Seismogenic Shear Zones in the Lithospheric

Mantle: Ultramafic Pseudotachylytes in the

Lanzo Peridotite (Western Alps, NW Italy)
GIOVANNI B. PICCARDO
1
*, GIORGIO RANALLI
2
AND
LUISA GUARNIERI
1
1
DIPTERIS, UNIVERSITA
'
DI GENOVA, 16132 GENOVA, ITALY
2
DEPARTMENT OF EARTH SCIENCES AND OTTAWA^CARLETON GEOSCIENCE CENTRE, CARLETON UNIVERSITY,
OTTAWA, ONTARIO K1S 5B6, CANADA
RECEIVED DECEMBER 6, 2008; ACCEPTED SEPTEMBER 15, 2009
ADVANCE ACCESS PUBLICATION NOVEMBER 6, 2009
At Mt. Moncuni (Lanzo Massif, Western Alps) plagioclase peri-
dotites and early mid-ocean ridge basalt (MORB) gabbroic dykes
are deformed by shear zones containing cataclastic bands and both
fault-vein and injection-vein pseudotachylytes, which are crosscut by
late MORB porphyritic dykes. Fault-vein pseudotachylytes have
thicknesses of the order of 1mm; injection-vein pseudotachylytes have
a typical thickness of 1^10 cm and contain spinifex textures.
Structural, petrological and geochemical data show that the pseudo-
tachylytes formed by near-complete melting of the host peridotite,
at ambient temperature^pressure conditions (T=600 1008C,
P505 GPa) close to the brittle^ductile transition of ultramafic
rocks, during exhumation of the lithospheric mantle in the early
stages of formation of the Ligurian Tethys oceanic basin. Estimates
of the average volume fraction of unmelted clasts and of the ambient
and liquidus temperature, together with thermophysical parameters,
allow the determination of the melting energy per unit volume.
Coseismic displacement is not observable at Mt. Moncuni, and con-
sequently the dynamic shear resistance cannot be inferred. We show
that commonly proposed relations between fault-vein thickness and
displacement are of limited value, given the difficulty in identifying
single-event pseudotachylytes and the mobility of the melt. However,
we also show that dynamic shear resistance can be predicted to
decrease sharply if the melt coats the whole fault plane, partly as a
consequence of the nonlinear viscosity of silicate melts at high strain
rates. The Mt. Moncuni pseudotachylytes are the result of upper
mantle seismicity at shallow depth (z520 km) over a time period
of at most 5 Myr. Estimation of the total seismic energy release and
moment (caused by an unspecified number of small to moderate
earthquakes) requires an assessment of the total pseudotachylyte
volume. This is highly uncertain, with a probable qualitative error
margin of 1 order of magnitude. The inferred values of cumulative
seismic energy release and moment are of the order of 10
15 1
J and
10
19 1
N m, respectively, resulting in a seismic energy release
rate of approximately 10
8 1
J/a. This value is compatible with
present-day seismic rates at extensional plate margins.
KEY WORDS: Lanzo Massif; lithospheric mantle; ultramafic
pseudotachylytes
I NTRODUCTI ON
Pseudotachylytes are the product of frictional melting
during seismic slip (Sibson, 1975; Di Toro et al., 2005;
Sibson & Toy, 2006). The great majority of pseudotachy-
lytes are found in upper^middle crustal rocks, and occur
in the brittle regime [see the classical example given by
Sibson (1975)], but in some cases they occur also in the duc-
tile regime (T46008C; White, 1996; Lin et al., 2003; Ueda
et al., 2008). Brittle fault-hosted pseudotachylytes are usu-
ally associated with cataclasites and sometimes mylonitic
shear zones, often in amphibolite-facies metamorphic
assemblages. Sometimes, near the base of the crustal
*Corresponding author. Telephone: 39 010 3538308. Fax: 39 010
352169. E-mail: piccardo@dipteris.unige.it
The Author 2009. Published by Oxford University Press. All
rights reserved. For Permissions, please e-mail: journals.permissions@
oxfordjournals.org
JOURNALOF PETROLOGY VOLUME 51 NUMBERS 1 & 2 PAGES 81^100 2010 doi:10.1093/petrology/egp067

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seismogenic zone, rupturing and ductile shearing are pene-
contemporaneous in mylonite belts (Sibson & Toy, 2006).
Some pseudotachylytes have been found in subduction
accretionary complexes (e.g. Kodiak accretionary com-
plex, Alaska, Rowe et al., 2005; Schistes Lustre s of Cape
Corse, Corsica, Austrheim & Andersen, 2004; Andersen
& Austrheim, 2006; Shimanto accretionary complex,
Japan, Ujiie et al., 2007). Pseudotachylytes in in situ
exhumed mantle rocks have been found in the Balmuccia
peridotite, Ivrea^Verbano zone, Western Alps (Obata &
Karato, 1995; Ueda et al., 2008) and in the Mt. Moncuni
peridotite, Lanzo Massif, Western Alps (Piccardo et al.,
2007a). At Balmuccia, the pseudotachylytes occur in
spinel lherzolite. Compositions of host rock and pseudota-
chylyte are similar, showing near-total melting of the
former, followed by rapid crystallization. The pseudotachy-
lytes were probably formed during a late-stage, low-T
(6008C), high-stress (t 200^300 MPa) deformation epi-
sode of the host rock at conditions near the brittle^
ductile transition (Obata & Karato, 1995). However, some
samples from Balmuccia, overprinting a spinel lherzolite
amphibole-bearing protomylonite, were probably formed
at higher temperatures (T700^8008C; Ueda et al.,
2008). The pseudotachylytes in the Mt. Moncuni peridotite
have been described by Piccardo et al. (2007a). Here,
impregnated plagioclase peridotites are cut by metre- to
decametre-scale shear zones. Within the shear zones and
in the host peridotite, both fault and injection pseudotachy-
lyte veins (sensu Sibson, 1975) are present, postdating the
ductile deformation in the shear zones.
Here we first review and update the stuctural, petrologi-
cal, and geochemical characteristics of the Mt. Moncuni
pseudotachylytes, which help to constrain the ambient con-
ditions at the time of their formation. Then we discuss
ways in which observational constraints can be used to
infer seismic parameters. In particular, we show that
fault-vein thickness is not a reliable proxy for coseismic dis-
placement in cases where the latter cannot be determined
from observation, and use a combined linear^nonlinear
rheology of silicate melts to predict a large drop from fric-
tional to viscous shear resistance. Finally, on the basis of
reasonable estimates of thermophysical parameters, ambi-
ent conditions and total pseudotachylyte volume, we esti-
mate the cumulative seismic energy release and moment
associated with the upper mantle seismic activity that gen-
erated the pseudotachylytes.
