Professional Documents
Culture Documents
ICRC
David Lloyd Roberts
STAYING ALIVE offers expert advice on
security to humanitarian volunteers operating
in conflict zones.
Author David Lloyd Roberts has witnessed
conflict from the viewpoint of both a military
officer and a humanitarian worker. His book
draws on a unique variety of up-to-date
experience.
By explaining the different threats to your
safety, this book lays to rest some of the
mystique surrounding the subject of field
STAYING ALIVE
security.
Yes, there are dangers, but with some basic
understanding of them they can be avoided or
at least substantially reduced. As the old
saying goes, “Knowledge dispels fear.”
You are ultimately the guardian of your own
safety and security. The knowledge provided
by this book puts you in a better position to
draw that critical line between the calculated
and the unacceptable risk, a line that you, and
those in your charge, must never cross.
STAYING ALIVE
Safety and security guidelines
for humanitarian volunteers
in conflict areas
10
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author wishes to acknowledge and thank the following
persons, whose support and encouragement helped greatly in
producing this book.
The International Committee of the Red Cross, for sponsoring
the book.
Philippe Dind, now retired from the ICRC, whose encourage-
ment led to the first edition, and Patrick Brugger, the present
security delegate, whose idea this second edition was.
Ceri Hammond, senior editor at the ICRC’s Communication
Department, and his staff, for their work in coordinating, editing
and publication.
Paul Wehrli, the ICRC’s information-systems operations
coordinator, for his contribution to the telecommunications
chapter.
Colonel Timothy J. Hodgetts (QHP, OStJ, MBBS, MMEd, FRCP,
FRCSEd, FFAEM, FIMCRCSEd, FRGS, L/RAMC), a serving
doctor in the British Army, for writing the chapter on first aid.
Dr Ted Lankester (MA, MB, B Chir, MRCGP Ct), director of
health care at InterHealth, for writing the chapter concerning
health on mission. Dr Lankester is also the author of ‘‘The
Traveller’s Good Health Guide’’ and ‘‘Travel Health in Your
Pocket’’, and with his colleagues acts as travel health adviser to
the British Red Cross and international NGOs.
Major Ken Roberts, a serving environmental health officer in the
British Army with experience in both CBRN issues and
humanitarian/disaster relief, and Ms Anthea Sanyasi,1 health
emergency planning officer for the UK Health Protection
Agency, for cooperating in the writing of the chapter on
chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear hazards.
Eric ‘‘Buche’’ Buschacher, whose cartoons and graphics are as
greatly appreciated now as they were in the first edition.
1
Author of Extreme emergencies: Humanitarian assistance to civilian populations
following chemical, biological, nuclear and explosive incidents --- A Sourcebook,
ITDG Publishing, 2004.
11
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
David Lloyd Roberts (MBE, LLM) is a graduate of the Royal Military
Academy, Sandhurst. He was commissioned into the Parachute
Regiment of the British Army in 1966. His army career took him to
various conflict zones. He was decorated for gallantry by his Queen
in 1972 and was mentioned in dispatches for distinguished service
in 1978. He attended the Army Staff College at Queenscliff,
Australia, in 1977. He holds a master of laws degree in international
human rights law from Essex University in the UK. He is a fellow of
the University of Essex Human Rights Centre. He is a Freeman of
the City of London.
On leaving the Army in 1993, he joined the ICRC as its
operational security adviser and two years later moved to the unit
responsible for promoting international humanitarian law among
the armed forces. He has carried out ICRC missions to Abkhazia,
Afghanistan, Angola, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bangladesh, Burundi,
Cambodia, China, East Timor, Eritrea, Ethiopia, the former
Yugoslavia, Fiji, Georgia, India, Israel and the occupied and
autonomous territories, Mongolia, Nepal, North Korea, Pakistan,
Papua New Guinea, the Philippines, Rwanda, Somalia, Sri Lanka,
Taiwan and Zaire.
Mr Roberts has witnessed armed conflict from both the military and
humanitarian perspective. This book draws on his unique experi-
ence to offer guidelines to humanitarian volunteers so that they
might carry out their important work more safely and securely.
Following on from the success of the first edition of ‘‘Staying
Alive’’, published in 1999, this revised and updated version
encompasses new and developing threats such as the one posed
by chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear hazards, as well as
new chapters on first aid, staying healthy on mission and the
protection afforded to humanitarian volunteers by international law.
His other publications include a handbook on the law of war for the
Indian armed forces (1996), an article on training armed forces in
the law of war (International Review of the Red Cross, No. 319,
July-August 1997) and ‘‘The Law of Armed Conflict’’, a 12-chapter
training manual for armed and security forces, published by the
ICRC in 2002.
13
Mr Roberts retired from the ICRC in 2003 and is now a consultant
and lecturer in international humanitarian law, human rights law and
security issues in humanitarian endeavour.
14
FOREWORD
Security is an important concern for those engaged in humanitarian
action. The International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) is
anxious to give to its staff all possible training and guidance in this
field. That is the purpose of this book by David Lloyd Roberts.
Mr Roberts joined the ICRC in 1993 on a three-month contract.
When he recently retired from full-time duties, the three months had
grown to 11 years. Mr Roberts advised the ICRC on practical
security and safety measures for present-day conflicts. Over the
years his extensive military experience and thorough knowledge of
the organization’s working methods have enabled the ICRC to
make considerable progress in this field. He was also involved in
promoting knowledge of the law of armed conflict among armed
forces personnel, as well as remaining ‘‘on call’’ for security
missions.
In 1999 it was suggested that he should write a book specifically
aimed at humanitarian staff working in conflict areas. The book
would deal with the dangers and lay down safety guidelines. More
general matters such as threat assessment, security concepts and
a number of security-management aspects were deliberately not
included so as not to overburden an already dense text. In addition,
the author confined himself to areas in which the ICRC could make
a valuable contribution because of its unique status.
The resulting book, ‘‘Staying Alive’’, has been a great success and
demand for it has prompted the ICRC to ask Mr Roberts to write a
revised and updated edition. The result is here before you. It retains
all the successful elements of the first edition, most importantly its
user-friendly presentation of practical advice. Its wealth of
information is intended as much for the staff of other humanitarian
organizations as for ICRC personnel. A greater awareness of
security-related issues will in some cases help avert incidents and
in most cases lessen their consequences.
The new edition reflects the ever-changing conflict environment in
which humanitarians have to work. It deals with new threats such as
nuclear, chemical and biological weapons, and encompasses wider
issues not covered in the first edition such as protection of
humanitarian volunteers under international law and practical life-
15
saving first aid. The telecommunications chapter includes advice on
the use of modern equipment such as mobile phones.
I am grateful to David Lloyd Roberts and all those other contributors
who have generously given of their time in the production of this
book. I hope it will play an important part in enhancing the safety of
ICRC delegates and other humanitarian staff.
Jakob Kellenberger
ICRC President
16
INTRODUCTION
At the outset it is perhaps important to focus on the title and aim of
this book. It is not being written for any specific non-governmental
organization (NGO) or humanitarian organization. Every organiza-
tion has its own particular rules and regulations and the reader will
naturally be expected to implement them. The aim of this book is to
highlight the common features of safety and security that apply or
could apply to us when working in conflict areas. It will attempt to
explain in layman’s terms the dangers we might face and some of
the likely threats to our work.
Through explanation we can hopefully lay to rest some of the
mystique surrounding the subject. Yes, there are dangers, but if
you have a basic understanding of them, they can be avoided, or
certainly dramatically reduced. As the old saying goes, “Knowl-
edge dispels fear.” Since you are ultimately the guardian of your
own safety and security, knowledge also puts you in a better
position to define that important line which it is perhaps too
dangerous for you, and those in your charge, to cross.
Humanitarian workers ---- especially new volunteers ---- are bom-
barded (even before they reach the conflict zone!) with a plethora of
good advice, rules, regulations and check-lists. My aim is certainly
not to burden you further. On the contrary, it is to combine the main
features of these rules in one simple and useful book.
Before going on, I should like to make a few points about terms
used in the title.
GUIDELINES
This is important. These are not rules. Rules will no doubt be issued
by your own organization. For example, “No driving at night in such-
and-such a place,” or “Because of the curfew, be in your house by
such-and-such a time.” These are quite clear and should be
obeyed.
Guidelines, on the other hand, are just that: the best available
advice in a general setting or situation. They should be viewed as
such and not as the definitive answer to every problem. For
example, one might suggest that if caught in the open with artillery
17
shells falling very close to you, the best guideline would be to get
out of your vehicle and take cover. However, if 20 metres in front of
you there is a tunnel through a mountain, you would be very wise to
put your foot down and seek its protection! Therefore, please
combine the contents of this book with your own common sense
and judgement.
There are times in this book when guidelines might become obvious
rules, e.g. “Do not touch a mine.” In such cases the “Do not” will
be clearly highlighted.
VOLUNTEERS
Remember, you have volunteered for this work.
In conflict there is inherent danger. You owe it to yourself to know
what those dangers are and how to minimize them.
CONFLICT AREAS
The book deals only with conflict areas. The subjects covered are
therefore fairly specific and do not encompass the other wide-
ranging areas of humanitarian work such as disaster relief. It is
nevertheless well to remember that relative calm and tranquillity in
our modern world can quickly disintegrate into violence. Also, some
of the topics are relevant in whatever theatre you find yourself:
basic security measures against crime, use of the radio, fire
precautions, etc.
We hope this book will be of some assistance to you in your vital
work of assisting the victims of armed conflict.
ADJUSTING
Your normal routine and behaviour will have to be adjusted to deal
with your new situation. Fine words... but what do they mean?
Let’s be honest with ourselves and then make the necessary
adjustment. Imagine that you are walking down the main street of
your home town on a wonderfully sunny Saturday morning. You
have the whole weekend to look forward to. Your mind is in neutral,
you are relaxing ---- and why not? Or you are driving home from the
office. The car radio is playing some pleasant music and you are
thinking of your busy day. On routine occasions like this you might
not actually be fully aware of exactly where you are; you are just
wandering around or driving bumper to bumper as you do every
day.
In your new situation, in addition to the fact that free weekends are
rare, you cannot simply behave as you are used to doing.
In your new town or in the field, you must always be aware of exactly
what is happening around you. You must be alert. You must try to
think ahead, to avoid problems and possible danger. Always know
where you are and where you are going. Getting lost could put you
in danger. Take an interest in the immediate surroundings of the
area through which you are travelling; think about where you might
take shelter or find cover if you need it. This represents quite a big
19
change from your normal behaviour and lifestyle. If you make a
conscious effort, it is surprising how quickly you will adjust and, as a
result, be much safer in your new environment.
BE INQUISITIVE
Seek information about your new environment. Ask about the risks
or threats to your security.
In the turmoil of the operation under way, the newcomer is
sometimes not well briefed. Don’t be afraid or embarrassed to ask
questions. Ask your boss, your colleagues, the local staff, local
people and even the armed forces. Get as much information as you
can as it is one of the best ways to safeguard your security.
THE AIM
Make the aim clear at the outset and then look at security factors
that might affect the degree to which you achieve it.
Ask yourself questions such as: “Whom do we intend to assist?
With which parties to the conflict is it essential to establish
relations?” The answers will give you an idea of the risks involved in
achieving your aim and help you plan how to work as safely as
possible.
21
CHAPTER 2
2
The generally accepted definitions of these terms are those put forward by the
ICRC to the first Conference of Government Experts in 1971. See Conference of
Government Experts, documents submitted by the ICRC, Title V, Protection of
Victims of Non-international Armed Conflicts,1971, p.79.
25
. large-scale measures restricting personal freedom, such as
exile, assigned residence, displacement;
. allegations of forced disappearances;
. increase in the number of acts of violence (such as
sequestration and hostage taking) which endanger defence-
less persons or spread terror among the civilian population;
. harassment of journalists and lawyers representing detai-
nees and suspects, and of others who may draw attention to
repression;
. allegations of unlawful killings.
Violence can come from many kinds of groups, ranging from armed
gangs, bandits and militants to violent sections of the civilian
population opposing government forces. The nature of the violence
is difficult to predict. Militias, gangs and even individuals often work
in a ‘‘freelance’’ manner, engaging in constantly shifting alliances.
There may be no clear command structure and it may be very
difficult to negotiate one’s safety or to rely on any guarantees
obtained. There might be little respect for humanitarian workers or
for what they are trying to achieve. Indeed, we can become targets
because there is a misunderstanding about who or what we
represent. These groups might be eager to steal our vehicles,
equipment and supplies. In response to the threat, humanitarians in
such circumstances might adopt a low profile and be much more
26
discreet; we might reduce our visibility (e.g. by foregoing the use of
emblems and using unmarked cars); we might vary our routes and
times of travel.
In such situations of anarchy, with a complete breakdown of law
and order, the safety and security of our people becomes an
overriding concern. There is a balance to be struck in such an
environment between the time and effort spent on remaining
secure and what, if anything, we can achieve. It is a balance that
must be constantly borne in mind by those in authority, particularly
heads of office in the field.
The situation of humanitarians in such an environment is
characterized by the following:
. humanitarian work certainly needed, but extremely difficult to
meet that need;
. very high level of risk, perhaps bordering on the unacceptable;
. severely restricted ability to work;
. security based more on technical elements such as active or
passive protection than on actual acceptance by all parties.
3
The future of humanitarian action: Implications of Iraq and other recent crises.
Report of an International Mapping Exercise, Feinstein International Famine
Centre, Tufts University, January 2004, p.5.
29
We should not overreact. We should naturally focus on the reasons
for the deterioration in certain countries since we need to be better
informed about the threat and why it exists in the first place. We
need to get to know better the groups that may target humanitarian
agencies in order to understand their perception of us, their
motivation and the communities with which they interact. We need
to develop new ways of networking with all those who can influence
the conflict so that we can continue our work and enhance our
acceptability.
