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N2
V2 = N V1
1
Magnetic Flux
in Fig. 4 as an example:
Figure 4
Let’s assume that we
measured the primary current and found that it was 1 Ampere. We
know that the current ratio is the inverse of the voltage ratio. This
means that if the voltage drops in half, then the current must
increase by a factor of 2. This means that the current in the
secondary winding is 2 Amperes.
Page 12-6 Electro - Principles I
ETEC 1120 The Transformer
By formula, if we know the primary current, the primary voltage
and the secondary voltage , then the secondary current is
V1
I2 = V I1
2
N2
I2 =
N1 I1
Note the two dots in each of the schematic diagrams. (See Figure
5) The two dots at the top of the windings indicate an “in phase”
relationship between the input and output.
The lower diagram has one dot at the top and one dot at the
bottom indicating a 180O phase shift from input to output.
Electro - Principles I Page 12-7
V1pk VD 1
0.7V
VL
(V2pk - 0.7)
IF
Figure 6
Positive Half Cycle
Basic Operation During the positive half cycle of the input, diode
D1 is forward biased and provides a path for the
current through the load. This allows a voltage VL to develop
across the load resistor (RL). This voltage is approximately equal
to V2pk - 0.7 V (using the practical diode).
During the negative half cycle, the diode D1 is reverse biased and
no current flows through the load resistor (RL) Now the voltage VL
is approximately 0 and the voltage across the diode VD1 is the peak
secondary voltage V2pk.
-V2pk
VD1 = -V2pk
RL VL = 0
-V1pk
Figure 7
Negative Half Cycle
Electro - Principles I Page 12-9
+V2pk
Secondary
Voltage 0V
-V2
+V2pk - 0.7 V
Output 0V
Figure 8
Input & Output Waveforms
Negative Half Wave Rectifiers
In Fig. 9, the diode is reversed.
RL
The diode is reverse biased on the
positive half cycles and is forward
biased on the negative half cycles.
As a result, the positive half cycle
is eliminated at the output.The
operating principles are exactly the
same as before, only now the Figure 9
output has been reversed.
The direction of the diode determines whether the output of the
rectifier is positive or negative. For circuit recognition, the
following statements will generally hold true:
1) When the diode points toward the load, the output from the
rectifier will be positive.
Either equation will find Vave. This is also called the dc equivalent
voltage for our half wave rectifier. Keep in mind that this formula
finds Vave for our half wave rectifier only.
Equivalent DC Voltage Vave
+V2pk
Secondary
Voltage
0V
Output
Voltage V ave = 0.318 Vpk
0V
Figure 10
Example 3-5 (page 92) finds Vave.for the half wave rectifier.
Average Load Current
Just as we can convert a peak voltage to average voltage, we can
also a peak current to an average current. The value of the average
load current is the value that would be measured by a dc ammeter.
This value is called the equivalent dc current.
Page 12-12 Electro - Principles I
ETEC 1120 The Half Wave Rectifier
Average Load Current (Cont)
The value of Iave can be calculated in one of two ways:
I ave = Vave
RL
2) We can convert Ipk to Iave using the following equations.
+
VL
_
Figure 13
- D 2
Figure 13 above shows the operation during the
positive half cycle of the full wave rectifier. Note that
D1 is forward biased and D2 is reverse biased. Note the
direction of the current through the load. Also note
that the voltage at point (A) is one half of V2 when
measured to ground. This is because the transformer is
centre - tapped and only half of the secondary winding Output
is in use during each half cycle. Since 0.7V is dropped Waveform
across the forward biased diode, the voltage appearing
across the load is one half of V2 minus 0.7 V.
During the negative half cycle, (Fig. 14) the
polarity reverses. D2 is forward biased and D1 is
reverse biased. Note that the direction of current
through the load has not changed even though the
secondary voltage has changed polarity. Thus another
positive half cycle is produced across the load.
V2(PK)
Negative V2(PK) - 0.7 V
2
Half Cycle -
D1
+
VL
_
+
D2 Figure 14
Electro - Principles I Page 12-15
RL
D2
Figure 15
Secondary
Voltage 0V
Output 0V
D1=on
+ 12 V(pk) 12 V(pk)
+
PIV 24 V(pk) 12 V
using the RL
Ideal Diode 12 V
D2=off
1:1
Figure 16 _ 12 V(pk) _ +
}
24 V
Page 12-18 Electro - Principles I
ETEC 1120 The Full Wave Bridge Rectifier
The Full Wave Bridge Rectifier
The bridge rectifier (Figure 17) is the most commonly used
rectifier circuit for the following reasons:
D2 D3
V2
D1 D4
Positive
Half Cycle Figure 17
Electro - Principles I Page 12-19
-V2(pk)
D3
D2
V2
D1 D4
Negative
Half Cycle Figure 18
Note that the current passes through 2 diodes on each half cycle.