GEOLOGI CAL BACKGROUND AND
CHARACTERI STI CS OF THE MT.
MONCUNI PSEUDOTACHYLYTES
The Lanzo Peridotite Massif (150 km
2
; Fig. 1) is located
in the Western Alps 30 km NW of the city of Turin
(northwestern Italy). It contains a large proportion of
fresh peridotite, consisting predominantly of plagioclase
lherzolite with minor amounts of spinel lherzolite, pyroxe-
nite and dunite, surrounded and partially overprinted by
serpentinite (see, e.g. Boudier, 1978). The Lanzo Massif
was originally interpreted as an upwelling asthenospheric
diapir that underwent low-pressure (plagioclase-facies)
partial melting and melt redistribution while being
emplaced during the early stages of opening of the
Jurassic LigurianTethys (Nicolas, 1984, 1986). On the basis
of Nd^Sr isotope studies, Bodinier et al. (1991) interpreted
the northern sector of the Lanzo body as a fragment of
sub-continental mantle that became accreted to the ther-
mal lithosphere at 400^700 Ma. The Lanzo peridotites
are primarily overlain by a reduced thickness of metamor-
phic oceanic crust (i.e. metabasites, Mn-rich metaquart-
zites and calcschists; Lagabrielle et al., 1989; Pelletier &
Mu ntener, 2006), similar to the other Jurassic ophiolite
sequences of the Western Alps and Northern Apennines.
This indicates that they were emplaced at the sea-floor
during opening of the Jurassic oceanic basin.
Recent investigations (see Piccardo et al., 2007b, 2009;
Piccardo, 2008, and references therein) have documented
the complex tectonic and petrological evolution of the
Lanzo peridotites prior to their sea-floor exposure in the
Jurassic basin in the context of the extensional evolution
of the Europe^Adria continental lithosphere and the open-
ing of the Jurassic Ligurian Tethys basin. These rocks (1)
were derived from the subcontinental lithospheric mantle,
(2) underwent subsolidus exhumation towards shallow
levels during continental rifting, leading to Jurassic sea-
floor spreading in the LigurianTethys basin, (3) underwent
significant interaction with mid-ocean ridge basalt
(MORB)-type melts via diffuse and focused porous flow,
and were consequently transformed into pyroxene-
depleted reactive spinel peridotites, plagioclase-enriched
impregnated peridotites, and replacive spinel harzbur-
gite^dunite channels, and (4) were later intruded by
MORB gabbroic dykes and pods (e.g. Piccardo, 2009;
Piccardo & Guarnieri, 2009, and references therein).
The small ultramafic body at Mt. Moncuni is a satellite
of the Lanzo Massif and consists mostly of plagioclase
peridotite, with widespread early gabbroic and late subvol-
canic porphyritic mafic dykes (Piccardo et al., 2007a).
Both peridotites and gabbroic dykes are strongly deformed
and show decametre-scale ductile shear zones containing
cataclastic bands. Within the latter, millimetre-wide pseu-
dotachylyte veins are present, mostly concordant with the
tectonite^mylonite foliation of the shear zones and the
host rock (fault-vein type sensu Sibson, 1975; Figs 2a and
3a, b), connected by bridges of injection-vein type sensu
Sibson, 1975; Fig. 3c and d). Larger (decimetre-wide,
metre-long) veins of injection-vein type propagate from
the shear zones into the host rock, showing sharp discor-
dant contacts with the peridotite (Fig. 2b^d).
JOURNAL OF PETROLOGY VOLUME 51 NUMBERS 1 & 2 JANUARY & FEBRUARY 2010
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Fig. 1. Sketch map of the Lanzo peridotite massif, in theWestern Alps and the location of the Mt. Moncuni body. 1, Gran Paradiso Orthogneiss;
2, Sesia^Lanzo Zone; 3, Schistes Lustres; 4, Pennine Ophiolite; 5, Pennine and Lanzo Serpentinites; 6, Lanzo Peridotites; 7, Late Cenozoic
Sediments.
PICCARDO et al. ULTRAMAFIC PSEUDOTACHYLYTES, LANZO
83

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Pseudotachylyte veins are widespread, covering at least
5% of the outcrop area. The porphyritic mafic dykes
cut across both peridotites and shear zones.
TEXTURAL AND PETROGRAPHIC
FEATURES
Plagioclase peridotites
Plagioclase peridotites exhibit porphyroclastic textures
consisting of a deformed spinel-facies assemblage
[olivine (Ol) orthopyroxene (Opx) clinopyroxene
(Cpx) spinel (Sp)] surrounded by a micro-granular
magmatic aggregate with a plagioclase (Plg)-rich gabbroic
composition. Plagioclase content is up to 20% by volume.
These peridotites show peculiar micro-structural fea-
tures. A first group consists of (1) rims and coronas of new
unstrained olivine surrounding and partly replacing
deformed and exsolved pyroxene porphyroclasts, and (2)
millimetre-size unstrained euhedral olivine crystals grown
inside exsolved orthopyroxene porphyroclasts. These struc-
tures indicate olivine formation at the expense of mantle
pyroxenes, in association with melt^rock interaction
induced by a silica-undersaturated melt (Piccardo et al.,
2007a). A second group consists of (1) millimetre-size
orthopyroxene patches and veins replacing kinked mantle
olivine, (2) isolated unstrained plagioclase crystals cutting
deformed and kinked mantle prophyroclasts, and (3) milli-
metre-size plagioclase-rich gabbroic aggregates interstitial
to the deformed mantle porphyroclasts. These structures
indicate reactive interaction and interstitial crystallization
of orthopyroxene(^silica)-saturated melts (Piccardo et al.,
2007a).
As already described for the South Lanzo plagioclase
peridotites (Piccardo et al., 2007b), these peridotites are
derived from pristine spinel-facies peridotites that under-
went melt^peridotite reactive interaction and melt referti-
lization by porous flow percolation and interstitial
crystallization of basaltic melts.