4
The latest ECHO study defines scope for humanitarian action (or, as ECHO calls
it, ‘‘humanitarian space’’) as follows: ‘‘the access and freedom for humanitarian
organizations to assess and meet humanitarian needs’’. See Echo Security
Review 2004, p.71, http://europa.eu.int/comm/echo/index_en.htm.
The Inter-Agency Standing Committee Working Group (IASC-WG) makes these
important additional remarks essential to any definition: ‘‘The delivery of
humanitarian assistance to all populations in need must be neutral and impartial
--- it must come without political or military conditions and humanitarian staff must
not take sides in disputes or political positions.’’ See IASC Reference Paper,
Civil-military relations in complex emergencies, 28 June 2004, p.8.
5
Some organizations prefer the term ‘‘humanitarian action’’ as it more accurately
describes the type and scope of humanitarian activities.
30
are not perceived as neutral, their impartiality and trustworthiness
will obviously be in doubt. Their access to people in need, as well as
their own security, will be jeopardized. Associating with a military
force in a conflict zone --- however indirectly and unavoidably --- will
imply to some that the agency in question sides with one group
against another. When this association is perceived as having
grown too close, local hostility may result. Examples are the former
Yugoslavia in the 1990s, Somalia in 1993 and, more recently,
Afghanistan and Iraq.
INTEGRATED OPERATIONS
Closely linked with the blurring issue is the relatively new and highly
charged debate over ‘‘integrated operations’’. The need for
‘‘coherence’’ is something often heard in this debate. The idea is
to achieve increased efficiency or economies of scale on UN
operations by streamlining the military, political and humanitarian
effort.
Broadly speaking, the military and UN see ‘‘integration’’ as the way
of using humanitarian action to the best possible advantage, i.e.
from a political, military and humanitarian perspective. Those who
support the idea argue that such operations need not impose
restrictions on humanitarian organizations and that within the
32
integrated mission framework there is still room for separation
between the military, political, and humanitarian components in a
given scenario.
Humanitarians tend to see the issue in a slightly different light. They
once had their own ‘‘dimension’’ to operate in, but this is being
eroded. This erosion has resulted in a blurring of and confusion
about their task of working in an independent neutral and impartial
way for the benefit of the victims. They believe this has had a
negative impact on their security. For humanitarians, the ‘‘integra-
tion’’ concept represents a worrying example of the merging of
humanitarian and political agendas by suggesting the need for an
overall command-and-control structure that uses humanitarian aid
as ‘‘one tool in the toolbox’’ of conflict management.6
The integrated mission concept is intruding into the humanitarian
dimension and compromising the core principles of impartiality,
neutrality and independence. It is difficult, for example, to see how
integrated operations would fit into the concept of neutrality of
most humanitarian organizations. Humanitarians could hardly
object to being involved in the coordination of a complex operation.
However being subjected to outside command and control is
another matter. The debate goes on!
6
HPN Network Paper, A bridge too far: Aid agencies and the military in humanitarian
response, J. Barry with A. Jefferys, ODI 2002, p. 8. Also cited in VENRO Position
Paper, Armed forces as humanitarian aid workers, May 2003, p.7.
33
bandits and criminals with the greatest caution. Do not resist if they
attempt to rob you.
CHILD SOLDIERS
It is an unfortunate feature of modern conflicts that more and more
child soldiers are being used by belligerents. International
humanitarian law prohibits recruitment into the armed forces of
children under the age of 15. However, that law is often violated.
These children can pose a considerable threat to humanitarian
workers, particularly when they are trying to impress their superiors
and even more particularly when they are fed a diet of alcohol and
drugs. Treat these child soldiers with the utmost caution and if
possible give them a wide berth.
34
CHAPTER 3
PROTECTION AFFORDED
BY INTERNATIONAL HUMANITARIAN LAW
Humanitarians operating in hostile environments do so under the
protection of international law. The aim in this section is not to turn
all humanitarian volunteers into lawyers. Rather it is to draw your
attention to some of the key elements of international humanitarian
law specifically designed to protect you and the victims of armed
conflict. It will also let you know where you can get further
information if you need it.
7
Available at www.icrc.org. The four Geneva Conventions of 1949 are intended to
protect the victims of armed conflict. The First Geneva Convention deals with the
wounded and sick in armed forces on land, the Second with the wounded, sick
and shipwrecked at sea, the Third with the treatment of prisoners of war, and the
Fourth with protection for civilians in wartime. Additional Protocol I of 1977 deals
with international armed conflicts. Additional Protocol II deals with non-
international armed conflicts.
8
Additional Protocol I, Article 48. See also Articles 17 and 51.
9
Article 8, 2(b) (i) & (iii) --- War Crimes. For full text, see http://www.un.org/law/
icc/statute/romefra.htm.
10
Available at http:www.un.org/law/cod/safety.htm.
36
UN Security Council resolution 1502,11 which was adopted in
2003 following the bombing of the UN compound in Baghdad,
reaffirmed that killing humanitarian aid workers is a war crime. All
UN members have a responsibility to end impunity and bring to
justice those who commit these crimes.
HUMANITARIAN AID
Humanitarians should be aware of the rules relating to humanitarian
aid, in particular the controls that can be applied by the military
and the safety and security provisions obliging the military to
protect humanitarians during delivery of that aid. You should also
understand that the warring parties must allow the free passage of
all consignments of humanitarian aid essential to the survival of the
civilian population, even if destined for the ‘‘enemy’s’’ population.
Examples of such aid are medical and hospital supplies, essential
food, clothing, bedding, materials for shelter, particular items of
food and medicine required for children, expectant mothers and
maternity cases. The armed forces of the warring parties can make
technical arrangements for transport through their territory such as
the routes and timetables for convoys. They can satisfy themselves
that the supplies are exclusively of a humanitarian and impartial
nature (i.e. they could not be used for hostile purposes nor give any
military advantage to an opponent) and that they cannot be diverted
from their intended destination. The relief personnel participating in
such missions are subject to the approval of the party in whose
territory they will carry out their work. The convoys can be
searched. Whilst conducting the relief mission, the humanitarian
organization must take into account the security requirements of
the party in whose territory they are operating. If they do not, the
mission may be terminated. The parties to an armed conflict must
guarantee the safety of humanitarian relief convoys in their territory
and facilitate the rapid distribution of aid.12
It is important to know the responsibilities of an occupying power
under international humanitarian law. An occupying power must fill
11
See full text at http://www.un.org/Docs/sc/unsc_resolutions03.html.
12
Fourth Geneva Convention, Art.23; Additional Protocol I, Art. 69-71; Additional
Protocol II, Art. 18.
37
the administrative vacuum and assume special responsibilities for
administering the occupied territory and for meeting the civilian
population’s needs from a humanitarian viewpoint. The Fourth
Geneva Convention specifies the duty of an occupying power to
ensure the adequate provision of food and medical supplies,13 and
the maintenance of public health in the territory that it controls. All
parties to the conflict are obliged to allow the ICRC or any other
impartial humanitarian organization to undertake its own humani-
tarian relief actions (GC IV, Art. 59).
13
Fourth Geneva Convention, Art. 55.
14
The full text can be found on the ICRC’s international humanitarian law website at
http://www.icrc.org/ihl.
38
Not all States have yet ratified the Ottawa Convention.15 It would
therefore also be useful to know something about the mine-related
responsibilities of warring parties under an earlier treaty, i.e. Protocol
II (as amended) to the 1980 Convention on Certain Conventional
Weapons. This is particularly important because whereas the Ottawa
Convention deals with anti-personnel mines, this Protocol lays down
rules for the ongoing problems caused by anti-tank (or anti-vehicle)
mines, booby traps and other devices. In particular, it requires that the
parties to a conflict protect the following from the effects of mines,
booby traps and other devices:
. United Nations peacekeeping forces or observer missions,
and UN humanitarian or fact-finding missions;
. operations of the International Committee of the Red Cross,
of National Red Cross or Red Crescent Societies, of their
International Federation or of similar humanitarian missions;
. any operation by an impartial humanitarian organization.
15
You can find out exactly which States have ratified a particular treaty by going to
the ICRC website and clicking on ‘‘States party to the various treaties’’.
16
Amended Protocol II to the 1980 Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons,
Art. 12. Again, for the full text, see the ICRC’s humanitarian law website.
39
as the Protocol on Explosive Remnants of War,17 it requires
(among other things) the States party to it to:
. mark and clear, remove or destroy explosive remnants of war
in territory under their control;
. take all feasible precautions to protect the civilian population,
including humanitarian missions and organizations operating
in their territory, from the risks and effects of explosive
remnants of war;
. where feasible, provide information on the location of those
remnants when requested to do so by such organizations.
SAFETY ZONES
Humanitarians and indeed the military should be aware of the law
concerning the establishment of ‘‘safety zones’’ or ‘‘protected
areas’’. These are designed to protect the civilian or military victims of
conflict from the effects of hostilities. They include such options as
the creation of hospital zones and localities,18 neutralized zones,19
non-defended localities,20 and perhaps the better-known demilitar-
ized zones.21
The law is there to
protect humanitar-
ian workers as well
as the victims of
armed conflict.
You must regard
knowledge of the
more relevant as-
pects of the law as
important to your
safety.
17
Protocol on Explosive Remnants of War (Protocol V to the 1980 Convention),
28 November 2003. Again full details can be found on the ICRC website.
18
First Geneva Convention, Art 23.
19
Second Geneva Convention, Art 15
20
Additional Protocol I, Art 59.
21
Additional Protocol I, Art 60.
40
CHAPTER 4
THE MAJOR THREATS
TO YOUR SAFETY AND SECURITY
We will now look at the major threats to your safety. They exist at all
the levels of conflict outlined before. It could be argued that the
threat of air attack is most unlikely in low-intensity conflict. However,
you will remember that helicopter gunships were used in Somalia, for
example. Obviously they were not directed at humanitarian workers
but, nevertheless, finding yourself by accident or misfortune in an
area under such attack is clearly dangerous. Therefore, all the threats
outlined below should be taken seriously by you.
We will look at:
. mines, both anti-personnel and anti-tank;
. artillery, mortars and rockets;
. snipers and general gunfire;
. ambushes;
. improvised explosive devices;
. grenades;
. booby traps;
. unexploded military ordnance (ammunition);
. depleted uranium munitions;
. the threat from the air.
ANTI-PERSONNEL MINES
Anti-personnel mines (AP
mines) are designed to cause
injury to people rather than to
equipment. They can have a
major psychological effect on a
military opponent. They slow
him down and take a long time
to locate and clear. They might
be laid in conjunction with anti-
tank mines or by themselves.
41
To be effective, they are unlikely to be laid as single mines but rather
in groups. (In the following drawings other familiar objects are
sketched simply to give an idea of scale.)
The pressure mine. You
step on it, or a vehicle drives
over it, and it explodes. It is
generally round in shape, 60-
100 mm in diameter (about the
size of a doughnut or Camem-
bert cheese) and 40-60 mm in
height. Older types are made
of metal but most modern ones are made of plastic, making them
very difficult to detect. They are made to blend into their
surroundings, being green, brown, grey, etc. in colour.
Some exceptions to the classic
pressure mine are as follows.
The wooden or plastic rec-
tangular AP mine. This is
shaped like a pencil box
140 mm long and 30 mm high.
43
around 60 degrees. Instead of a casing with chocolate-bar grooves,
small metal balls are packed into explosive and encased in plastic.
The mine (the same colour as the others) sits just above the ground
on its own set of legs. It can be set off by a trip wire or by an electrical
detonation-command wire. This wire stretching away from the AP
mine can run for a considerable distance. The person setting off the
mine waits in safety for his target to appear, touches the wire to a
battery or presses a switch, and off it goes, showering its target with
high-speed metal balls.
ANTI-TANK MINES
Anti-tank mines are designed to disable heavy vehicles. They are
normally laid in fairly large numbers to achieve their aim. Quite often
you will see up to six of them laid across roads or kept at the ready
near road-blocks so that they can be placed across if necessary. In
an active conflict zone you can be fairly sure that mines of this type
will be kept under observation or, as the military say, “covered by
fire”. They are valuable weapons and they are protecting valuable
routes or objectives. The
people who planted them
won’t let the location of
such mines out of their
sight; otherwise, some-
one might come along
and remove them! The
point is this: when in an
active zone never as-
sume that you are not
being observed, even if you can’t see anyone. Do not go too close to
such mines. And, obviously, never, on any account, touch them.
You could get an immediate and highly unwelcome response. In
areas where the fighting is finished, the mines may remain in place
though their guardians are long gone. Nevertheless, you should not
yield to the temptation to interfere with or even touch them.
Some important features of anti-tank mines:
. much larger than anti-personnel mines, with a diameter/
length of up to 300 mm (the size of a dinner plate) and a
height of up to 110 mm;
. square or round in shape;
. made of plastic or metal;
44
. coloured the same as AP mines, i.e. dark, camouflaged;
. detonated by the pressure of a heavy vehicle passing over
them (just remember, your vehicle is heavy!);
. occasionally detonated by a tilt rod sticking out from the top
of the mine and sometimes attached to trip wires.
Just as these mines are normally watched, they are also further
protected by surrounding the area with anti-personnel mines ----
another good reason to keep away.
They may have anti-handling devices built into them: touch them
and they go... off!
45
Take a guide with you: a local administrator, for example. Ideally
your guide should be in his own vehicle driving in front, so that he is
responsible for you. If he doesn’t want to go, then don’t go yourself!
You should not use a track or road that is new to you unless you are
certain others have used it recently. Try not to be the first vehicle to
take a road in the morning. Wait and see whether locals are using it;
then go. Always wear your seat belt. Avoid driving at night.
Never attempt to move or even touch a mine.
Remember, mines can be attached to trip wires. So don’t even
attempt a closer look.