This means that two diode drops must be accounted for when
calculating the peak load voltage.
VL(pk) = V2 pk)
( - 1.4 V
Figure 19 V2(pk)
D1 D4
+ +
Figure 20 V2(pk)
PIV = V2 pk)
( - 0.7V
Practical Diode
Electro - Principles I Page 12-21
Schematic RL
Diagram
Waveform
Peak Load
Voltage V2(pk) - 0.7V V2(pk) - 0.7V V2(pk) - 1.4V
VL(pk) 2
RL
V1(pk) V2(pk) V1(pk) V2(pk) V1(pk) V2(pk)
120VAC 1 kW 120VAC 120VAC
60 HZ 60 HZ RL 60 HZ RL
1 kW 1 kW
Î Find V1(pk) = 120 V = 169.73 Vp Î Find V1(pk) = Same = 169.73 Vp Î Find V1(pk) = Same = 169.73 Vp
.707
Ï Find V2(pk) = N2 V1(pk) Ï Find V2(pk) = Same = 21.21 Vpk Ï Find V2(pk) = Same = 21.21 Vpk
N1
= 1 169.73 Vpk
8
= 21.21 Vpk
Ð Find the Peak Load Voltage Ð Find the Peak Load Voltage Ð Find the Peak Load Voltage
VL(pk) = V2(pk) - 0.7V VL(pk) = V2(pk) - 0.7V VL(pk) = V2(pk) - 1.4 V
2
= 21.21 Vpk - 0.7 V = 21.21 Vpk - 0.7 V = 21.21 Vpk - 1.4 V
2
VL(pk) = 20.51 Vpk VL(pk) = 19.81 Vpk
= 10.6 Vpk - 0.7 V
VL(pk) = 9.9 Vpk
Ñ Find the DC Load Voltage Ñ Find the DC Load Voltage Ñ Find the DC Load Voltage
Vave or VDC = VL(pk) (.318) Vave or VDC = VL(pk) (.636) Vave or VDC = VL(pk) (.636)
Ò Find the DC Load Current Ò Find the DC Load Current Ò Find the DC Load Current
Iave = Vave Iave = Vave Iave = Vave
RL RL RL
6.52 V 6.3 V 12.6 V
= 1 kW = 1 kW = 1 kW
Ó Find the Peak Inverse Voltage Ó Find the Peak Inverse Voltage Ó Find the Peak Inverse Voltage
Equal to V2(pk) = V2(pk) - 0.7V = V2(pk) - 0.7 V
PIV = 21.21 V 21.21 Vpk - 0.7V PIV = 20.51 V 21.21 Vpk - 0.7 V PIV = 20.51 V
Ô Find the Output Frequency Ô Find the Output Frequency Ô Find the Output Frequency
f out = fin fout = 60 Hz f out = 2fin fout = 120 Hz f out = 2fin fout = 120 Hz
Page 12-24 Electro - Principles I
ETEC 1120 The Filter Capacitor
The Filter Capacitor What is it?
The capacitor is a device consisting essentially of two conducting
surfaces separated by an insulating material.
There is no connection
between the two plates.
Electro - Principles I Page 12-25
With the switch open and the capacitor discharged, the electrons in
the conductive plates are evenly spread throughout the plates and
there are the same number of electrons in each plate.
Electrons repel each other, and this is why they spread evenly.
S1 R
In figure 2, we close the switch.
Suddenly, there is a voltage
pressure across the two plates. 10 V
More electrons would be forced into the negative plate and the
same number of electrons would be forcibly removed from the
positive plate.
Axial Leads
Your parts kit has several capacitors similar these. This
type of capacitor is called an electrolytic capacitor, and
is made by rolling two foils with an dielectric between
them into a cigar shape as shown. Then leads are
attached to each foil and the unit is inserted in a case.
Radial
Leads
Charging & Discharging
How long does it take for the capacitor in the circuit shown to
charge up once the switch is closed?
In 1 time constant, the voltage across the capacitor will rise from 0
Voltage
to 63.2 % of maximum. (by definition)
1 kW
1000mF
Electro - Principles I Page 12-29
% of maximum. For 7
our purposes we can 6
63
consider the 5
4
capacitor fully 37
3
charged. In our 2
1 kW
How long does it take
the capacitor to 1000mF
completely discharge?
Page 12-30 Electro - Principles I
ETEC 1120 The Filter Capacitor
10
In 1 time constant, a 9
fully charged 8
capacitor will 7
63
discharge to 36.8% 56
of its full charge. In 4
37
5 time constants 3
For Example
Charge Current
During the positive half cycle, D1
will conduct, and the capacitor
C1 R
charges rapidly.
L
D1
Disharge
Current
As the input starts to go negative, D1
turns off, and the capacitor will C1 RL
slowly discharge through the load..
Page 12-32 Electro - Principles I
ETEC 1120 The Filter Capacitor
The Filter - Charge & Discharge
There are two distinct time constants in the filter circuit.