Tectonite^mylonite peridotite shear zones
The shear zones deforming the peridotites exhibit strongly
foliated tectonite^mylonite fabrics, consisting of a grano-
blastic fine-grained, Plg-bearing mineral aggregate, sug-
gesting that early stages of deformation and
recrystallization occurred, most probably, at plagioclase-
facies conditions (P51 GPa). Mg-hornblende (Mg-horn)
amphiboles are widespread and in equilibrium with the
Plg-bearing assemblage. Amphibole development in the
shear zones suggests that they became preferential path-
ways for fluid migration. Along the tectonite^mylonite
Fig. 2. Field characteristics of rocks at Mt. Moncuni: (a) millimetre-wide fault-vein pseudotachylyte in a shear zone, running parallel to the
main tectonite foliation; (b^d) centimetre-wide injection-vein pseudotachylytes cutting at variable angles the main foliation of the host
peridotite.
JOURNAL OF PETROLOGY VOLUME 51 NUMBERS 1 & 2 JANUARY & FEBRUARY 2010
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foliation, thin, millimetre-size, near-parallel cataclastic
bands are present. Late tremolitic amphibole, replacing
pyroxenes and Ol, is stable with albite (Ab)-rich Plg and
chlorite in the cataclastic mineral assemblage, suggesting
a transition from amphibolite- to greenschist-facies condi-
tions. The sequence of metamorphic assemblages and the
occurrence of hydrous minerals are indicative of progres-
sive exhumation towards lower temperatures and pres-
sures, increasing fluid activity, and probably transition
from plastic to brittle behaviour.
Pseudotachylyte veins
Within the mylonitic and cataclastic bands thin,
millimetre-wide concordant pseudotachylyte veins (fault-
vein type, following the terminology of Sibson, 1975) are
present. They consist of an ultra-fine-grained to crypto- or
microcrystalline matrix (Fig. 3a and b), showing signifi-
cant amounts (510^15% by volume) of clastic olivine
grains or aggregates and lithic mylonitic or cataclastic
clasts. The ultra-fine structure suggests that they passed
through a melt stage, whereas their peridotitic composi-
tion (see below) requires that the host peridotite under-
went localized almost complete melting to form the
parental peridotitic melts of the pseudotachylytes. SEM
backscattered electron (BSE) images and microanalytical
investigations reveal that they are composed of ultra-fine
aggregates of Mg-rich, cryptocrystalline minerals, most
probably derived by low-grade metamorphic recrystalliza-
tion of an original Mg-rich glass that has been completely
replaced by low-grade minerals (e.g. serpentine minerals,
chlorite, tremolitic amphibole, etc.).
Larger (decimetre-wide and metre-long) sinusoidal
injection-vein pseudotachylytes bands crosscut the shear
zones and extend into the deformed host peridotite show-
ing very sharp contacts (injection-vein type, following the
terminology of Sibson, 1975) (see Fig. 2). They are poor in
clastic olivine grains or aggregates and lithic mylonitic or
cataclastic clasts, and consist of fine-grained granular
Fig. 3. Photomicrographs of the ultramafic pseudotachylytes at Mt. Moncuni. (a) Fault-vein type pseudotachylyte, running within a thin cata-
clastic band parallel to the foliation in a Plg Mg-hornblende peridotite tectonite (plane-polarized light). (b) As in (a), crossed Nicols.
(c) Bridge of injection-vein pseudotachylyte connecting two fault-vein pseudotachylytes and cutting the foliation of a Plg Mg-hornblende
peridotite tectonite (plane-polarized light). (d) As in (c), crossed Nicols. (e, f) Spinifex textures, made of radial aggregates of orthopyroxene
laths, in decimetre-wide injection-vein type pseudotachylyte.
PICCARDO et al. ULTRAMAFIC PSEUDOTACHYLYTES, LANZO
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aggregates of Ol Opx Cpx spinel (Sp), where Ol pre-
dominates (450% by volume) over Opx (430% by
volume) and subordinate Cpx, with interstitial cryptocrys-
talline material. Well-developed spinifex stuctures (sensu
Donaldson, 1982) are observed (Fig. 3e and f), consisting
of radial aggregates of elongated Opx crystals with Cpx
rims, surrounded by an aggregate of euhedral to rounded
Ol grains enclosed in interstitial cryptocrystalline material
(Fig. 3g and h). The spinifex structures and the peculiar
compositions of the component minerals (see below) indi-
cate very rapid crystallization at very high temperatures
in the discordant pseudotachylyte veins.
The larger, decimetre-wide pseudotachylyte veins have a
clear internal structure consisting of: (1) an outer border
(about 1cm thick) made of a very fine-grained, microcrys-
talline aggregate most probably of olivine; (2) an internal
layer (about 1cm thick) mainly composed of olivine and
abundant spinel grains; (3) the inner part of the pseudota-
chylyte vein showing a spinifex-like texture composed of
opx laths and interstitial cryptocrystalline material
(Fig. 4a).
Microtextures in injection pseudotachylyte veins
Accurate microstructural investigations using SEM BSE
images, coupled with SEM analyses (see below) show
that, notwithstanding the presumably very rapid crystalli-
zation within the injection pseudotachylytes, almost all
the rock experienced rapid cooling and the various miner-
als appeared on the liquidus following a precise crystalliza-
tion sequence. In addition to spinel, which shows
complicated microstructures and has been not investigated
in this study, olivine is the first liquidus mineral and forms
rounded, subhedral grains distributed in the whole-rocks
(Fig. 4b^g). Olivine grains grew abundantly, reaching at
least 50% of the system volume. Later, orthopyroxene
laths crystallized, both radiating from a single point and
growing across the olivine-bearing, crystal mush-like
pseudotachylyte at this stage (Fig. 4b^d), forming at the
expense of the molten material and enclosing the already
formed olivine grains. The interstitial spaces between the
orthopyroxene laths are occupied by abundant olivine
grains that are surrounded by extremely fine-grained to
cryptocrystalline material. This interstitial material is fre-
quently recrystallized to an ultra-fine-grained aggregate
(Fig. 4f) of most probably low-grade metamorphic
minerals.
The last stage of crystallization is represented by forma-
tion of clinopyroxene both as rims surrounding the outer
border of the orthopyroxene laths (Fig. 4d) and as intersti-
tial grains between the rounded olivine crystals outside
the orthopyroxene laths (Fig. 4e). Detailed analytical
work allows us to recognize the major element composi-
tions of the different minerals in the different structural
sites and the variation of some chemical parameters for
the same mineral phase during crystallization (see below).