If you are in the lead vehicle
and you spot mines, stop
immediately and inform the
second vehicle.
If you are unable to stop in
time and find yourself in an
area of anti-personnel
mines, the best plan is to
carefully reverse out, if pos-
sible retracing your tracks.
Your vehicle will give you a
certain amount of protec-
tion. With a team member looking out the rear window and guiding
you, reverse out slowly and carefully.
Do not try to turn your vehicle round. Do not get out of your vehicle.
If a road is obviously blocked by something (for example, a tree or a
vehicle) in a likely mined area, do not be tempted to drive onto the
verge or hard shoulder to get by. It could contain mines. Turn back.
47
undamaged house, for example. The mines would not be placed at
the front entrance ---- that would be too obvious ---- but at a side
window perhaps, or by a well, or under a shady tree. The mine might
be attached by a trip wire to an attractive object. Ask yourself why
such an object is still there! A wise person will leave it alone.
Country tracks. These are very dangerous. Mines could have
been laid some time ago and be very difficult to see. Keep to main
or secondary paved roads.
Gardens and cultivated areas. Mines could well have been laid
to provide protection and early warning for the inhabitants or
defenders. They could also be placed in tempting orchards,
vineyards or vegetable plots.
Be on your guard against “cleared areas”. The military may declare an
area clear of mines, but they cannot be 100% certain. Roads, main
squares, etc. might be clear but it requires an enormous number of
men to physically clear even a small village. In one country I visited,
three anti-personnel mines (as of the time I was there) had been found
in the garden of an NGO house. It had been declared “cleared”.
48
Remember, if you identify a mined area or are informed of one, spread
the information to all interested parties including, obviously, other
humanitarian organizations in your area. Record the information and
mark it on your maps.
50
THE THREAT FROM ARTILLERY,
ROCKETS AND MORTAR FIRE
Let us now look at the threat posed to you in areas where artillery,
mortar and rocket fire might be used. We will very briefly describe
the various weapons. Much more important to you is a basic idea of
how they are used. With this knowledge you will then see how best
to minimize the risk.
ARTILLERY
The term “artillery” covers a rather wide range of weapons. For our
purposes it is sufficient to be aware of the following types of
artillery.
51
Rocket launchers. These come in small portable varieties, with a
range of 8 km, to much larger self-propelled versions that can fire
to 50 km. Multiple rocket launchers consist of rows of barrels that
can put down very heavy concentrations of fire. These weapons are
also called “grads”. They contain rows of launching tubes so as to
saturate an entire area. Often they simply fire single rounds. The
weapon is not accurate. It is very difficult to predict exactly where
the rockets will land.
52
MORTARS
These weapons are gener-
ally much lighter and more
portable than those des-
cribed already.
The most common mortars
are the 80 mm, with a range
of 6 km, and the 120 mm,
with a similar range but
much larger and more effec-
tive shell.
54
Having used these single shells to adjust his fire, the artillery man
fires a number of shells onto the target.
Bear in mind that this process could entail a number of shells
landing before the actual target is reached.
The other type of fire is “predicted” fire, which is much less
accurate. Here the target position is worked out from a map. As
accurate a grid reference as possible is given to the guns. Account
is taken of wind direction, air pressure, etc. The variables are
computed, the sights adjusted and the guns fire. Though less
accurate, this is nevertheless effective if all you really want to do is
harass a town or village. By computing the coordinates for the
centre of the town, you have a good chance of making your shells
land close enough to cause damage and fear.
WHAT IS A SNIPER?
In military terms a sniper is a highly skilled and highly trained
rifleman. Not only is he chosen for his shooting skills, a sniper must
also have a particular temperament to carry out his task.
Essentially he acts independently in areas of extreme risk. He must
be a very cool, self-assured character and an expert at field craft,
camouflage and concealment. His task is normally to make his way
stealthily to front-line or other target positions. He then hides and
56
awaits his target. He might have to remain in place for many days.
His training takes about three months. After that he is required to
continuously practise his skills. In military terms he is very much an
expert and tends to be employed only at this one task.
WARNING SHOTS
Shots might be fired close to you to warn you off. We cannot
possibly imagine every scenario, but this has happened to me. We
were approaching a small village to assess the needs of the
inhabitants. As we reached the outskirts we saw mines at the side
of the road. We stopped short of the mines. Almost immediately
shots rang out over our heads. We quickly left the vehicle and took
cover in a house. The shots were very close but not actually aimed
at us. How did we know? Apart from the fact that neither we nor the
vehicle got hit, we could hear that very distinctive “crack” of the
bullet passing overhead. (This “crack”, like the noise made by a
whip, is a clear indication that a bullet is very close to you, close
60
enough so that you should not argue the point. Hissing or whining
sounds do represent passing bullets, but they are some distance
from you.) The combination of unmanned mines and the shots fired
gave us the clear message that we were not welcome. There were
no more shots and after 15 minutes we ran to our vehicle and
reversed away from the mines and returned to base. A clear
warning was issued by firing close to us. You should recognize the
combination of signs ---- though they may not always be the same ----
and not press on.
In summary:
. Avoid sniper zones.
. Develop an awareness of cover and use it if needed.
. Always think ahead.
. If attacked, and if at all possible, drive through.
. Be decisive.
. Don’t be curious.
. Learn to recognize warning shots and don’t press on regard-
less of them.
REACTING TO AN AMBUSH
If you are caught in a deliberate ambush, it goes without saying that
you are in an extremely dangerous situation. Your options might be
limited to the following:
62
. If you are the lead vehicle (the one directly targeted), the only
real option you have is to drive through, if at all possible, as fast
as your vehicle will go, with passengers taking cover by lying
flat. It might be possible to drive off the road to the right or left,
but this will be unlikely if the ambush has been skilfully sited.
. If the driver is hit or the vehicle is immobilized, the remaining
passengers should attempt to ‘‘bomb-burst’’ (scatter) out of
the vehicle in as many directions as possible and keep going
until they are well away from the danger area.
. If you are the second vehicle (i.e. if you are not yet directly
targeted), then you should immediately remove yourself from
the danger area (known as the ‘‘killing zone’’) either by
reversing, turning left or right or simply stopping and allowing
your passengers to get out and scatter away from the danger.
AVOIDING GRENADES
If you find yourself near a grenade incident, take the same action as
described above. Get out of your vehicle, take cover and avoid the
possibility of indiscriminate fire.
If a hand grenade is thrown at you, and you are lucky enough to have
seen it coming or hitting the ground, remember that you do have a
very short time before it explodes. The blast from hand grenades
tends to travel upwards and outwards, in shape of an inverted cone.
Therefore, the best action you can take in the brief seconds
available to you is immediately to throw yourself flat on the ground
or into a ditch, or dive behind some form of cover. Do not run for
cover. You have to get down immediately. Shout ‘‘Grenade!’’ to
warn your colleagues of the danger. It is also useful to cover your
ears! Following the explosion, it might be wise to wait a minute or so
to ensure that no more grenades have been thrown. If the grenade
fails to detonate, keep well away from it.
67
Grills across a window or a metal chain link fence are useful in
protecting against grenades. Either they will simply bounce back or
they will go off at a safe distance from you.
22
A few websites provide details of where DU has been used in conflict. Websites
containing helpful information are: http://www.unep.ch/balkans/ (UNEP), http://
www.nato.int/du/ (NATO) and US Department of Defense websites regarding
the Gulf and Iraq wars.
23
The possible health effects of exposure to DU have been compiled by WHO and are
available on their website at http://www.who.int/ionizing_radiation/env/du/en.
71
THE THREAT FROM THE AIR
Aerial attack is perhaps the most frightening and most difficult
danger to deal with. It can come in two forms: from “fixed-wing
aircraft” or from helicopters. The real problem is the speed and
therefore the lack of warning. With high-speed jets, the first sign of
trouble might be the deafening roar as the aircraft actually flies over
your position. Even with slower helicopters, when they fly low
following the ground’s contours, their sound is muffled and warning
can be very short. Once again, direct targeting of humanitarian
organizations is most unlikely. Pilots are expensive to train and the
aircraft they fly are extremely valuable. They will be used against
priority military targets and not wasted. So is there a problem?
Unfortunately, yes.
In highly sophisticated air forces, precision bombing and other
attacks are a speciality. The forces involved have the necessary
equipment and, equally important, the training needed to use that
equipment. Often these days we hear of laser-guided bombs, etc.
As we know from the Gulf war, however, even the most advanced
precision weapons are not fool-proof: mistakes are made and
civilians, unfortunately, killed. In the lower levels of conflict there are
simply no such weapons or the training to use them. Aircraft might
drop bombs on a town from high altitude to avoid missiles. The
results on the ground will therefore be entirely indiscriminate.
Often, the bombs used are designed less to destroy precise
military targets than to create terror and panic in the population as a
whole. Examples are incendiary bombs and cluster bombs
containing hundreds of smaller bomblets that scatter and create
extensive damage.
74
Marking buildings with your organization’s logo is also important,
but only really as “the icing on the cake”. Detailed prior notification
is the essential thing. A pilot has a lot on his mind when he is
committed to battle, not least dodging missiles and bullets. He
cannot be expected to notice every possible detail. However, a
large, clear sign painted or draped on a roof will certainly help to
confirm his briefing and flight plan regarding your exact location.
We have concentrated on you taking cover. Do not forget your
colleagues. Warn them as well. Devise some simple word that lets
everyone know the danger. You don’t have time for a detailed
explanation or conversation on the radio. Agree on a single word
and ensure that everyone knows it means “Air attack! Take cover!”
Repeat it three or four times on your way to shelter (e.g. “Hawk!
Hawk! Hawk!”). Radio operators at base should also try their best
to inform other NGOs. You might agree amongst your NGO
community on a common emergency frequency to pass these and
similar messages. With UN forces in the area, an emergency
frequency is common practice.
We have now covered the main threats to our work in some detail.
Remember, we have offered guidelines only on how to deal with
them. Every situation will have its own features. Knowing the details
of the various threats, you should be in a much better position to
recognize the warning signs and therefore minimize the risk they
pose. Hopefully this knowledge has helped dispel a certain amount
of fear of the unknown.
75
CHAPTER 5
THE THREAT FROM CHEMICAL,
BIOLOGICAL, RADIOLOGICAL
AND NUCLEAR HAZARDS
It must be stressed at the outset that this subject is among the
most rapidly changing of humanitarian security issues. Organiza-
tions may well have their own detailed procedures for dealing with
these threats. What follows represents (at the time of going to
press) the best available set of guidelines (not rules) from
acknowledged experts in their field.
A BIT OF PERSPECTIVE
It is important to place the threat from chemical, biological,
radiological and nuclear (CBRN) hazards in its proper context. You
will already have realized from the rest of this book that conflict
situations feature risks from a wide range of ‘‘conventional’’
hazards. It is possible that the mystique surrounding CBRN issues,
and the dread nature of the use of this type of weapon, can skew
the perception of the real risks involved. Things like road accidents
and threats to personal safety and security are common and must
be the focus of attention in most, if not all, assignments to conflict
areas. History shows that the use of CBRN weapons and agents is
‘‘a low-probability event’’, although when it does occur it is likely to
have a huge impact. So it’s best to be prepared! In addition to the
threat from weapons, we must also be aware of similar threats
arising from industrial accidents.
DETECTION
CBRN agents are essentially undetectable by the senses alone
(except for the obvious flash of light and blast from a nuclear
device!). So CBRN incidents can occur without a warning alert or
79
immediate detection of a toxic or other hazard. Whilst specialist
detection and survey equipment is available, it tends to be confined
to military and civil defence organizations, it is expensive and
complex, and training and practice are needed to use it and interpret
the results.
Most chemical warfare agents are essentially odourless, and they
may not cause immediately obvious symptoms. In the case of
biological warfare agents, the onset of symptoms may be generic
(e.g. fevers and general illness that could be confused with a wide
range of naturally occurring diseases). In this case, days or weeks
might be needed to detect and confirm the type of disease
outbreak. Sudden outbreaks of unusual disease might be a sign of
bio-warfare, but this is a very specialized area of work.
Radiation is invisible, colourless and tasteless. Indications of
exposure may not be immediately apparent owing to delayed onset
of symptoms.
Indications that a CBRN incident may have occurred include:
. large number of victims;
. victims suffer from nausea, breathing difficulty, convulsions
and disorientation;
. birds and insects drop from the sky;
. unusual dead or dying animals or insects;
. unusual liquid, spray, powder or vapour;
. droplets or oily films on surfaces;
. unexplained odours (bitter almonds, peach kernels, newly
mown hay or green grass);
. unusual or unauthorized spraying in the area;
. smell and signs of explosives or smoke;
. receipt of suspicious mail or packages emitting odours or
containing white powder.
The greater the number of the above-mentioned signs you detect,
the more likely it is that a CBRN incident has taken place. You may
also hear alarm sirens or shouted warnings. In most military forces,
the banging together of metal objects and the simultaneous
shouting of ‘‘Gas! Gas! Gas!’’ is a standard CBRN incident
warning. An even bigger clue is if military personnel in your area
start to put on protective equipment.
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MEDICAL COUNTERMEASURES
A number of medical substances can be used to minimize the
effects of some CBRN agents. (However, many of these are
available only to military personnel.) If you are issued with any of
these countermeasures, you must use them only as instructed by
your organization.
A range of vaccinations is available against some bio-warfare
agents. These need to be administered well beforehand if they are
to be effective. (Vaccinations against naturally occurring diseases
should obviously also be taken.) You can also be issued with
antibiotics that you can take if a bio-warfare incident is imminent or
has occurred.
You could be given potassium iodate tablets to take following
certain radiological exposures, but they will not work for all such
incidents.
As far as chemical warfare is concerned, pre-treatment tablets and
auto-injectors are available to help counteract the effects of nerve
agents, but these need careful supervision and training to be safe
and effective.
