingsophistries',andtheterm(inconjunctionwith sophoi)issurelymeanttoremindusofthepracticeofallegoricalinterpretationofmythassociatedwithsophistssuchasProtagoras.ThekeywordsinAristotle's attackon'thosewhopurveymythicalsophistries'are,'theyhavespokenaboveourheadsintheapplicationofthesecauses'.Whatgoesoverourheadsinthemythis clearlynotthepointthatthegodsareimmortal(Aristotlewouldagreewiththat)buttheattempttouseanotherfeatureofmyth,thatgodsconsumeambrosiaand nectar,toexplaintheirimmortality.Thereisasuperficialplausibilitytothisaccountofdivineimmortalityinsofaraswethinkthathumanscontinuetolivebecausethey eatanddrink.Soonemightthinkthatthereasonwhygodscancontinuelivingforeveristhattheyconsumeaspecialsortoffoodand

21

Metaph.1000a518.IborrowLloyd'stranslationofthelastsentence,cf.p.155inthisvolume.

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drink.However,theplausibilityisonlysuperficial,asAristotleshows:forifyouneedfoodanddrinkofanysorttocontinuelivingitmeansthatyouarenotnecessarily immortalasrequiredofthegods.ThetargetofbothSocrates'andAristotle'sattacksisthepracticeofmanipulatingmuthoitogenerateapparentlyplausible,butin realityspurious,explanationsratherthanmythtellingitself.22ThatiswhySocratescanproceedinthePhaedrustomakepositiveuseofmuthosbypresentinghis ownpalinodeasamuthos(253c7)23andthatiswhyAristotlethinksthat,despitetheabusesofothers,hecansalvagesomethingfromthemuthoibyusingthecorrect endoxicmethod. Aristotle'scyclicalviewofhistoryexplainswhythemuthoscanbeusefulinscience,foronthisviewthemuthositselfisarelicofanearlierscientificunderstanding. However,seeingthemuthosasarelicofpastlogosalsoexplainsthenegativeaspectofmuthosasfictional,obscure,andunreliable,theaspectthatispickedoutby thepolemicaluseofthemuthos/logosdistinction.Forwhatisproperlyspeaking'mythic'(muthikos)aboutthemuthosisthewayithasbeenalteredsincethelast cataclysm.Thelogoshasbecomemuthosbybeingusedasapropagandatooltodeceivethemasses.Thegods,forexample,wereoriginallyunderstoodcorrectlyas Aristotelian'firstsubstances'.Butoutofthislogoscamemuthoswhenthegodsweregivenhumanoranimalshapebypoliticianswhowantedtousethemas guarantorsoftheirownpreferredsocialorder.AswesawinthecaseofAtlas,wenowhavetorestorethemuthostoitsoriginalformbeforewecangettotheinsight oftheoriginallogos.Theterm'muthos'carriesapejorativemeaningsinceitisassociatedwithwhathastobediscardedinordertogainaccesstothatinsight.Thatis why,evenwhenweacceptthecontributionthatmuthoicanmaketoscientificunderstanding,theterm'muthos'willstilltendtobecontrastedwith'logos'. Finally,wecanseehowAristotlemightdefendhimselfagainstthechargeofconfusingactors'andobservers'categories.Aristotleseeshisownphilosophyasnear perfect.Sohisterminologyand
22

Noteinbothcasesthedamningreferencetowhatisplausible(toupithanou,Metaph.1000a10toeikos,Phdr.229c2),thestandardofargumentexpectedofrhetoricbut consideredsubstandardinrelationtophilosophy,ofwhichweexpectproof(cf.apodeixeos,Metaph.1000a20apodeikteon,apodeixis,apodeixeos,Phdr.245b7,c2,c4).
23

Cf.Murray,p.253inthisvolume.

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conceptualapparatusarethosethatanynearperfectphilosophywouldemploy.ButsinceAristotle'sphilosophyisalsotherecurrenceofanearperfectphilosophyof anearliercosmiccycle,hecanbeconfidentthattheytoomusthaveemployedhisconcepts:forexampletheytoowillhavetalkedabout'firstsubstances'and'the diametersofcircles'inthoseterms.Sincethemuthosisarelicofthisearliernearperfectphilosophy,wecanconcludethattheoriginaltheorybeforeitwasinvested withmythicallanguagemusthavebeenexpressedinAristotelianterminology.Aristotlethushasajustificationforthinkingthathiscategoriesmusthavealsobeenthose ofhisantediluvianpredecessors.24 WebeganwithapictureofAristoteliansciencethatexcludedmuthos,apicturethatwassupportedbythepolemicaluseofthemuthos/logosdistinction.However, wesawthatAristotlewasagooddealmoreaccommodatingtowardsmuthoithanthispicturesuggested.Thereasonforthiswastwofold:first,Aristotlerecognized thesameexplanatoryintentioninmuthosasinsciencesecondly,hisendoxicmethodallowedforawiderangeofbeliefs,theories,andstories,includingsomelabelled as'muthoi',tocountasdataandnotjustdirectempiricalobservation,assuggestedbyouroriginalpicture.Thejustificationforallowingmuthoibackintotherational foldinthiswayrestedultimatelyonthedoctrineofperiodiccataclysms,whichexplainedwhymuthoicouldcontainrationalinsights.Itisperhapsironicifthisdoctrine todayseemstous,inthepejorativesense,ameremuthos.
24

Itisnodoubtcorrect,asJonathanBarneshasargued(1980:501),thatamongstAristotle'sendoxaarebeliefsthathavenotbeenexplicitlyexpressedbyhispredecessors,beliefs whichheneverthelessascribestothembecausetheyaresimilartoothersexpressedbythemorbecausetheyactinacertainwaythatonewouldexplainintermsofholdingthose beliefsorbecausetheyuselanguageinwhichthosebeliefsarelatent.However,mypointhereisthatAristotlehasreasontobelievethattheinsightsofAristotle'spredecessors frombeforethelastcataclysmwhichwereconcealedandpreservedasmuthoiwereoriginallyexpressedinthewayAristotlewouldexpressthem.Thisiscompatiblewithsaying thatAristotlealsoredescribesmanyoftheviewsofhispredecessorssincethelastcataclysm.Indeed,bothpointsemphasizetheteleologicalmannerinwhichAristotleconceives ofepistemicprogresswithineachcosmiccycle:throughouteachcyclethinkersaregrapplingwiththesameproblems,andtheyeventuallyarriveatthesamecorrectviewsatthe endofeachcyclebecauseoftheirinbornpotentialitytograspthetruth.ThisisboththereasonwhyAristotlemightthinkthatheisentitledtorephrasetheviewsofhis predecessorswithinthiscycleinhisterms(whichtheyareobviously,asAristotleseesit,onthewaytowardsformulating)andthereasonwhyhemightthinkthathis predecessorsinthepreviouscycleactuallydevelopedtheirthinkingtoapointwheretheysolvedtheproblemsusingthecorrectAristotelianterms.