Similar microstructural investigation of fault-vein pseu-
dotachylytes to unravel primary textural features failed to
give useful information, largely because these pseudotachy-
lytes are composed of extremely fine-grained material in
dusty aggregates that gave unreliable chemical composi-
tions. The pristine material in the fault-vein pseudotachy-
lytes, whether originally glassy or cryptocrystalline, has
been completely replaced by ultra-fine-grained aggregates
of secondary metamorphic minerals.
COMPOSI TI ONAL FEATURES OF
THE PSEUDOTACHYLYTES
Analytical methods
Bulk-rock major and trace element analyses were per-
formed at ActLabs (Toronto, Canada) using the
4-lithoresearch schedule. Analytical techniques and
errors can be found at http://www.actlabs.com/
gg_rock_litho_usa.htm.
Major element mineral chemistry and BSE images were
obtained at DIPTERIS, University of Genova, using a
Philips SEM 515 electron microscope equipped with an
energy-dispersive spectrometer (EDS) (accelerating
potential 15 kV; sample current 20 nA). Major element
mineral chemistry data were also obtained at the Istituto
di Geoscience e Georisorse^Consiglio Nazionale delle
Ricerche (IGG^CNR) of Padova, Italy, using a Cameca
SX50 electron microprobe equipped with four wave-
length-dispersive spectrometers and one EDS spectrometer
(accelerating potential 15 kV; sample current 15 nA).
Bulk-rock compositions
Plagioclase peridotites (Table 1) have relatively high
Al and Ca, high Mg and low Si contents (Al
2
O
3
=287^
320 wt %, CaO=283^299 wt %, SiO
2
=436^
450 wt %, MgO=396^405 wt %). Bulk-rock chondrite-
normalized rare earth element (REE) patterns are almost
flat in the middle to high REE (MREE^HREE) region
(Er up to 3 chondrite) and variably light REE
(LREE)-depleted (Ce
N
/Sm
N
=017^021). These character-
istics are very similar to those observed in the South
Lanzo impregnated plagioclase peridotites (Piccardo
et al., 2007b).
Some samples from the decimetre-wide injection veins,
selected to avoid the presence of lithic clasts, also have
bulk-rock peridotitic compositions (SiO
2
=429^
443 wt %, Al
2
O
3
=24^38 wt %, CaO=23^31wt %,
MgO= 394^419 wt %) (Table 1). Bulk-rock chondrite-
normalized REE patterns are almost flat in the MREE^
HREE region (Er up to 2 chondrite) and variably
LREE-depleted (Ce
N
/Sm
N
=022^068). They plot within
the compositional range of the impregnated plagioclase
peridotites of South Lanzo (Piccardo et al., 2007b).
JOURNAL OF PETROLOGY VOLUME 51 NUMBERS 1 & 2 JANUARY & FEBRUARY 2010
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Fig. 4. SEM BSE images of a decimetre-wide injection-vein pseudotachylyte. (a) Traverse (from lower left to top right) fromthe outer border to
the inner zone of the vein. The vein is concentrically zoned, and is formed by: (1) an outer, extremely fine-grained, 1cm wide zone, very rich
in Mg, most probably composed of cryptocrystalline olivine; (2) an intermediate, very fine-grained zone composed of Mg-olivine and abundant
interstitial grains of spinel; (3) an inner zone where the mineral grain size is larger and spinifex textures are present. This evidence points to
the following crystallization order: olivine olivine spinel orthopyroxene clinopyroxene. (b) Details of the inner zone of the pseudo-
tachylyte vein, showing the main textural setting of the spinifex-bearing area, mostly composed of orthopyroxene laths and interstitial aggre-
gates of rounded olivine grains surrounded by an extremely fine-grained cryptocrystalline matrix. (c) Detail of a spinifex texture, where the
main component minerals can be recognized: (1) elongated orthopyroxene laths; (2) rounded olivine grains in an interstitial cryptocrystalline
(black) matrix. (d) Detail of an orthopyroxene lath: (1) enclosed euhedral olivine grains; (2) orthopyroxene; (3) clinopyroxene forming at the
outer rim of the orthopyroxene laths and interstitially between olivine grains and orthopyroxene. (e) Detail of an olivine aggregate (1) sur-
rounded by interstitial cryptocrystalline matrix (black) (3). It should be noted that sporadically some interstitial clinopyroxene is present (2).
(f) Close-up of the cryptocrystalline material (3) between rounded subhedral olivine grains (1), with some interstitial clinopyroxene (2). The
cryptocrystalline material appears to have been significantly altered to an ultra-fine-grained aggregate of metamorphic minerals. Small areas
are rich in Mg and Al, other areas are rich in Ca and Al, suggesting the possible association of chlorite^amphibole and plagioclase.
PICCARDO et al. ULTRAMAFIC PSEUDOTACHYLYTES, LANZO
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Mineral chemistry
Plagioclase peridotites
Plagioclase peridotites are composed of magnesian olivine
(Fo 89) and pyroxenes (orthopyroxene Mg-number 90,
clinopyroxene Mg-number 92) and anorthite-rich plagio-
clase (An 81^88) (Tables 2 and 4). Spinels are significantly
enriched in Ti (TiO
2
047^099 wt %) with respect to
those in common mantle peridotites, as is usual in spinels
from impregnated plagioclase peridotites (Piccardo et al.,
2007b, and references therein). Orthopyroxene grains in
the host deformed peridotite very close to the pseudotachy-
lyte veins sometimes have very high Ca contents (CaO
279^334 wt %).
Mylonitic peridotites in the shear zones (Table 3)
are composed of magnesian olivine (Fo 89^90) and pyrox-
enes (orthopyroxene Mg-number 90, clinopyroxene
Table 1: Bulk-rock major and trace element compositions of representative ultramafic rocks from Mt. Moncuni
Sample: MM1 MM15 MM21 MM13 MM16A MM17 MM18
Rock type: Plg perid. Plg perid. Shear perid. Pseudot. Pseudot. Pseudot. Pseudot.