DECONTAMINATION
In the event of a known or suspected chemical or radiological
incident, you should decontaminate yourself before entering the
safe room. To be effective, this requires planning (so that
appropriate equipment/chemicals are in place) and practice.
For decontamination you must have:
. a shower (or a shower bag is fine), soap (ideally liquid soap), a
sponge or soft brush, and bleach;
84
. a clean change of clothing (kept in plastic bags) for each
person;
. plastic rubbish bags and labels for contaminated clothing.
To decontaminate yourself or colleagues, you must:
. Immediately wipe your face and repeatedly flush eyes using
large amounts of clean water.
. Remove all contaminated clothing carefully so as not to
spread any particles onto your face or skin. Place it in a plastic
bag and seal it.
. Use a ‘‘rinse-wipe-rinse’’ method: wash the entire body from
top to toe, including hair, with a mild body-soap solution and a
secure water source. If possible use cold water to minimize
evaporation of the agent.
. If water is scarce, sprinkle talcum powder or even flour on the
affected skin area, wait 30 seconds, then brush it off with a
rag or gauze pad, using butyl rubber gloves if possible.
. In extremis, rub dry earth to absorb the contaminant, or take
clothes off and roll around in the dirt, then wash and change
clothing if possible.
. Put on clean clothing.
. Destroy heavily contaminated clothing by incinerating it.
Items with minimal contamination can be washed in hot
water.
85
CHAPTER 6
ADDITIONAL AIDS
TO YOUR SAFETY AND SECURITY
In this section we will move away from the details of particular
weapons and take a look at some broader issues that have an
impact on your security.
How should we deal with the local factions, the armed forces and
the people we are working with? What is their view of us? In a similar
vein, I will offer some guidelines for dealing with the inevitable road-
blocks and check-points you will encounter. Planning your field
work is important from a security viewpoint. I will give you some
advice on how to use this important tool and then end with some
thoughts on the best ways to respond to incidents and how to
report correctly on them.
NOTABLE EXCEPTIONS
While I believe that the above description of soldiers ---- and their
view of us ---- is accurate, there will unfortunately always be
exceptions. A drunken soldier may open fire. Combine the drink
with drugs and you have a real problem. A soldier may have a
particular grudge against your organization or another. He may feel
that you are helping his enemy or that you were not quick enough in
providing medical aid to his village; you sacked his brother, who
was your security guard, etc., etc. It is by no means easy for you to
please everyone all the time. You should not forget that individual
combatants may also be thoroughly confused as to who or what
you are. They see many NGOs and many logos and it is easy to mix
them up. Therefore, the sins or omissions of other organizations
might well end up affecting you!
And then some people are just completely out of control. For
example, ground transport is in short supply, so your all-terrain
vehicle is an extremely attractive item. Hijacking is a distinct
possibility although it does not necessarily go hand in hand with
injury to the occupants. These so-called bandits or “uncontrolled
elements” exist; they are the perilous exceptions. Some can be
avoided by means of common sense; the risks can be reduced. If a
particular gang favours a particular village or locality, avoid driving
through it. Do not prolong a discussion with a drunken soldier as it
is almost guaranteed to end in disaster! You are bound to say
something by mistake that will upset or offend him. He may very
well want to talk, but try to offer some pleasantry or a cigarette, and
then drive on, ideally in a crouched position!
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PRIVATE SECURITY COMPANIES
Private security companies are assuming greater prominence in
modern conflict. One now hears expressions like ‘‘the privatization
of war’’. These companies can be contracted to carry out a variety
of tasks, for example, actual military operations, security at key
installations and other guard duties, intelligence-gathering, training
of military or police personnel and logistics.
Humanitarian organizations are increasingly turning to private
security firms for such services as armed guards, or ‘‘close
protection’’ (CP) as it is increasingly known, to enhance their
security or simply to be able to continue their work.
It should be understood that using these services can blur an
organization’s image, with confusion in the minds of the
belligerents, who might well be trying to distinguish between
combatants and civilians, in particular humanitarian organizations.
A possible source of additional problems and severe embarrass-
ment is that armed-protection staff are normally retired military or
police personnel. They might well lack the cultural sensitivity
needed for humanitarian work and they might be ill at ease working
alongside civilians. Clearly, you need to have confidence in the CP
teams you employ. A cross-line operation involving armed escorts
might well lead to an unwanted gunfight simply because your
escorts are misidentified as a threat or, worse, because ---
unbeknownst to you --- they do indeed belong to the other side.
(This was a particular problem in Somalia.) The fact that the
military sometimes drive around in civilian clothes and white four-
wheel-drive vehicles adds to the confusion of roles between
NGOs and the military, and affects the security of humanitarian
workers.
The use of armed guards and CP must be considered with care by
humanitarian organizations. In some cases their use can actually
increase the threat rather than diminishing it. They can certainly
confuse our intended message of neutrality and impartiality. You
will have to accept that whatever instructions you issue to them,
armed guards and close protection teams will undoubtedly have
their own ideas about when to open fire. This could cause you
problems. Account should also be taken of the loyalty of armed
guards, i.e. from whom they ultimately take their orders.
92
Pragmatism is required: there will be circumstances in which
private security agents will be needed. But if their use is not very
carefully planned and controlled, things can go wrong. We must
have clear procedures for the selection of the best and most
reliable security company. We must ensure that they are
acceptable to the local community. Procedures for working
together should be addressed before deployment. So, why not
arrange joint training with these teams? In this way both you and
they will have a much better understanding of each other and how
you should operate together.
MILITARY PROTECTION
In some circumstances, humanitarian organizations might rely on
the protection of military forces rather than private security
companies. And in some circumstances, using military protection
to deliver aid may not present any immediate danger for a
humanitarian organization. Over the longer term, however, such
collaboration with military authorities may prove detrimental as it
can weaken the core humanitarian principles of neutrality,
impartiality and independence. At the outset of the war in the
former Yugoslavia in the early 1990s, humanitarian organizations
thought nothing of accepting military protection for their convoys.
But as the situation developed and the UN came to be viewed by
some as a party to the conflict and convoys were then attacked, the
humanitarians changed their minds.
94
first aid. This was fine except that they also insisted on bringing their
guns. This was hardly the ideal time or place for lengthy
explanations about weapons in our vehicles. Feelings were running
high and tempers were, as you might expect, at breaking point. But
believe it or not (and sometimes in retrospect I have trouble
believing it myself), they concurred. The wounded soldier and one
comrade got into the vehicle unarmed, and off we went to the
hospital. It can work even in the most difficult circumstances. And it
results from knowledge of and respect for the way we work.
Advertising our role beforehand must have played a part in this
case. They knew us and our working methods.
However, if guns are turned on you in this situation, frankly you have
little option but to comply. If you don’t, the least that will happen is
that your vehicle will be commandeered as a necessity of war. It is
also worth considering in these situations whether the road you will
take, even with a wounded and unarmed soldier on board, is in fact
clear of any of his opponents. If not, you will not only endanger his life
but also place yourself in a dangerous and embarrassing position.
WARNINGS OR OBSTRUCTION?
Sometimes it is very difficult to distinguish between warnings and
obstruction. If you are warned by the armed forces not to go to a
certain area or complete a certain task, it puts you in a difficult
position. They might simply want to ensure that you do not take
supplies to their enemies. On the other hand, it might represent
genuine advice for your protection. The effect on your operations is
much the same in either case. You should think twice before
pressing on. Deliberately ignoring warnings or advice is not
sensible unless you have a very good feel for the situation and
the parties concerned. If they are determined that you should not
proceed, they will stop you somehow ---- if not on the spot, then
possibly later, with obvious risks for your safety. The advice may
well be based on their knowledge of an impending operation and
they do not want you harmed or in the way.
On balance, my advice would be to take this sort of advice or
warning, turn back and reassess the situation the next day. Did an
incident take place along the proposed route? Was there indeed a
threat? If the answer is “yes”, well and good. If the warning was
nonsense meant simply to prevent your work, protest to the
95
authorities at the highest possible level. And next time, you should
not be so easily dissuaded.
CHECK-POINTS/ROAD-BLOCKS
Check-points and road-blocks mean the same thing: a manned
position on the road designed to monitor and control movement in a
97
particular area. Sometimes they are more akin to toll booths set up
by local gangs to extort money from passing civilians. When you
move into a new area you can certainly expect to be stopped at
these control points. As you develop your work and gain credibility
with the group manning the barrier, you might well be allowed to
pass unchecked. Never rely on this, however, and always be
prepared to stop if asked to.
Some check-points are well constructed and established for long-
term use: sandbagged bunkers, a tent or rest area for the men, a
clearly visible and raisable barrier across the road. They might well
have mines placed across the road for added security. In other
cases you might simply encounter a tree or even a branch drawn
across the road, with one or two men plying their new-found,
lucrative trade as toll collectors.
So how do we deal with check-points and road-blocks?
As you approach a check-point, slow down, lower the volume of
your radio speaker and make no transmissions. Using your radio
could raise suspicion and you can do without it for a few minutes.
Tape decks, etc. should also be turned off.
Obey any signs or instructions to pull in or stop.
Be polite, friendly and confident. Wind down the window and say
hello in the local language. You should not exaggerate or start
98
“flapping”, talking too much, offering cigarettes, etc. This might
suggest that you are afraid and could be exploited by the soldiers.
Show your ID card if requested. Explain in a friendly way, if asked,
where you are going. Prepare a short summary of your
organization’s work. If you are new to the area, try a little
promotion. But keep it short! Be relaxed if they insist on checking
your vehicle. They have the right to do this and you should have
nothing to hide.
Do not be in a rush to continue your journey. Be prepared to chat
with the soldiers. You might also usefully request information on the
route ahead or your eventual destination.
Try to imagine yourself in the soldier’s position. He is probably
extremely bored. You might be one of the few passers-by he has
seen all day. You will certainly be of great interest to him. He might
never have seen anything quite like you before! We are not talking
here of your looks and charm but the fact that you come from a
different country and culture. He might just want to chat to you, to
try out his few words of your language ---- or, if you are English, for
example, to ask how Manchester United is getting on. It’s amazing
how many know of this football team. (My apologies to Barcelona
or Juventus fans.) So be prepared to spend some time talking to
him. It can do nothing but good.
Avoid temptation by ensuring that there are no attractive items
such as sweets, chewing gum and cigarettes on your dashboard. If
they are in evidence, you should not be surprised if you are asked
for one. One will then become many as the other soldiers appear
out of nowhere, and for the rest of your day you will be able to
contemplate the virtues of being a non-smoker! Temptation might
also come in the form of clothing or other items that you are
conveying in your vehicle. Here you must be firm and refuse to give
anything. Explain that they are for your own use or the use of the
victims. Avoid wearing expensive watches and take off your sun
glasses. Ray-Bans are much-sought-after prizes!
Ask your field officer or driver to help you with any detailed
conversations.
At night, dip your headlights well in advance of the check-point.
Nothing annoys a soldier more than being blinded by headlights and
99
losing his night vision. On arrival, change to side lights. Switch on
your inside light so he can easily see who is in the vehicle and that
you pose no threat. Ensure that any light mounted on top or at the
back of your vehicle to illuminate your flag or logo is turned on. But
you must, as a rule rather than a guideline, always try to avoid
driving at night.
At new or improvised road-blocks run by free agents rather than
clearly military personnel, it might be worthwhile stopping well short
of the block itself if you possibly can. Just wait for a while and see
what is going on. Is other traffic passing through the road-block?
How are the occupants of the vehicles being treated as they pass
through? Wait for an oncoming vehicle (i.e. one that has passed
through the road-block) and ask the occupants’ advice on whether
it is safe to proceed yourself. Always ask your local staff/drivers for
their opinion. In this way you will get a much better idea of whether it
is safe to proceed. If not, then at least you are sufficiently out of
harm’s way to turn back. This technique was used by us in Somalia,
where many improvised road-blocks were set up. Normally manned
by two or three armed men, their aim was simply to rob passers-by.
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. as a way of improving coordination with other delegates’
missions;
. to inform other offices when plans affect them, and to give
them time to notify the people in their own areas.
HOW TO PLAN
There are certain features common to any plan. You can refine and
develop them to suit your own style and needs. We suggest that
you always consider the following.
The aim. The aim is the essential starting point. Define your aim as
precisely as possible. You should not confuse it by stating two
separate aims or a string of secondary aims. This is dangerous, and
can lead to a weak or confusing plan, and hence to the failure of
your mission. Every one of us has probably been guilty of this at
some time in our lives. Our excuse is that we are being “flexible”
and responding to immediate needs. The real reason is that we did
not plan properly in the first place. If we had, we would have
accurately assessed a problem area and taken it into account or
made sure that we avoided it. So define your aim and stick to it.
Dangers involved (the threat). I strongly recommend that you
make the dangers involved the second factor in your plan. Give the
matter careful consideration and you may decide at an early stage
that it is simply too hazardous to proceed.
Time and distance. Next, do a simple calculation of the time you
need to accomplish your task. Is there enough time to do
everything? If not, scale your plan down now, rather than wasting
everyone’s time with unnecessary notification and causing yourself
embarrassment. (Ask yourself questions such as: “At what time
should my party leave? When will we return? Will we make it home
by nightfall? Do I need to arrange an overnight stop in a safe area?”)
If appropriate, remember to adjust your timing to winter conditions.
Administration and logistics. Decide how many people you will
need in the party. Notify them ahead of time.
Allow for spare fuel, food and water. If it is going to be a long day,
you should ensure that your party is prepared.
Prepare the materials needed for the task (leaflets, letters, forms,
medical equipment, etc.).
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Confirm your requirement for vehicles.
Coordination. Here you concentrate on matters that touch
directly on your mission.
You must know who to notify and when. Assess the time required
to ensure that all parties are duly informed.
Are your colleagues aware of the mission? You might be able to
accomplish some important task for them while on your mission.