! The Charging Time Constant
! The Discharging Time Constant
The Charging Time Constant
In the diagram, if D1 has a forward resistance of 5W, then the RC
time constant is: D 1
t = RC
= (5W)(100 mF)
C R
= 500 ms 1 L
100 mF 1 kW
and the total capacitor charge time is:
T = 5(RC)
= 5(500 ms)
= 2.5 ms
Thus, the capacitor charges to the peak input voltage in 2.5 ms.
The Discharging Time Constant
The discharging path is through the load resistor. The discharge
time constant is:
t = RC
= (1kW)(100 mF)
= 100 ms
and the total capacitor charge time is:
T = 5(RC)
= 5(100 ms)
= 500 ms
Note that the capacitor charges completely is short time (2.5 ms) ,
but it takes 500 ms to discharge. The next charging cycle is
provided by the rectifier long before the capacitor is discharged.
Electro - Principles I Page 12-33
We know that our unfiltered output from the half wave rectifier
looks like this.
Output 0V
If our capacitor charges in 2.5 ms, then it will fully charge on the
first pulse from the rectifier. After the first pulse passes, there is
slightly more than 8 ms before the next pulse from the rectifier
arrives.
When the next pulse does arrive, it charges the capacitor back to
full charge as shown. The red line shows the charge - discharge
waveform at the capacitor.
Output 0V
R = 1500 W (Blue)
R = 1000 W (Red)
R = 500 W (Green)
The red line indicates our 100 mF capacitor that we have used in
the example.
If the charge time becomes too great, then the capacitor may
never reach full charge from the incoming pulses from the
rectifier.
Electro - Principles I Page 12-37
When you first turn the power supply on, the filter capacitor has no
accumulated charge to oppose V2 . For the first instant, the
capacitor appears as a short circuit.
D1 short circuit
C1 RL
100 mF 1 kW
This means that the current in the diodes is limited only by the
transformer secondary winding resistance and the bulk resistance
of the diodes. These resistances are generally very low, which
means that the initial current will be extremely high.
RL
Vr 2
Vr
Vdc
2
t
Page 12-40 Electro - Principles I
ETEC 1120 The Filter Capacitor
Finding VDC To find Vdc:
1 Assume that Vdc =VL(pk)
fC
L1
+ + + + +
RS
VR
RL
D1
If the zener current leaves the allowable range, the zener voltage,
and the load voltage will change.
The key to keeping the load voltage constant is to keep the zener
current within its specified range. (Between IZK & IZM)
Vs RS VZ
VR D1 RL
VR = VS - VZ
IT is the total current passing through RS. Since VZ is known and
VS is known, then the voltage VR can be found by subtraction.
Now since the resistance of RS is known, we can find IT using
Ohm’s Law.
Electro - Principles I Page 12-43
In Figure 2 below note that the total current (IT) splits up and part
passes through the zener diode and the rest passes through the
load.
If we can find the load current, then finding the zener current is
easy since it is simply whatever is left.
The load current is easy to find, since we know the load resistance
and we know the voltage across the load is VZ.
IL = VZ
RL
Vs RS VZ
VR RL
D1
RS
VR = VS - VZ
VZ
IT
VR D1 RL
Figure 2 IZ IL
Now find IZ
IZ = IT IL
Examples 3.18 & 3.19 find these currents.
In Summary:
Example
Solve for the values of Vdc, Vr(out) , and IL
RS
500 W
RL
VZ =10 V 5.1 kW
470 mF ZZ =20 W D1
24 Vac
(rated)
1/ Determine the rms value of the secondary voltage.
IR = VS VZ = 32.55 V 10 V = 45.1 mA
RS 500 W
RS
500 W
RL
470 mF VZ =10 V D1 5.1 kW
24 Vac
(rated) ZZ =20 W
Vr = IR(t) Vr = IR
C fC
45.1 mA (8.33 ms) 45.1 mA
= =
470 mF Or 120 Hz(470 mF)
-3 -3
(45.1 x 10 )(8.33 x 10 ) (45.1 x 10-3)
= -6 =
470 x 10 (120)(470 x 10 )
-6
RS
500 W
RL
470 mF VZ =10 V D1 5.1 kW
24 Vac ZZ =20 W
(rated)
6/ Find Vdc at the output. (this value will be the VZ rating of the
zener diode under normal circumstances.
Vdc = VZ = 10 V
7/ Using the rated value of ZZ, approximate the final output
voltage
Vr(out) = ZZ || RL
ZZ = 20 W Vr
(ZZ || RL) + RS
19.92 W 799 mVp-p
=
19.92 W + 500 W
= 30.61 mVp-p
Page 12-50 Electro - Principles I
ETEC 1120 The Zener Regulator
8/ Using VZ and RL, determine the value of load current.
IL = VZ
RL
10 V
=
5.1 kW
= 1.96 mA