SiO
2
4498 4362 4499 4374 4411 4293 4431
Al
2
O
3
287 320 479 484 244 291 377
Fe
2
O
3
(T) 926 926 797 849 929 914 888
MnO 013 013 011 013 012 013 013
MgO 3959 4046 3815 3855 4132 4188 3942
CaO 283 299 333 368 234 256 314
Na
2
O 023 022 057 035 031 028 024
K
2
O 001 012 008
TiO
2
011 011 008 010 008 009 011
P
2
O
5
001
Total 10000 10000 10000 10000 10000 10000 10000
Recalculated LOI free (ppm)
La 5005 5005 007 013 022 013 5005
Ce 023 02 027 044 05 038 02
Pb 55 55 55 55 55 55 55
Sr 3 2 41 32 5 4 12
Pr 007 007 006 009 007 007 005
Nd 055 054 043 061 045 044 043
Zr 6 54 54 4 54 54 54
Hf 02 03 01 02 01 02 01
Sm 027 028 019 024 018 018 022
Eu 0103 0127 0104 0092 0065 0069 009
Gd 038 045 025 035 025 027 032
Tb 008 01 005 007 005 006 007
Tl 5005 5005 5005 5005 5005 5005 5005
Dy 058 071 036 049 037 041 046
Ho 013 015 008 011 008 008 01
Y 37 43 25 29 22 25 29
Er 04 048 025 033 027 027 032
Tm 0061 0073 0042 005 004 0045 0049
Yb 039 047 028 032 027 029 033
Lu 006 0069 0043 0046 0044 0042 0051
Sc 14 15 13 13 13 13 16
V 86 104 47 50 46 49 61
Cr 2480 2950 2500 2530 2980 2790 2780
Plg perid., host plagioclase peridotite; shear perid., tectonitemylonite peridotite in shear zones; pseudot., decimetre-wide
injection-vein pseudotachylyte; LOI, loss on ignition.
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Mg-number 88^92) and anorthite-rich plagioclase (An 75^
82). Amphiboles are also developed within the shear
zones: (1) Mg-hornblende formed in equilibrium with
plagioclase-bearing assemblages in the tectonitic^
mylonitic bands; (2) tremolite replacing clinopyroxene
and olivine, formed in the cataclastic bands coexisting
with rather sodic plagioclase.
Injection pseudotachylyte veins
As previously described, the discordant decimetre-wide
pseudotachylyte veins consist of dominant spinifex-texture
olivine grains enclosed in a matrix of orthopyroxene laths
with minor clinopyroxene rims. The spinifex structure,
modal mineralogy and the compositions of the constituent
minerals indicate that the injection veins formed by very
rapid crystallization at the very high temperature of an
ultramafic melt.
The constituent minerals of the veins have unusual com-
positions (Tables 5^7). In general, the euhedral olivine
grains are highly magnesian (Mg-number 917^875); the
orthopyroxene laths and clinopyroxene rims and intersti-
tial grains are also magnesian (opx Mg-number 898^928
and cpx Mg-number 763^899, respectively). Olivine has
unusually high contents of Cr (Cr
2
O
3
in the range
Table 2: Mineral major element compositions of representative Plg peridotites
Sample: MM1
+
Mineral: CPX PC CPX PR CPX GR OPX PC OPX PR OPX GR SP PLG
SiO
2
5152 5173 5203 5659 5686 5629 012 4827
TiO
2
057 074 068 021 023 026 047 001
Cr
2
O
3
136 112 127 068 064 069 3932 000
Al
2
O
3
481 463 399 274 256 276 2569 3297
Fe
2
O
3
270 005
FeO 246 216 236 673 658 664
MnO 009 009 005 015 011 013 026 004
MgO 1561 1630 1593 3284 3297 3251 1054 000
CaO 2331 2320 2343 087 064 139 001 1646
Na
2
O 044 047 046 000 000 030 001 217
K
2
O 001 000 000 003 004 001 000 002
Mg-no. 919 931 923 897 899 897
An 807
Sample: MM20
Mineral: CPX PC CPX PR CPX GR OPX PC OPX PR OPX GR PLG
SiO
2
5233 5192 5327 5645 5670 5643 5030
TiO
2
048 051 060 014 016 018 002
Cr
2
O
3
132 146 154 085 075 081 001
Al
2
O
3
473 544 366 310 282 309 3157
Fe
2
O
3
003
FeO 280 274 264 669 641 624
MnO 008 007 007 014 012 008 001
MgO 1581 1555 1617 3247 3289 3266 002
CaO 2275 2282 2262 136 143 156 1530
Na
2
O 050 046 046 000 003 000 302
K
2
O 001 000 000 000 000 000 001
Mg-no. 910 910 916 896 901 903
An 737
PC, porphyroclast core; PR, porphyroclast rim; GR, interstitial grain.
+
From Piccardo et al. (2007a).
PICCARDO et al. ULTRAMAFIC PSEUDOTACHYLYTES, LANZO
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021^040 wt %) and Ca (CaO in the range 029^
039 wt %) and, in some cases Al (Al
2
O
3
up to 015^
017 wt %). Detailed observations reveal that the higher
Cr and Ca concentrations and the highest Mg-number
values (in the range 917^906) are frequently recorded by
olivine grains enclosed in the orthopyroxene laths. Core^
rimvariations are variable and frequently contrasting, pos-
sibly as a result of the very small grain size and analytical
limits. High concentrations of these elements in olivine
from basaltic^peridotitic compositions are generally
considered indicative of high equilibration temperatures.
It is possible that those olivine grains enclosed in the ortho-
pyroxene laths retain compositions attained during the
highest temperatures of incipient crystallization of the
ultramafic melt, as the formation of the orthopyroxene
laths caused isolation of the olivine from the melt and the
closure of elemental exchange. Olivine grains in the inter-
stitial cryptocrystalline material have slightly lower Mg-
numbers (down to 875).