But you should not be pressured into a double aim.
Is the head of office fully informed of all mission details? Has he or
she given the green light to proceed?
Are other offices aware of your plan, insofar as it affects them (for
example, a cross-line mission into another area)?
Communications. Have any of your colleagues been to the same
area before? If so, ask them where the best places are to establish
radio communications. Should you detour slightly to high ground at
point X to ensure contact? Are all your radios checked and working?
How will you communicate in an emergency?
BRIEFING
You have now made your plan and, having considered every factor,
you should be confident that it will succeed. The next important
step is to fully brief your team. You must find the time for this.
Ideally, you should do it the day before so that everyone has time to
prepare ---- your driver, field officer, other colleagues in your party.
They will appreciate this early warning. It will give them confidence
in the mission and also in you.
The briefing need not take long: 10 minutes should be enough. You
might take this opportunity to delegate tasks to others, such as
checking vehicles, radios, fuel and first-aid kits.
DEBRIEFING
There remains one important facet of planning to be dealt with. It is
the debriefing. At the end of a mission it is always useful to get your
group together for a debriefing. The purpose is simply to pick up any
suggestions for the future, to say “Well done!” and to point out any
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problems so that they are not encountered again. (It should also
help you in drawing up your field trip report.)
As with the briefing, 10 minutes will be more than enough. If
everyone is tired you may want to do the debriefing first thing the
next day.
The 7 Ps. Hopefully you can see that planning is a very necessary
part of your work, and that it is neither magic nor a difficult science
but a very simple and logical tool. Its purpose is to assist you in your
important task. Learn to use this tool. In a matter of weeks it will
become second nature to you.
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If you are feeling lazy or find yourself slipping into the dreaded
busy-bee syndrome, just pause in flight for one second and recite
the following “7 Ps” to bring you back to earth.
8 Prior
8 Preparation &
8 Planning
8 Prevent
8 Pathetically (you might wish
to substitute your own P-word here!)
8 Poor
8 Performance!!!
Thus, in a very short and sharp format you have given all the
immediate information you can. Others can now react and you can
get on with handling the problem without interminable follow-up
radio chatter that simply wastes time.
FOLLOW-UP REPORTS
You might well be requested later to write a more detailed report. If
no format exists, try the following. Its aim again is to focus on the
main points, to give the correct information to those who need it
and to spare you time-consuming clarification.
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Suggested format:
. Date and time (of incident).
. Location.
. Type of mission (relief, medical, etc.).
. Personnel involved from delegation (full name and post held
by each, including local staff).
. Others involved (military, UN, other armed groups, etc.).
. Injuries to members of your team.
. Vehicle damage.
. Other damage or losses.
. Description of incident (short summary of what happened, a
sketch map or diagram).
. Follow-up or ongoing action related to the incident.
. Lessons learnt.
. Comments of head of delegation/office.
The last two points rarely appear in any incident report. This is a pity
because valuable lessons that can be shared with others in the
organization or with other organizations are lost as a result.
As already pointed out, the lessons drawn at headquarters
combined with the comments of head of delegation/office might
well benefit others. It is very important for us all to learn the results
of investigations into major incidents so that mistakes are not
repeated. Often, however, these investigations and their outcome
are shrouded in secrecy, which is not necessarily helpful.
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CHAPTER 7
PASSIVE-PROTECTION IDEAS
FOR YOUR SAFETY AND SECURITY
We will now look at additional ways in which you can improve your
safety. These are often termed passive-protection measures or, if
you prefer, preventive measures.
We will study ways of protecting your buildings and their occupants
with shelters and blast walls, the criteria you might use in choosing
your buildings, and commonly used passive-protection equipment
(helmets, flak jackets, etc.) We will end the section with some
practical hints on vehicles and driving, plus a couple of words on
personal possessions.
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No shelter that we can build will guarantee protection against a
direct hit from a heavy weapon such as an artillery shell. Recent
conflicts have demonstrated that even the hardest, purpose-built
shelters can be destroyed with precision weapons. However, they
do afford excellent protection against smaller weapons such as
rifles and grenades and against large nearby explosions and the
effects of blast.
In this way, two people can quite easily fill about 60 sandbags in one
hour.
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BASIC SANDBAG CONSTRUCTION
Whether you are building a simple wall or an entire shelter, there are
some basic rules that you must follow.
These rules will ensure that the construction is strong and that it
will indeed protect you. Taking short-cuts or simply ignoring these
rules may appear attractive, but if you proceed without them you
are wasting your time and putting lives at risk.
Basic rules:
. Do not overfill the sandbags. Fill them to three-quarters full
and tie the necks.
. Lay the sandbags in horizontal layers, the way a mason lays
bricks (so that they overlap in each successive layer to
achieve much greater strength). The first layer consists of
sandbags laid head-on called “headers”. In the second layer,
the sandbags are laid lengthways along the wall and are
called “stretchers”. Thus you continue, with layers com-
posed alternately of headers and stretchers.
. Stagger the joints in adjacent layers. A wall so constructed is
said to be “correctly bonded”.
. To prevent them from bursting, lay the sandbags so that
neither the necks nor the seams are on the outer face of the
wall.
. Tuck in the unfilled end of each bag as you lay it.
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HOW TO LAY SANDBAGS TO BUILD BLAST WALLS AND SHELTERS
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. Most important: shape each bag as it is laid in such a way as
to make absolutely certain that it is compact. This is done by
beating it with a board or shovel.
. Regardless of whether you are making a wall or shelter, it will
last much longer if cement is used at some stage. Cement
can be mixed with the material used to fill the bags in ratios of
1 part to 10 parts of dry earth, or 1 part to 6 parts of a sand-
gravel mix. The mixture sets as the bag absorbs moisture.
Alternatively, filled bags may be dipped in a cement-water
slurry.
Corners. Building the corners (if necessary on a wall, but more
likely on a shelter) is particularly important. If they are not
constructed properly, the whole shelter will be weakened. The
rules are really very simple and are illustrated in the diagrams.
BLAST WALLS
Blast walls are required when there is the threat of artillery, mortar
or even sniper fire. Built correctly, they provide you with protection
against the effects of shell blast. They will also stop a sniper’s
bullet.
Examples of where you might use these walls:
. at the entrances to delegation buildings, either inside or out;
If these transparent rolls are not available or you are waiting for it to
arrive, the second-best course of action is to use ordinary cellotape
(“scotch tape”) or sticky paper. Criss-cross the window with the
tape. This is not as effective as 3M: it only partially reduces the
shattering effect. The glass not covered by tape will still shatter into
hefty and dangerous pieces.
Net curtains. Heavy net curtains are a great help against blast.
They have the effect of soaking up the shock and blast effects. If
you have them, then ensure that they are closed at times of high
risk. In fact, any curtains ---- the heavier the material, the better ----
reduce blast effect.
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Shutters. Many houses throughout the world have wooden
window shutters. These can be a great help in reducing the effects
of blast. If you have them, ensure that they are closed during
periods of high risk.
Wooden planks. When nailed to or simply laid against windows,
these provide simple and excellent protection against the effects of
blast. (But they will not stop shrapnel ---- that is, bomb, mine, shell or
grenade fragments ---- or a sniper’s bullet.)
Note that these thicknesses are good only against sporadic fire.
Protection against continuous firing would require double the
thicknesses indicated.
BUILDING SELECTION
If you are moving into a new area, it might well be your responsibility
to select suitable buildings for your office, houses, warehouse, etc.
The temptation might well be to choose something pretty, with a
good view, in the centre of town for easy access to markets, etc.
Fine, no one is saying you must live like hermits. But just consider
why you are there. It is a conflict zone.
The battle might be miles away today but it could come to your
doorstep tomorrow. Many office sites have turned out badly; they
were poor choices in the first place, based on false criteria. I have
visited locations that have been severely battered by the
surrounding conflict. The buildings originally chosen had excellent
views, but little attention had been paid to safety and protection.
The staff had therefore suffered unduly when the battle suddenly
came closer. One outstanding example was an office chosen to
overlook the sea. A similar building just behind it, with no view but a
purpose-built nuclear shelter, was rejected as ‘‘not as nice”! When
a battle began to rage in that particular town, the other building was
no longer available. The staff survived, but would they not have
been more secure in the less aesthetically pleasing building?
So let’s look at a few guidelines for building selection. Not all things
recommended will be available or possible. But try to match as
many as you can.
You should consider:
. the threat to the town or village;
. the condition of the building, required repairs, etc.;
. where you could take shelter;
. radio reception and possibilities for fax, phone and other
modes of communication;
. difficulties in gaining access for your staff and members of
the local population wishing to visit you;
. evacuation possibilities;
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. the degree to which the site is already sheltered, such as in a
valley and not on top of a hill, etc. (Does it have a perimeter
wall? Is it secure?);
. fire hazards;
. access to water and electricity;
. proximity of military installations and similar sites (to be
avoided as they could become targets);
. similar vulnerable points or likely military objectives: power
stations, water works, government buildings, police stations,
chemical works, etc.;
. the availability of secure parking;
. whether there is a threat from suicide car-bombers (Is the
building vulnerable from adjoining roads? Can separation
from roads or the car-park be achieved with barriers?);
. where best to set up your reception point (This should be
outside the main building in a place where visitors can be
carefully checked, ideally with the aid of a metal detector.
Steps should be taken to ensure that women visitors are
searched by female staff.).
The choice might be yours alone. In many cases, however, it will be
a decision taken by the head of office in conjunction with the
administrator and, ideally, a construction specialist.
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When and how to wear the ballistic jacket:
. The ballistic jacket is used only to reduce the risks to
delegates, local staff and convoy drivers working in areas of
high risk: snipers, operations close to front lines, cross-line
missions, etc.
. The back and front collar options, which can be opened and
closed, give added protection to your neck and throat.
. Always wear the jacket with a helmet for head protection.
. Always check to make sure that the ballistic plates are in
place. They can be easily removed. One plate is normally
curved and should be placed in the front compartment of the
jacket. The jacket and indeed all these safety items are very
expensive. You will need to take care of them as best you
can. They are extremely attractive items for thieves and
soldiers, who can sell or use them to their own advantage.
THE HELMET
Helmets are designed to protect the most vulnerable part of the
body against blast and shrapnel. They are not normally designed to
stop a direct hit from a bullet.
When and how to wear the helmet:
. The helmet is worn in high-risk areas where flak and ballistic
jackets are used.
. Always ensure that the neck strap is securely fastened. A jolt
will otherwise send the helmet flying off your head just when
you need it most.
. The helmet takes time to put on and fasten, so don’t wait until
it is too late.
. Open the windows of your vehicle a little when wearing the
helmet. It restricts your hearing and, with the windows shut as
well, you might not hear the warning sounds of danger.
. The helmet provides excellent protection against unexpected
jolts or accidents in vehicles. Sudden swerves or stops might
send you or your passengers flying inside a vehicle, causing
head injuries if they are not protected.
ARMOURED VEHICLES
Armoured vehicles are usually of the 464 (four-wheel-drive) type.
All vehicles (for example, the cabin of a convoy truck) can be
protected with armour if required. Here again there are many
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different levels of protection available. The higher the degree of
protection, the greater (normally) the weight of your vehicle. The
added weight resulting from these higher levels of protection might
even require special driving skills because of the handling
peculiarities this creates. Practise driving the armoured vehicle or
get a specialist driver for it. It takes time to get used to it.
The armour plating can provide good protection against rifle fire,
blast from shells, anti-personnel mines and, to a more limited
degree, the blast effect of other mines. Again, just because you
have such a vehicle available, do not treat it as your personal
go-anywhere tank. It can and will protect you against the less
powerful threats, but you should not expect it to protect you against
everything. In other words, be sensible. If the risks are high, turn
back. An armoured vehicle is not normally designed to withstand
the larger sniper bullets or a direct hit from an artillery round or
mortar round. Do ask what level of protection your vehicle gives
you. Procurers know what you want and, more importantly, they
know what you are getting.
Armoured vehicles should be used for vital missions in high-risk
areas and when entering an unknown but possibly high-risk area for
the first time. They should normally be used in vehicle pairs for
added security, especially in the event of a breakdown. If conditions
warrant the use of armoured vehicles, they also require that you
wear your helmet and flak or ballistic jacket for added protection.
Likewise, if the situation calls for the use of protective equipment,
you should also ensure that a first-aid kit is always carried in your
vehicle and seek training in its use. Always carry two compression
bandages with you. They are small, simple, easy-to-carry purpose-
built pads which can be quickly applied to wounds to stop bleeding
and thus save lives. Ask your medical department or field nurse for
them (you can also make them yourself).
DRIVING
Tall vehicles are inherently unstable at high speed. They are not
sports cars designed to “hug” the ground when cornering. Always
drive at safe speeds and within your capabilities ---- and those of your
vehicle. I have been far more frightened by the driving of colleagues
than by any of the other dangers referred to in this book. The
highest speed that I would recommend in a 4 x 4 vehicle on an
excellent road is 80 km per hour. Anything higher brings an
adrenalin buzz that you do not need.
On one occasion I rode with a colleague who reached 120 km per
hour! And we were in fairly hostile territory. To his amazement, I
asked him to stop and let me walk home, which I considered slightly
less risky than continuing at such a ridiculous speed. “But we have
a meeting at the office in 15 minutes! We’ll be late,” he explained. I
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replied, “If you drive like this, the only meeting that you are heading
for is one with your maker.” He slowed down, and we still made the
meeting! Such hurry is just not worth it. Drive within your limits and
those of the vehicle.
Do not drive at night if you can possibly avoid it. The condition of
the roads is unknown and the enhanced opportunity for others to
stop you and do you harm is simply too great. If you have no choice
but to drive at night, draw attention to yourself by lighting up your
organization’s flag or logo.
In high-risk areas, always consider carefully the possibility of driving
in pairs of vehicles. A lone vehicle is a very tempting target for the
unscrupulous. Two vehicles give added security. If one breaks
down or is damaged, you can all get safely home in the other. It is
not always easy to adhere to this policy since it naturally uses up
valuable transport. With good planning and selection of tasks,
however, it can be achieved.
PERSONAL EFFECTS
We will not dwell too long on personal effects. But there are several
suggestions that might enhance your personal security.
Earlier I mentioned dress, suggesting dressing down so as not to
attract unwarranted attention or to annoy, or indeed to tempt
thieves. By “dressing down” I don’t mean a pair of split or frayed
jeans and a loud or suggestive T-shirt. I do mean cotton slacks,
some pleasantly neat-looking shirts, dresses, etc. You have to set
a sensible standard, but you do not need to go to extremes. You
might well need a suit or sports jacket and tie, and ladies may need
a more elegant dress for meetings with officials.
Also, be very careful about buying military-looking items, such as
army-type boots, an olive-drab fatigue jacket and so on. They are
attractive to those you might meet. They could also raise
unnecessary suspicion. You should not buy ex-military equipment
for yourself either. I met one chap who had invested heavily in his
own flak jacket because he thought it was better than that bought
by the organization. Again, this could single you out for special
attention or simply prompt suspicion. By the way, such clothes
won’t go down well with your colleagues; you simply appear odd!
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You need a cheap plastic watch. A “genuine imitation”, on sale
everywhere, is also good enough. A Rolex or Cartier is better left at
home unless you have good insurance. It is just too tempting at a
check-point or similar close encounter.
A Swiss army knife or ---- the newest craze ---- a “Leatherman super
tool” (same idea: all in one) are excellent items to take with you. I
have had three removed by friendly souvenir hunters but they are
not too expensive to replace. Avoid military-looking knives.
Good shoes, strong trainers or light walking boots (of which there
are many now on the market) are almost essential for day-to-day
work. For meetings you will need something a little more formal.
Water-proof clothing is necessary almost throughout the world.
You might be going to the tropics but you should not forget the
monsoon. The “Barbour” type of oiled jacket looks good and is
water-proof.
You will need some items of personal equipment for rest and
relaxation, such as a Walkman CD player or a short-wave radio,
DVD, MP3 player, etc. The choice of these items is naturally
entirely up to you. They are relatively cheap, so even if they
disappear ---- and many do ---- it’s no problem.
Your laptop and your mobile phone are key tools for your work. It is
always useful to include a set of universal adaptors for your electrical
and phone/e-mail connections. A surge protector or a plug
incorporating this function is useful in countries where the power
supply is erratic as it could prevent damage to your equipment.
A good-quality flashlight/torch (preferably with a rechargeable
battery) can prove invaluable.
Carry cash with you but in no great quantity. Thus, if you are
relieved of it, you have not lost too much. If you tell a “mugger” that
you have nothing, you will probably not be believed, and then you
risk being subjected at the very least to a search.
Most organizations have insurance policies for personal posses-
sions. Of course, it is your duty to inform the insurance authorities
promptly of any losses. It is also useful to get some form of
corroboration from your head of delegation or a colleague. Report
any losses as they occur; don’t wait till the end of a mission. If your
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organization does not provide such insurance, you would be well
advised to seek independent cover. It could be costly.
A WORD ON CAMERAS
It might be very tempting to take your camera or camcorder on
mission. It’s natural to want to keep mementos of people and
places you visit. It’s also quite natural to want to send such
mementos home to keep your family and friends in the picture.
Beware! Such completely innocent activities could lead you into
grave danger, since you could be accused of spying, seeking
military information, etc. It’s just not worth the risk.
BASIC CONSIDERATIONS
In terms of security and safety, you might wish to consider the
following.
The security threat to your staff in your area. Identify
dangerous groups (military, rebels, guerrillas, etc.). Find out what
specific weapons (outlined earlier) are being used and ensure that
your staff are aware of ways to reduce the risks. The threat from
common criminals should also be considered. Regular briefings and
the sharing of information on the security situation are most
important.
The mission. Whom do you intend to assist (type of victim, type of
project and location)? With which parties to the conflict is it essential
for you to establish correct relations in order to achieve your aim?
Personal safety of your staff. Consider security for equipment
and buildings such as offices, houses, warehouses and garages.
Should shelters be considered? If you build obvious sandbagged
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shelters or improve a cellar, will that “raise eyebrows” locally?
There are times when such action can make the locals and even the
military uneasy. Do you know something they don’t?! You do not
want to create panic or raise suspicion. It is an important point to
consider. You might order sandbags, 3M paper, etc. but then
simply store them. If the situation deteriorates, you will have them
readily available.
Fire safety. I can say without fear of contradiction that most heads
forget the importance of fire safety. In a large office you might
delegate this and other aspects to your administrator or deputy.
But you might well have to take the first step. We will cover the main
points concerning fire precautions later in this chapter.
Contingency planning for the unexpected. Quite clearly,
contingency planning is your responsibility as the boss. This
concerns not just how you will evacuate in a deteriorating situation
but also such matters as medical evacuation of staff and building up
reserves for a period of high risk (see later section). You might, for
example, ensure that you have an adequate supply in your stores of
3M paper, sandbags and the tools to fill them.
Vehicles and driving safety. You should lay down rules based on
the guidelines set out earlier: night driving, speed, maintenance,
checks on spares, tools, etc. Ensure that new arrivals are given
driver training. You should not expect them to ask or to be
conversant with your particular vehicles.
Conduct of your staff on and off duty. The conduct element
naturally includes your local staff and we have covered many
aspects already. Ill-considered behaviour can have a dramatic
impact on your safety and security. You must translate the
guidelines into the rules that you want. Set the standard and the
example and insist that those rules be obeyed. This is a small
paragraph but one of the most important aspects of your job in
terms of both security and general leadership.
Security instructions. You will need to draft security instructions
for your team if these do not already exist. Even if they do, check
them to ensure that they reflect exactly what you want.
Health supervision. Do you really have to bother about super-
vising staff health? Well, unfortunately, yes. Or you might delegate
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this matter to a doctor or nurse on your staff. If you do not regularly
check and insist on high standards, you can quickly lose a whole
team to any manner of strange and unpleasant gastro-intestinal
problem.
STRESS MANAGEMENT
Stressed-out colleagues are a security risk to themselves and to
others. I will not dwell long on this as far more qualified experts have
written on the subject. It is now an area that most humanitarian
organizations take very seriously. Experts sitting in the tranquillity of
Geneva or New York are, however, not a whole lot of use to you as
the boss in the field. You should take their advice and the guidelines
they lay down but, at the end of the day, a great deal of stress
management and preventive measures in particular rely on your
management and leadership. What sort of practical measures am I
talking about?
Your leadership and management are vital to reducing stress. The
keys are concern for, and understanding of, your staff and their
problems. Always be ready to listen. You should not be afraid to
give advice or to chide someone if he or she does something
wrong. It shows that you care for them. Enforce good security rules
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and procedures. Ensure good briefings and the sharing of
information.
Days off are important. You might feel it necessary to work every
day of the week until midnight. If you do this, you are not setting a
good example. Others will also stay because they feel they must.
The whole team soon becomes extremely tired and stressed. Insist
on keeping a leave book. Ensure that your staff take regular breaks
and do the same yourself. You are not indispensable. Delegate
tasks and take rest.
You are responsible for the welfare of your staff. You can reduce
stressful and annoying aspects of life by having the right ideas and
pressing for improvements. Can your delegates phone home when
they want to? If not, why? How can you arrange it? Contact with
home and loved ones can do a great deal to reduce stress. Can
they send and receive mail in a reasonable amount of time? If not,
how can you improve the situation? Can you arrange for goodies
like cigarettes, drinks, soap, magazines, videos, etc. to be brought
in? Not all these things are possible, but with some thought and
effort, each and every situation can be improved.
Many features of stress can be relieved by good leadership and
management. The experts will certainly guide you and it is your duty
to study their advice. But you are the one who can do most to
anticipate stress and prevent it from reaching unacceptable levels.
Do your utmost to recognize the first small sparks of stress and
extinguish them before they burst into flame and “burn out” your
precious staff. Further information can be obtained from the
booklet by Barthold Bierens de Haan, Coping with stress,
published by the ICRC.
CONTINGENCY/EVACUATION PLANS
Here we are talking about outline planning for the “What if...?” In
the very busy day-to-day life of an organization in the field, this
important aspect of safety and security is frequently forgotten.
Attitudes such as “It’s so far in the future,” or “It will never happen
to us,” tend to prevail. It may indeed never happen, but if it does and
you have planned for it then you and your team will be in a far better
position to cope. The plans need not be detailed (indeed, detail
might be counter-productive). Situations never turn out quite as we
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imagine them. Outline planning, where we consider the main or
common factors, nevertheless remains a valid and useful tool for
dealing with the unforeseen.
You might well have these plans issued to you by your
organization’s headquarters. They will naturally be very general,
dealing as they must with a broad range of operations world-wide. It
will be necessary for you to add some substance to these outline
plans to make them relevant to your particular set of circum-
stances.
We cannot attempt here to deal with every possible contingency.
But by dealing with three important ones, we can illustrate the way
to go about such planning and the sort of factors you might wish to
consider.
We will therefore look at plans for:
. a prolonged stay in a hostile environment;
. a partial evacuation;
. a complete evacuation.
FULL EVACUATION
Here the scenario might be as follows. The situation is so grave that
your work is now impossible. Your lives are being put at
unnecessary risk. The military have asked you to leave for your
own safety.
In addition to the factors already considered for a partial
evacuation, you should now also consider the following.
Aim. The aim here would be to evacuate all remaining personnel.
Assumption. Assume that the airport is now out of service.
Evacuation by air is therefore most unlikely. You will have to move
by road. You must assume that the parties to the conflict will allow
safe passage.
Transport. Do you possess enough vehicles for everyone? Is
there sufficient fuel?
Negotiations/clearance. You will have to carefully inform the
parties involved and arrange safe passage with them.
Sensitive material. Have all sensitive material destroyed before
leaving.
Food. Is there sufficient food for everyone during the journey?
Money. You will need ready cash for the unforeseen!
FIRE PRECAUTIONS
This section is included under the general heading of management
because it is very often forgotten completely. The loss of a
warehouse or office through fire could jeopardize your work. Let us
list some simple guidelines that you might use in your own situation.
Do you have sufficient fire extinguishers? The number naturally
depends very much on the size of the office or warehouse. In a
small, two-storey house, for example, it would be sensible to have
two on each floor and a separate one for the kitchen. Ensure that
they are not all placed together but spread out. Check when they
were last refilled (each should have an attached label indicating
this). They should be serviced or refilled once a year. Does
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everyone know how to operate the fire extinguishers? Use an old
one and demonstrate every now and again, perhaps when you
organize a fire drill.
If fire extinguishers are unobtainable, use fire buckets, some filled
with sand, the others with water. Place them in accessible positions
on each floor.
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CHAPTER 9
SPECIAL SITUATIONS
Here we will deal with situations that are perhaps less common but
with which humanitarian volunteers have been faced in the past.
We will look at two eventualities: being caught in a state of siege (a
situation where you might not actually be a hostage but never-
theless find yourself cut off in a hostile environment) and actually
being a hostage. We will look at survival guidelines for both.
A STATE OF SIEGE
The following scenario is based on a situation I faced in 1995. Our
town was being attacked. We faced threats from all manner of
weapons, from aircraft to artillery. No effective work was possible.
Our office was on the outskirts of the town but all our houses were
in the town centre. Plans to evacuate non-essential personnel had
been made but the battle moved so quickly that no evacuation was
possible. Here are some examples of how we dealt with this rather
difficult situation.
All staff were moved from the town to the office and all personal
possessions ---- and as many beds as possible ---- were brought with
them.
Reserves of food and water were already stored in the office but we
bought up as much as we could locally as well.
There were shelters at the office and each staff member was
assigned to a specific shelter so that everyone could move to them
quickly and without confusion. In the event, we spent a great deal of
time in those shelters.
Personnel from other organizations joined us as their offices were
in the town. We therefore had to meet their needs as well. Our
numbers almost doubled. Some local staff, frightened of staying in
the town, also had to be accommodated.
As the battle for the town began in earnest, elements of those
defending it began to fall back. As they did so, our office became
the focus of their attention. Although we were not personally
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attacked, everything we possessed except personal clothing and
two radios were taken by them. The looting lasted for three days. In
all we were in a state of siege for 10 days.
It was out of the question for us to actively prevent the looting.
Trying to do so would have put us in greater danger. An attempt
was made to persuade the looters to stop, but they proceeded on
the grounds of military necessity and we gradually lost all our
important vehicles and equipment.
HOSTAGE SURVIVAL
Whole books have been written about the taking of hostages and
the best way of behaving as a victim or as someone responsible for
dealing with the crisis. Happily, I have never been taken hostage so I
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have relied here on expert documents and personal recollections of
those who have. This section gives a very brief summary of their
advice in case of abduction.
The immediate and possibly the most difficult problem for someone
taken hostage is the fear of not knowing what is to follow. You
should therefore be aware of the problems and conditions that
might have to be faced immediately following capture, and in the
longer term, as well as of the steps that will be taken to secure your
release and of the attitude you should adopt in that regard.
ABDUCTION
The time of actual abduction is the most dangerous. The kidnappers
are nervous, the victim does not always realize what is happening
and the situation can very easily get out of hand. You should remain
as calm and composed as possible, particularly when being
transported to the kidnappers’ hideout. Talking to the kidnappers
is recommended, provided this does not make them even more
nervous.
An important rule to be followed by anyone subjected to an
abduction attempt is that escape must not be considered.
Heroism may lead to death at the hands of a nervous and
inexperienced member of the kidnapping group.