Orthopyroxene has variable contents of Ti, Al, Cr and
Ca, and is particularly rich in Cr and Ca. The more sys-
tematic variations are related to the micro-textural site
Table 3: Mineral major element compositions of a deformed Plg peridotite in a shear zone
Sample: MM22
Mineral: CPX GR CPX GR CPX GR OPX GR OPX GR OPX GR OPX GR
SiO
2
5222 5311 5161 5602 5627 5669 5617
TiO
2
068 038 050 021 025 025 016
Cr
2
O
3
140 127 147 092 074 063 064
Al
2
O
3
435 374 498 352 305 262 259
Fe
2
O
3
FeO
T
260 255 284 655 650 654 634
MnO 007 008 008 017 012 020 014
MgO 1569 1631 1544 3289 3263 3273 3302
CaO 2333 2318 2282 099 109 121 072
Na
2
O 048 047 052 006 003 001 000
K
2
O 000 000 002 000 004 000 000
Mg-no. 915 919 906 899 899 899 903
Sample: MM22
Mineral: OL GR PLG
+
PLG
++
AMPH
+
AMPH
++
SiO
2
4202 4825 6530 4741 5452
TiO
2
003 003 000 025 049
Cr
2
O
3
000 001 000 024 121
Al
2
O
3
000 3258 2150 1060 349
Fe
2
O
3
007 102 009
FeO
T
921 010 338 238
MnO 023 002 000 015 015
MgO 4842 002 010 1964 2197
CaO 006 1660 250 1230 1271
Na
2
O 000 213 1040 251 081
K
2
O 000 003 006 003 007
Mg-no. 904
An 881 117
GR, granoblastic grain; AMPH
+
, hornblende amphibole; AMPH
++
, tremolitic amphibole; PLG
+
, An-rich plagioclase in
mylonitic aggregates; PLG
++
, Ab-rich plagioclase in cataclastic matrix.
JOURNAL OF PETROLOGY VOLUME 51 NUMBERS 1 & 2 JANUARY & FEBRUARY 2010
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(i.e. lath core^rim, vicinity of cpx rim); the more Cr- and
Ca-rich compositions are confined to the cores of the
laths, presumably corresponding to the earlier crystallized
portions. In some cases the cores have very high Ca con-
tents (CaO in the range 115^203 wt %), indicating very
high equilibration temperatures (see below).
Clinopyroxene has variable contents of most of the com-
ponent elements. With respect to the two main textural
sites [i.e. cpx rims on orthopyroxene laths (Site 1) and
interstitial grains between olivine in the cryptocrystalline
matrix (Site 2)] Al decreases, whereas Mg-number and
Cr increase from Site 1 to Site 2. In Site 1 Al is high to
very high (Al
2
O
3
in the range 100^1451wt %),
Mg-number is relatively low (in the range 763^860) and
Cr is low (Cr
2
O
3
in the range 023^049 wt %). Mg-
number and Cr variations show a broad inverse correla-
tion with similar variations in olivine. The extremely high
Al contents in Cpx from basaltic^peridotitic systems are
widely recognized as records of very high equilibration
temperatures.
Table 4: Mineral major element compositions in a Plg peridotite hosting a pseudotachylyte
Sample: MM16B
Mineral: CPX PC CPX PR CPX GR OPX PC OPX GR
+
OPX GR
+
OPX GR
+
SiO
2
5118 5121 5188 5700 5684 5443 5577
TiO
2
063 058 058 021 030 035 026
Cr
2
O
3
119 157 126 069 080 069 072
Al
2
O
3
533 493 407 202 276 354 274
Fe
2
O
3
FeO
T
391 306 318 630 626 619 644
MnO 009 011 013 013 010 021 017
MgO 1673 1567 1664 3297 3206 3037 3092
CaO 2064 2300 2180 113 235 279 334
Na
2
O 039 044 036 002 001 009 009
K
2
O 004 005 000 001 000 000 000
Mg-no. 884 901 903 903 901 897 895
An
Sample: MM16B
Mineral: OL PLG SP
SiO
2
4141 4657 010
TiO
2
001 014 099
Cr
2
O
3
001 000 2999
Al
2
O
3
002 3392 3367
Fe
2
O
3
042 596
FeO
T
1010 000 1600
MnO 011 000 000
MgO 4798 002 1432
CaO 002 1659 018
Na
2
O 001 223 000
K
2
O 002 000 000
Mg-no. 894
An 804f
OPX GR
+
, Opx crystal very close (51 mm) to the contact with the injection-vein pseudotachylyte; PC, porphyroclast core;
PR, porphyroclast rim; GR, interstitial grain.
fFrom Piccardo et al. (2007a).
PICCARDO et al. ULTRAMAFIC PSEUDOTACHYLYTES, LANZO
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Geothermometry estimates
Estimates of equilibration temperatures have been
obtained by applying the method of Wells (1977), based on
coexisting clinopyroxene^orthopyroxene solid solutions
and the method of Brey & Kohler (1990), based on the Ca
content in Opx. Both methods were used to estimate nom-
inal equilibrium temperatures in the Plg-peridotites, Plg-
bearing peridotite tectonite^mylonites in shear zones, the
host Plg-peridotites of the pseudotachylytes and the pseu-
dotachylytes, using the mineral compositions reported in
Tables 2^7. The method of Holland & Blundy (1994) was
used, in addition, to explore amphibole^plagioclase equili-
bration conditions in mylonitic and cataclastic bands from
shear zones using the mineral compositions reported in
Table 3.
The Wells (1977) and Brey & Kohler (1990) methods
give discrepant nominal temperatures, even when the
same opx composition is used. The Wells (1977) method
gives nominal temperature values that are systematically
lower by some 1008C than those given by the Brey &
Kohler (1990) method. This most probably reflects the dif-
ferent closure temperatures of elemental exchanges
between the considered mineral phases.
The application of the Wells (1977) method to cpx^opx
pairs considered to be in textural equilibrium gives the
following nominal temperatures: (1) 873^9018C for
Table 5: Olivine major element composition in an injection-vein pseudotachylyte
Sample: MM16B
Mineral: Ol grain
+
Ol grain
+
Ol grain
+
Ol grain
+
Ol grain
+
Ol grain
++
Ol grain
++
Ol grain
++
SiO
2
4076 4047 4081 4050 4084 4069 4028 4017
Cr
2
O
3
040 031 009 025 007 021 024 029
Al
2
O
3
000 000 017 015 007 011 000 000
FeO 812 817 895 912 919 946 988 1208
MnO 021 017 019 021 023 017 018 023
MgO 5046 5058 5000 4923 4991 4911 4924 4745
NiO 045 034 040 030 030 039 037 040
CaO 039 034 021 029 022 033 034 025
Mg-no. 917 917 909 906 906 902 899 875
Ol grain
+
, olivine grain enclosed in an orthopyroxene lath of the spinifex texture; Ol grain
++
, olivine grain in the interstitial
cryptocrystalline matrix surrounding opx laths.