POST-CAPTURE
The post-capture period is likely to be difficult and unpleasant,
particularly in contrast to the comfortable conditions in which the
average victim normally has been living.
Post-capture shock is a major physiological and psychological
problem. Capture, when completely unexpected, results in severe
trauma brought about by the total change of situation. In such
circumstances, the victim’s entire world is thrown into chaos and
confusion: the captors assume a position of superiority and
dominance, and the hostage experiences deep depression.
It is important for the victim to recognize this situation and accept
that he or she must obey any order given, and then to take steps to
restore a sense of self-esteem and personal dignity at the earliest
opportunity.
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HEALTH
No matter who the captors are, and however primitive the living
conditions are, a conscious effort must be made to maintain your
physical and mental health. In this connection it is important to note
the following.
Physical health is more likely to be maintained by eating all food that
is offered rather than refusing to accept it, however unattractive or
repulsive it may be. A regular routine of exercises should also be
carried out, even if you are confined to a cell.
Mental health is maintained by identifying and sticking to a system
of your own personal values. Keep your mind active by whatever
means may suit you. A conscious effort is needed in this respect.
Some prisoners have spent long periods composing music in their
heads, writing poetry, thinking of back pay, or designing the ideal
house. It is healthy to focus such mental activity on the future, when
you will again be free. If writing materials or books are available,
these can be of considerable assistance. A great deal can be
achieved by mental activity alone.
Maintaining self-discipline is essential in order to overcome the
effects of the immediate environment and the inactivity imposed by
it. A strict schedule should be observed and standards of tidiness
and cleanliness upheld.
NEGOTIATION
Negotiating the release of a hostage is a matter for your
organization’s headquarters. It is extremely important to realize
that action is being taken and that the hostage should not interfere
with this process. Hostages should above all not allow themselves
to be convinced, as certain kidnappers might try to do, that they
have been abandoned by the outside world. Except in some special
cases, you should not negotiate your own release, nor discuss what
action may be taken by your organization. Such discussions would
probably only serve to compromise the ongoing negotiations.
Another stress factor is anxiety about one’s family, and it is
therefore important that your organization concern itself very
seriously and closely with any hostage’s family members, providing
them with every possible support.
RELEASE
A further period of high risk may occur when release approaches.
There may be a rise in tension amongst the guards. When the time
for release comes, you will have to proceed with great care.
Specifically:
. Pay very close attention to the orders that your captors give
you.
. Obey these orders immediately.
. Don’t make sudden or unexpected moves.
. Stay alert; if things go wrong, you may have to make a run for
it.
. Be prepared for delays and disappointments.
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CHAPTER 10
FIRST AID
Serious injury is a major threat in conflict and post-conflict situations
in which humanitarian staff work. Knowing how to handle an incident
resulting in casualties --- that is, knowing simple first-aid principles ---
can save lives, even when you have only basic equipment.
It is important to realize that first aid is a practical skill. To be
effective requires practical training and at least some equipment.
When you have read this section, you should reflect on whether you
are adequately prepared. To fail to plan for dealing with a serious
injury is to plan to fail when the day comes.
THREATS
The types of injury encountered will be different depending on
whether you are working in a conflict zone or a non-conflict
environment. In the latter, ‘‘blunt’’ (force-of-impact) trauma from
road accidents and from falls predominate. In this case, it is
paramount to prevent injury in the first place. The commonest
cause of death following a road accident is a head injury, about
which you can do very little without speedy access to advanced
medical treatment. Nevertheless, there are critical actions you can
take to save life and prevent further injury.
Injuries in conflict zones are dominated by ‘‘penetrating’’ trauma
(stab wounds, gunshot, fragments produced by an explosion),
burns and blast injuries (mines, military munitions, improvised
explosive devices). Mines and unexploded munitions remain a
threat long after the conflict is over. Anti-personnel mines are
typically designed to blow off a foot. By contrast, a cluster bomblet
that is picked up by an inquisitive child will result in upper limb and
face injuries. For your own safety, it is critical that you be aware of
the danger from mines and booby traps and how to avoid them.
Studies of war injuries conclude that bleeding accounts for 50% of
deaths and the commonest cause of avoidable death is bleeding
from wounds on limbs. This is preventable if you follow the simple
rules set out below. For patients who are unresponsive, simple
manoeuvres to keep the airway open may prevent death and
sustain the casualty until advanced aid is available.
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Whether you are working in a conflict zone, helping in a natural
disaster or providing aid to a refugee population, the greatest threat
to the casualty is time. The ‘‘golden hour’’ following injury
represents the best opportunity for intervention to save the
critically wounded. An evacuation plan is therefore essential if
you don’t want to be too late in dealing with injuries (including those
to your own staff).
INJURY PATTERNS
Injury patterns following a motor-vehicle crash can be predicted by
considering the mechanics of injury. For example, there are patterns
consistent with head-on, side-impact and rollover crashes that vary
according to whether a seat belt is worn. Seat belts have greatly
reduced head and face injuries (impact with dashboard/wind-
screen) and chest injuries (impact with the steering wheel).
Following an explosion, most injuries sustained are from frag-
ments, which are either part of the ‘‘bomb’’ or debris propelled by
the explosion (glass, stones, wood, etc.). For those close to an
explosion, injury may result from the blast wave (a wave of pressure
that compresses air-filled cavities in the human body and can result
in severe bleeding into the lungs, bowel perforation and rupture of
the eardrum), the blast wind (the whoosh of air that follows behind
the blast wave and can rip off limbs), burns, and crush injuries from
collapsing buildings.
The severity of injury from gunshot depends on the path taken by
the bullet (clearly it is more serious if it passes through your head
than through your foot) and the energy that is transferred (a rifle
bullet has more energy to give up than a pistol bullet). ‘‘High-
energy-transfer’’ wounds can cause serious damage some
distance around the trajectory of the bullet in the body.
Body armour (the ‘‘bulletproof vest’’) undoubtedly saves lives and
has greatly reduced the proportion of torso injuries in conflict. If you
are at high risk and have been given a bulletproof vest, wear it.
SYSTEMATIC APPROACH
Any incident involving casualties can be approached in the same
systematic manner --- control then ACT (Assess, Communicate,
Triage):
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. First take charge --- use the people you have as effectively as
possible.
. Look to see whether there is any further danger and, if
necessary, move survivors (both injured and uninjured) to a
place of safety.
. Get help by whatever means you can (radio, mobile phone,
driver, runner). The information you need to convey is your
Exact location, the Type of incident, the Hazards, the Access
(is the road blocked?), the Number of casualties and the
Emergency response you require (this spells ETHANE).
. Then sort casualties into groups in order of priority for
treatment (this is triage): they will need to be re-sorted later
into priorities for evacuation. A simple system, known as the
‘‘triage sieve’’, can be used by any trained first-aider:
--- Those with difficulty breathing or significant bleeding
(external and internal) have top priority for treatment. By
contrast, the ‘‘walking wounded’’ have the lowest
priority.24
--- Where resources are limited, difficult decisions may have
to be made regarding how much treatment is given to
someone who cannot be saved.
TREATMENT
The treatment of the seriously injured casualty can also be
approached systematically, following the ABC (airway-breathing-
circulation) approach.
24
Triage in Advanced Life Support Group (2002) Major incident medical manage-
ment and support, London, BMJ Publishing.
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breathing unassisted should be carefully rolled onto his side (the
‘‘recovery position’’) and stabilized in this position by flexing his
upper knee and placing it on the ground in front of the other leg.
Then his chin should be gently tipped back to keep the airway
open. This position will prevent him from asphyxiating if he vomits.
The second priority is to check for breathing difficulties (a feeling of
‘‘shortness of breath’’ or a breathing rate over 20 or less than 10
per minute in an adult). Although there is nothing you can do about
this (unless you have special training), you will at least be able to
identify those who have a high priority for evacuation.
Circulation is assessed by measuring the pulse rate. If the pulse is
fast (more than 100/minute in an adult) following injury, you should
assume significant bleeding externally and/or internally. Your
priority is to stop any visible bleeding. Most bleeding will stop if
pressure is applied (for example, by means of a dressing) and the
affected limb is elevated. With life-threatening bleeding from a limb
that cannot be controlled by pressure and elevation, it is acceptable
to improvise a tourniquet as a last resort (i.e. tightening a belt or
other material around the limb above the wound and thus stopping
the flow of blood). If you see massive bleeding as you approach the
casualty, get someone to press on the wound with a dressing while
you quickly assess the airway and breathing.
EQUIPMENT
The basic equipment you will need to provide effective first aid is
shown in the table below.
Equipment Comment
Scissors To cut clothing
Large ‘‘field dressings’’ Minimum of 2, for bleeding
wounds
Triangular bandages Minimum of 2, for splinting
(squares of cloth 70-100 cm
each side, folded corner-to-
corner to form triangles)
Synthetic gloves For protection against
blood-borne disease
Pocket mask or face-shield Optional, to assist with
providing CPR
Tourniquet Optional (can be improvised,
but commercial tourniquet is
advisable)
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CHAPTER 11
HEALTH ON MISSION
When you are in a conflict zone it is extremely important to be as
healthy as possible. After all, you have volunteered to help others ---
not to be a burden and require help yourself! This chapter is not just
about rare and scary diseases that can kill you in a few hours; it is
about some simple precautions to minimize the chances that your
body will start to ache, overheat or seriously distract you from the
important work you have to do.
These suggestions may seem obvious. Unfortunately many
humanitarian workers don’t bother, often because they are
deployed at short notice, have other priorities, or adopt a macho
attitude and assume they are immune to mosquitoes, microbes and
accidents.
Here is a simple list of what to do before going on mission.
IMMUNIZATION
Get all vaccinations that you might need before you become eligible
for field duty. You may not have time once the phone rings telling
you to be at destination X in 48 hours. If you are on an emergency
roster or there is a good chance you will be deployed, make sure
you are up to date before that phone call.
You must always be covered for hepatitis A and B, typhoid,
diphtheria, tetanus and poliomyelitis.
For most missions you should also be covered for rabies.
Other diseases you are well advised to think about ahead of time
are:
. yellow fever --- present in much of sub-Saharan Africa and
much of Central and South America (vaccination is compul-
sory for all ICRC staff headed for any field assignment);
. meningitis --- the ‘‘meningitis belt’’ spans much of Central,
East and West Africa, and some other regions;
. Japanese encephalitis --- a risk in South and South-East Asia;
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. cholera (a good oral cholera vaccine exists and is perhaps a
wise precaution for most war zones, natural disasters or
chronic complex emergencies).
But this list is by no means exhaustive. Get expert advice as early
as possible on places where you could be posted (useful websites
listed at end of chapter).
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. Diarrhoea treatment. Take at least a few packets of oral re-
hydration salts, loperamide (Imodium) tablets and a course
of ciprofloxacin tablets 250 mg or 500 mg. Also take water-
purification tablets to help avoid drinking contaminated
water.
. Blood-borne diseases prevention. A kit containing syringes,
sterile needles and other basic supplies is essential for
everyone travelling to a developing country. If you are
travelling extensively by road or light aircraft in areas where
hepatitis B and HIV are common and local blood supplies
unreliable (for example, Saharan and sub-Saharan Africa),
consider taking a kit containing intravenous fluids.
. Commonly used medicines. A general kit is a wise
precaution if you risk going far from good health care and if
local supplies are erratic or untrustworthy. It should include
any broad-spectrum antibiotics recommended by your
medical experts, along with a careful explanation of when ---
and when not --- to use them.
Other essentials before your mission:
. You must have comprehensive, up-to-date travel-health
insurance.
. If you have any significant health problems (diabetes, high
blood pressure, recurrent or serious depression or anxiety,
etc.) and/or you have not had a medical check-up in the past
12 months, you should arrange to have this done by a
physician experienced in travel medicine as early as possible
(compulsory for ICRC staff before leaving for a mission).
. If you have any history of severe allergy (anaphylaxis), take
with you two epinephrine (adrenalin) self-injection kits, so as
to ensure that one is always available.
. If you suffer from asthma attacks, take two sets of inhalers,
thus ensuring that one is always available.
. If you regularly take medication, take adequate supplies and a
list of these medicines (with dosages and frequency) signed
and stamped by your doctor.
. You should have immediate access to post-exposure
prophylaxis for HIV, along with clear instructions for use, if
you are giving any hands-on health care in areas where HIV/
AIDS is common.
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TREATING INFECTIONS, PARASITES AND BITES
Infections, parasites and bites can turn nasty, so proper treatment
is important.
MALARIA
As the old saying goes, ‘‘An ounce of prevention is worth a pound
of cure.’’ This certainly applies to malaria.
If you are in a malarial zone, this is an essential list:
. Take your malaria-prevention tablets (‘‘chemo-prophylaxis’’).
. Use a DEET-based insect repellent.
. Sleep under an insecticide-treated mosquito net.
. Keep skin covered as much as possible beginning an hour
before dusk.
. Take a standby treatment kit.
Even if you take all these precautions, you may still get malaria, so
whenever you travel more than eight hours from good medical
care, take your malaria standby treatment kit with you. If you
develop a fever, sweats and chills, a bad headache or other
symptoms which could be malaria, have the test done as soon as
possible by a reliable doctor or laboratory. If this is not possible, or
if you don’t trust the result, or if the correct treatment is not
available, self-treat within 8-12 hours of your symptoms starting. In
all cases you should put yourself under the care of a trusted doctor
or other health worker as soon as possible. Malaria kills more
people than war.
DENGUE FEVER
This is another mosquito-borne illness which can lay you out with
amazing speed. The Aedes mosquito, which spreads this severe
flu-like illness, tends to bite during the day, especially two hours
before sunset. Dengue is common in both urban and rural areas of
South America, the Caribbean and many Pacific islands, South and
South-East Asia and parts of East Africa. Typical symptoms are
high fever, severe headache, muscle and back pain, and feeling
seriously ill. See a doctor, get a blood test (including a blood slide to
rule out malaria), then rest, drink plenty of fluids and be patient.
There is no cure available, but expert health care can be life-saving if
(rare) complications set in.
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VIRAL HAEMORRHAGIC FEVERS
Lassa fever, ebola and marburg are the best known of these rare
afflictions. There are regularly cases of lassa in rural areas of West
Africa. Most viral haemorrhagic fevers are spread by close contact
with infectious cases, some by mosquitoes or ticks. If you are
deployed in areas where known outbreaks are occurring, get
specialist advice. There are no effective cures, and prevention in
the case of lassa, ebola and marburg consists in avoiding contact
with infectious cases.
ACUTE DIARRHOEA
Acute diarrhoea may not be life-threatening but, as we all know, it
can be completely incapacitating. Maintain your fluid levels: drink at
least one glass per visit to the toilet, or use oral rehydration packets
or make up your own (eight level teaspoons of sugar plus one level
teaspoon of salt to one litre of clean water). Use your diarrhoea kit or
otherwise get hold of loperamide (Imodium or Arret) and take two,
then one every four hours if the diarrhoea seriously persists.
However, don’t use this in the case of dysentery (bloody diarrhoea).
Loperamide blocks but does not cure. Consider taking 500 mg of
ciprofloxacin, or ‘‘cipro’’, as a single dose. This is an antibiotic which
cures the majority of cases of traveller’s diarrhoea. If your
symptoms are severe and persistent, or if you have dysentery
(i.e. blood and fever), take ‘‘cipro’’ 500 mg every day for three days.
See a doctor if you are getting less and less well, have persistent
vomiting, or pass bloody stools. You can prevent a lot of diarrhoea
by avoiding salads, always eating food that is still hot from being
cooked and making sure that anything you drink comes from a
reliable bottled supply or, in the case of water and other beverages,
has been either boiled or sterilized by iodine or chlorine tablets.
FEVERS
A high body temperature in the tropics (e.g. 39oC or over) should
always be taken seriously, especially if you are in a malarious area
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or have come from one in the past few weeks. You should always
see a doctor if a fever persists or is worsening. It helps to be aware
of some important causes of fever. These include: meningitis
(severe headache, stiff neck, often a rash that does not fade when
you touch it); acute bilharzia or katayama fever (fever often
accompanied by wheezing and itching 20 or more days after
swimming in an area where bilharzia is common, such as Lake
Malawi); kidney infection or pyelonephritis (aching in the loin, often
with nausea and shivering, usually with frequent urination that
creates a burning sensation); typhoid (progressive fever and feeling
increasingly ill --- with no response to malaria treatment --- usually
accompanied by diarrhoea, sometimes by coughing and some-
times by a faint rash); blood poisoning (alternate shivering and
sweating, often in the presence of an infected bite or other skin
infection like a boil, or warm infected feet or legs). Heat stroke also
gives a high temperature.
CLIMATIC EXTREMES
Altitude sickness, hypothermia and and heat stroke can be
dangerous.
TOO HIGH
Beware of altitude sickness, which can set in at any height above
2,500-3,000 metres. If climbing or travelling to heights above this,
try to take one or two days first to get acclimatized. Above 3,000
metres, try to sleep each night only 300 metres higher than the one
before. Maintain your fluid levels. Consider taking acetazolamide
(Diamox) to prevent or help treat the symptoms of altitude
sickness. If you become short of breath while at rest, develop a
persistent cough, experience an unrelieved pounding headache or
feel drowsy, get down to a lower altitude as quickly as possible.
TOO COLD
Hypothermia can quickly set in with any combination of cold
weather, high elevation, strong wind and being wet. To prevent,
wear several layers of loose-fitting clothing, with the outer layer
waterproof, and cover head, neck and hands. Set up a ‘‘buddy
system’’ so that individuals can look after one another. Danger
signs are feeling intense cold, shivering, drowsiness or confusion. If
167
this happens to you or your companion, warm up without delay by
having warm sweet drinks, sharing warmth in a sleeping bag, or
having a bath with water up to 40oC. Check for signs of frostbite (an
aching or numbness, often in the hands or feet with the skin feeling
rock-hard and looking very pale or purplish). Do not drink alcohol.
TOO HOT
Working in high temperatures brings with it the risk of heat stroke or
sunstroke. This is when your body’s cooling mechanism (including
your ability to perspire) breaks down. Your body temperature is at
or above about 39oC, you feel hot and dry, your pulse rate goes up
and you may feel sick and confused. Get into a cool place at once,
drink cold drinks if you are able, get sponged down, fanned or have
cold water poured onto your body to evaporate away the heat. Get
medical help, as this can be an emergency.
AVOIDING ACCIDENTS
Accidents happen, but most can be avoided.
ROAD ACCIDENTS
Road accidents, perhaps more accurately termed ‘‘road avoid-
ables’’, are more likely to see you return home in a body bag than
any other non-conflict-related cause. Heed the following tips
alongside the earlier advice on 464s:
. Never drive after drinking and/or taking psychotropic
(‘‘recreational’’) drugs.
. Make time to have a good sleep before a long journey if you
are to be at the wheel.
. If possible, drive with a companion and share the driving.
. Avoid driving at night.
. Keep to a sensible speed, even if the President or Chief of
Staff is waiting for you at your destination.
. Always wear safety belts in the back and front seats even for
the shortest journeys.
. Try to ensure any vehicle you use is well maintained and
regularly serviced.
. Select and train any drivers you use with care and
thoroughness.
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. Keep a first-aid kit, leather gloves and a torch with spare
batteries in the vehicle.
. Wear a crash helmet if riding on a motorbike.
If you are injured in an accident in a developing country, refuse a
blood transfusion except in life-threatening situations.
These rules are obvious but all too easy to brush aside when other
things seem more important.
Having survived the tarmac, mud and potholes on mission, take
care during times of leisure.
SWIMMING
Do not drink alcohol then swim or dive. At the seaside be aware of
dangerous currents and undertow, areas known to have poisonous
sea creatures, crocodiles or sharks. Stay within your depth unless
you are a strong swimmer. Use life jackets for off-shore water
sports or when using inflatable craft. Never run along the side of a
slippery pool; never dive into cloudy water or into a part of the
pool whose depth you have not checked out.
USEFUL WEBSITES
www.fco.gov.uk/travel
British Foreign & Commonwealth Office travel website.
www.fitfortravel.nhs.uk
An excellent UK health service travel-health website.
www.cdc.gov/travel
Official US travel-health website.
www.interhealth.org.uk
The InterHealth website has useful information and a travel-health
supply catalogue with on-line ordering.
www.tropimed.com
Tropimed offers up-to-date information on travel medicine (with
ICRC password and client no).
www.safetravel.ch
A Swiss French-language website with health tips for travellers.
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CHAPTER 12
TELECOMMUNICATIONS
Although earlier in my life I specialized in radio for two years, I know
full well that if I make this section too technical, you will not read it. I
promise that it will be non-technical and very brief!
So you have arrived in the field full of enthusiasm and ready to go.
Just as with your strange new 464, you might also have had some
basic instruction in the use of radios. This normally consists of how
to turn it on and off ---- which of course is pretty vital! If you had the
necessary time in your training, you might also have been told how
to get the best out of the radios you possess. Being bombarded
with so much information on so many subjects in such a short
period, however, you might just have missed the significance of
some of these points about radio communication.
First some general remarks:
. An organization should regard good communications proce-
dures backed up by good and reliable equipment as an aid to
security. Though it will not in itself ensure security, if you can
communicate efficiently with your base or others in the field
about security incidents or threats, then obviously your
security is much enhanced.
. Before you use any form of communications equipment, it is
wise to think before you speak. If it helps, jot down the key
points you wish to cover in your message. This will save time
and ensure clarity. There is nothing worse than someone
getting on the radio and rambling on for what seems an
eternity to end up saying something very simple. Always
remember that someone might need to send an urgent life-
or-death message, and this is impossible while you are
clogging up the airways!
. Small mobile radios, SATCOM (satellite communications
system) equipment and cellular phones are attractive and
expensive items. Beware of thieves. Secure or hide your
equipment if possible.
. Be aware that nothing you say on any form of communications
system you are likely to be issued with is in any way secure. It is
wise to assume that someone is listening to your transmission.
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Again, think before you speak, and if the matter is sensitive,
don’t transmit, or at least be aware of the consequences.
Now let us look at the main types of communication equipment
that you might encounter. Two are radios in our accepted sense
of the word: VHF (very high frequency) and HF (high frequency).
Then we have SATCOM or the satellite phone. We will also look,
from a security point of view, at mobile phones and use of the
internet.
I will not deal with individual makes or types. We are concerned only
with the general guidelines on the use of each type. Let’s look at
each in turn.
VHF RADIO
The VHF radio is the basic set that you will use in the field on a daily
basis. It is a key piece of equipment in ensuring your safety. It is
extremely easy to use. It is also very easy to abuse, and when you
do that you fail to get the best out of it.
You see that the waves are travelling in a plane horizontal to the
antenna. If it is sloping backwards, you are sending excellent
signals to Mars, perhaps, but not to your office!
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The same
naturally
applies to
the VHF
antennas
on your of-
fice. En-
sure that
they are up-
right and,
returning
NO NO YES
once again
to points
made earlier, ensure that they are on the highest part of the roof
and not obscured by anything else up there. Place the antenna
outside and not in the roof space inside (attic). I once saw one such
antenna placed under a roof that happened to be made of
corrugated iron. The VHF waves were immediately hindered, of
course: the metal roof ensured that they were reflected and
bounced around very nicely inside, while not actually leaving the
building! “These radios are useless!” was the cry, until the next day
when the antenna was moved outside and for the first time it was
possible to communicate over vast distances.
DEAD SPOTS
“Now he is getting technical,” I hear you moan. Not at all! Dead
spots are a common feature of VHF. Because radio waves are
deflected off in a different direction by obstacles in their path, there
are times when excellent communication suddenly ceases and you
hear nothing, or the message is completely distorted or broken up.
You try and try again but there is no improvement. All that has
happened is that you or the set with which you are in contact has
changed position in such a way that there is now an obstacle
between you. In short, you are in one of those infamous dead spots:
radio waves are being deflected or weakened by obstacles
somewhere in your vicinity and are just missing you.
The solution is simply to move away slightly and try again. You will
be amazed to see that sometimes only a few feet will make a
dramatic difference.
174
Overhead wires or pylons. The electricity generated from
overhead wires or pylons causes them to act as radiating antennas
themselves and will affect your transmissions and your reception
too; both will be distorted. So just move away from the wires and try
to send your message again.
MOBILE PHONES
Mobile phones are now most humanitarian volunteers’ favourite
way of communicating. There are very good reasons for this: they
are simple to use and you can get through without the problems
associated with VHF and HF. With GSM (global system for mobile
communications) systems, you can obtain broad international
coverage for your mobile. Access to e-mail through your phone is
another attraction.
Despite all the good points, the use of mobile phones presents
certain disadvantages. Costs in some regions can be high,
especially for international calls. The coverage might be good in
some areas, particularly in cities, and poor or non-existent in the
countryside. You might have to purchase a new SIM card or phone
for use in some countries if your system is not compatible with local
ones.
In addition, there are a number of security-related aspects that you
should take into account:
. In a disaster-hit or war-torn area, the mobile phone network
might have been destroyed or damaged. In this case, no
mobile phone communication will be available or, at best, it
will be unreliable.
. In times of crisis, a mobile phone system might well become
overloaded with too many users and it might be impossible to
make calls.
. The local authorities can control the mobile phone system.
They might decide to turn it off.
178
. The local authorities can listen in to any conversation. (As
with all other forms of communication you are likely to use,
mobile phone conversations should always be regarded as
insecure.)
. The phones themselves are attractive items for a thief.
. The new and attractive selling points of mobile phones (the
camera and video-recording capabilities) could get you into
trouble. As mentioned in the section on cameras, the mere
presence of these built-in features could cause your
intentions to be misunderstood. Their presence could be
deliberately used against you. Essentially, we are talking
about potential spying gadgets. Avoid this by using simple
mobile phones without the new ‘‘gismos’’.
. When you speak on a VHF radio net, all your colleagues
within range can hear what you are saying. This is called an
‘‘all-informed radio net’’. However, when you speak on a
mobile phone, it is normally a simple one-to-one conversa-
tion. As you can imagine, this might also have security
implications (e.g. if there has been an incident and you are
trying to inform others or tell them of an area to avoid).
180
NOTES
181
NOTES
182
NOTES
183
NOTES
184
MISSION
The International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC)
is an impartial, neutral and independent organization whose
exclusively humanitarian mission is to protect the lives and
dignity of victims of war and internal violence and to provide
them with assistance. It directs and coordinates the
international relief activities conducted by the Movement in
situations of conflict. It also endeavours to prevent suffering
by promoting and strengthening humanitarian law and
universal humanitarian principles. Established in 1863, the
ICRC is at the origin of the International Red Cross and Red
Crescent Movement.
Staying-Alive-cover.qxp 13.1.2006 8:52 Page 1
ICRC
David Lloyd Roberts
STAYING ALIVE offers expert advice on
security to humanitarian volunteers operating
in conflict zones.
Author David Lloyd Roberts has witnessed
conflict from the viewpoint of both a military
officer and a humanitarian worker. His book
draws on a unique variety of up-to-date
experience.
By explaining the different threats to your
safety, this book lays to rest some of the
mystique surrounding the subject of field
STAYING ALIVE
security.
Yes, there are dangers, but with some basic
understanding of them they can be avoided or
at least substantially reduced. As the old
saying goes, “Knowledge dispels fear.”
You are ultimately the guardian of your own
safety and security. The knowledge provided
by this book puts you in a better position to
draw that critical line between the calculated
and the unacceptable risk, a line that you, and
those in your charge, must never cross.