Table 6: Orthopyroxene major element composition in a injection-vein pseudotachylyte
Sample MM16B
Mineral Opx lath
+
f Opx lath
+
Opx lath
+
Opx lath
+
Opx lath
++
Opx lath
++
Opx lath
++
Opx lath
++
SiO
2
5513 5622 5632 5627 5492 5546 5754 5519
TiO
2
019 007 008 008 026 026 012 026
Cr
2
O
3
174 138 131 135 085 074 081 080
Al
2
O
3
279 173 137 155 235 227 069 231
FeO 654 579 571 575 726 717 489 722
MnO 020 020 022 021 022 029 014 026
MgO 3225 3358 3367 3363 3302 3208 3551 3255
CaO 203 118 115 117 107 106 054 107
Mg-no. 898 912 913 912 890 889 928 889
Opx lath
+
, core of the orthopyroxene lath; Opx lath
++
, rim of the orthopyroxene lath.
fFrom Piccardo et al. (2007a).
JOURNAL OF PETROLOGY VOLUME 51 NUMBERS 1 & 2 JANUARY & FEBRUARY 2010
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Plg-peridotites; (2) 881^9198C for Plg-bearing tectonites^
mylonites in shear zones; (3) 10738C for host peridotites of
the injection-vein pseudotachylyte; (4) 1032^11218C for
pseudotachylyte (opx lath^cpx rim). Plg-peridotites and
Plg-bearing peridotite tectonite^mylonites in shear zones
record relatively low-temperature conditions, presumably
representing the ambient temperature in the Plg-facies
peridotites at the inception of shear zone formation. The
host peridotites of the pseudotachylytes record somewhat
higher temperature conditions that can provide evidence
of thermal input during intrusion in of the veins of ultra-
mafic melt.
The application of the Brey & Kohler (1990) method
gives more texture-related temperature information as
Opx is almost ubiquitous in all rock types and textural
sites and, moreover, any specific textural site can be better
represented by a single Opx composition: (1) 947^11498C
for Plg-peridotites; (2) 976^10758C for Plg-bearing
tectonites^mylonites in shear zones; (3) 10858C for host
peridotites of the injection-vein pseudotachylyte; (4) 1315^
14328C for opx grains very close (a few millimetres) to
the injection-vein pseudotachylyte; (5) 1092^12678C for
orthopyroxene laths (core) in pseudotachylyte; (6) 910^
10748C for orthopyroxene laths (rim) in pseudotachylyte.
The Plg-peridotites record, in places, rather high-
temperature conditions, most probably inherited from the
thermal conditions of the melt impregnation event,
whereas the Plg-bearing tectonite^mylonites in shear
zones indicate lower temperatures that can be related to
plastic deformation under Plg-facies conditions. The host
peridotites of the pseudotachylytes record slightly higher
temperature conditions that presumably reflect the ther-
mal input during the ultramafic melt intrusion in veins.
Orthopyroxene grains in the host peridotite that are very
close (51mm) to the contact with a decimetre-size injec-
tion pseudotachylyte vein, lacking clinopyroxene exsolu-
tion lamellae and showing rather uniform compositions,
frequently have very high Ca contents (CaO in the range
235^334 wt %) yielding very high equilibration tempera-
ture estimates in the range 1315^14328C. These tempera-
tures are probably related to the thermal regime locally
induced in the host-rock at the time of injection of the
ultramafic melt. Orthopyroxene laths in the pseudotachy-
lytes give decreasing temperature estimates from core (up
to 12678C) to rim (9108C). The former can be interpreted
as the temperature approaching the Opx liquidus tempera-
ture in the cooling melt, whereas the latter can be related
to closure of elemental exchange in the already solidified
pseudotachylyte.
Some general inferences related to the injection pseudo-
tachylytes can be attempted, notwithstanding the differ-
ences in the nominal temperatures obtained with the two
geothermometry methods. Orthopyroxene lath composi-
tions in the injection pseudotachylytes record the very
high liquidus temperatures of opx in the ultramafic melt,
and the rapidly decreasing temperature during very rapid
crystallization and quenching.
The method of Holland & Blundy (1994) has been used
to explore amphibole^plagioclase equilibration conditions
in tectonite^mylonites and cataclastic bands from the
shear zones. This method has been applied to pairs
of hornblende and An-rich plagioclase grains from the
Table 7: Clinopyroxene major element composition in an injection-vein pseudotachylyte
Sample: MM16B
Mineral: Cpx rim
+
f Cpx rim
+
Cpx rim
+
Cpx rim
+
Cpx rim
+
f Cpx int
++
Cpx int
++
Cpx int
++
SiO
2
4410 4797 4757 4716 5027 5168 5157 5146
TiO
2
186 092 143 193 062 069 068 067
Cr
2
O
3
023 049 037 025 044 144 147 149
Al
2
O
3
1451 1080 1041 1002 755 421 408 394
FeO 722 559 628 696 619 326 325 323
MnO 024 029 029 029 025 020 021 022
MgO 1304 1552 1493 1434 1797 1562 1590 1617
NiO 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000
CaO 1786 1870 1854 1838 1655 2278 2262 2245
Na
2
O 074 026 047 068 059 046 043 039
K
2
O 007 000 000 000 005 007 007 006
Mg-no. 763 832 809 786 838 895 897 899
Cpx rim
+
, cpx rim surrounding orthopyroxene lath; Cpx int
++
, cpx interstitial between the olivine grains in the crypto-
crystalline matrix.
fFrom Piccardo et al. (2007a).
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tectonite^mylonite bands; these yield mean temperatures
of 8308C. Pairs of tremolitic amphibole and Ab-rich plagi-
oclase grains in the cataclastic bands yield mean tempera-
tures of 6008C. The higher temperature could be related
to incipient infiltration of water during the formation of
the sheared tectonite^mylonite peridotites, whereas the
lower temperature, measured using grain compositions
from the clastic matrix of a cataclastic zone, may indicate
the ambient temperature conditions in the shear zones pre-
ceding seismogenetic events.
Timing of pseudotachylyte formation
The timing of pseudotachylyte formation is only partially
constrained. Shear zones and related pseudotachylytes are
younger than the early MORB gabbroic dykes, whereas
they predate intrusion of the late MORB porphyritic
mafic dykes. The age of MORB dyke intrusion in the
Lanzo peridotite has recently been investigated by
Kaczmarek et al. (2008) based on U^Pb dating of zircons.
Their results point to a small age difference (5 1 Myr)
between the earlier intrusion of less fractionated gabbroic
rocks, characterized by Plg accumulation (163 1 Ma)
and the late intrusion of the more fractionated gabbroic
dykes (158 2 Ma). Kaczmarek et al. (2008) inferred that
magmatism spanned a period of a few million years and
that the time interval is possibly linked to the chemical
evolution of the magmatic system that produced the vari-
ous types of gabbroic dyke. Accordingly, taking into
account the observation that the pseudotachylytes formed
between the intrusion of the more primitive and the more
differentiated MORB dykes, we can assume that the pseu-
dotachylytes and their causative seismic activity were con-
fined to a relatively short period in late Jurassic times and
were related to the exhumation of the mantle peridotites
during extension and opening of the Ligurian Tethys
(Piccardo et al., 2007a, 2007b).
RELATI ONS BETWEEN
PSEUDOTACHYLYTE FORMATI ON
AND SEI SMI C PARAMETERS
Pseudotachylytes provide a record of seismicity at the time
of their formation. The Mt. Moncuni pseudotachylytes
contain information about the seismic activity in a region
of the shallow upper mantle undergoing extension during
the formation of the Ligurian Tethys ocean. Here we use
field and petrological data from Mt. Moncuni to constrain
some parameters of this upper mantle seismicity. First we
briefly review the basic equations, discuss the reliability of
some of the correlations that are relevant to cases such as
this when the seismic displacement is not measurable, and
analyze the consequences to be expected from a switch
from frictional to nonlinear viscous shear resistance. Then
we try to estimate the rate of seismic energy release
generating the Mt. Moncuni pseudotachylytes and com-
pare it with present-day rates at divergent plate
boundaries.
If most mechanical work during seismic slip is converted
to heat, the volume of pseudotachylyte melt can be related
to the seismic energy release and thus to the seismic
moment and magnitude. In addition, it is theoretically
possible to constrain earthquake source parameters such
as dynamic shear resistance, average dynamic friction,
and slip-weakening distance from pseudotachylyte obser-
vables (e.g. Sibson, 1975; Wenk et al., 2000; Caggianelli
et al., 2005; Di Toro et al., 2005, 2006; Andersen &
Austrheim, 2006). However, this is often difficult, because
of limitations to the accuracy of field information even in
the best-exposed cases, and uncertainties as to the number
of seismic events that generated a given pseudotachylyte
population.
Melt volume, seismic energy release and
frictional shear resistance
Neglecting surface energy and work against gravity, which
are usually negligible, the energy balance in seismic fault-
ing is (see, e.g. Scholz, 2002)
W - Q E
S
(1)
where W is mechanical work, Q is the generated heat, and
E
S
is the released seismic energy. The last is relatively
small (the seismic efficiency Z
+
=E
S
/W is usually _006;
McGarr, 1999). Therefore, assuming that all mechanical
work is converted to heat, the heat generated per unit
area of fault is
Q
A
=
f
vt=
f
d (2)
where t
f
is the frictional shear resistance along the rupture
plane, v is the sliding velocity (which in seismic slip is of
the order of 01^1 m/s), t is time, and d =vt is the coseismic
displacement.
The resulting temperature increase, taking place under
essentially adiabatic conditions, can be estimated on the
basis of classical solutions of the heat conduction equation
(Carslaw & Jaeger, 1959), both for constant (Sibson, 1975)
and time-dependent (Caggianelli et al., 2005) sliding veloc-
ity. Short slip times and displacements (of the order of sec-
onds and centimetres, respectively) are sufficient to
exceed the melting temperature, provided that the shear
resistance is sufficiently large. The heating of the host-rock
is very localized and decays rapidly with time. Therefore
(1) even relatively small shocks have the potential to pro-
duce melting, (2) injection veins must be intruded in the
ambient rock penecontemporaneously with seismic slip,
and (3) solidification of both fault and injection veins
takes place at most within a few tens of seconds after
melting.
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The energy required to melt a volume V of rock
(neglecting superheating, and considering that unmelted
clasts do not exchange heat) is (Sibson, 1975)
E
V
=r[c
P
(T
m
T
o
) (1c)H]V = E
+
V (3)
where r, c
P
, and H are density, specific heat, and latent
heat of melting, respectively, T
m
and T
o
are melting and
ambient temperature, c is the volume fraction of unmelted
clasts in the pseudotachylyte, and E
+
is the melting energy
per unit volume. As the released seismic energy is only a
small fraction of the released energy (say, E
S
=001E
V
),
the magnitude and moment of the causative earthquakes
can be estimated from the empirical relations (see Scholz,
2002)
M
S
= (log E
S
48)=15 (4)
log M
o
= 15M
S
91 (5)
Furthermore, assuming V=Ah, where A and h are the
area and thickness of an ideal fault-vein pseudotachylyte,
direct comparison of equations (2) and (3) gives

f
=r[c
P
(T
m
T
o
) (1c)H](h=d) (6)
which shows that shear resistance is proportional to h/d. Its
dependence on displacement depends on the relation, if
any, between thickness and displacement.
There is a qualitative difference between equations (3)
and (6). Equation (3) holds for both single and multiple
events (the total pseudotachylyte volume generated by a
sequence of seismic shocks is related to the total seismic
energy release), whereas equation (6) is theoretically valid
only for single-event pseudotachylytes, and requires the
determination of displacement and fault-vein thickness,
which is often difficult or impossible.
Thickness^displacement relationship
To infer shear resistance from equation (6) when the seis-
mic displacement is not observable, several empirical rela-
tions relating displacement to fault-vein thickness have
been proposed. The variety of these proposed relations
per se is an indication of the wide scatter of the data. The
most complete data set available to date comes from pseu-
dotachylytes in tonalites of the Gole Larghe Fault Zone,
Adamello batholith (Di Toro et al., 2005), where more than
60 measured h/d ratios range between 0001 and 0006.
Whereas only a weak correlation is present between h and
d (Di Toro et al., 2005, fig. 5), a better correlation exists
between t
f
and d (Di Toro et al., 2005, fig. 7). This correla-
tion is approximately of the type t
f
d
^1
, which is that pre-
dicted by equation (6) if h is taken as constant (i.e. in
practice, randomly variable about a central value;
Fig. 5a). Because determination of h and d on a well-
exposed population of pseudotachylytes is not possible at
Mt. Moncuni, we have checked this hypothesis by plotting
t
f
vs h for the Gole Larghe Fault Zone data (Fig. 5b).
Frictional shear resistance shows no clear correlation with
pseudotachylyte fault-vein thickness.
It appears, therefore, as previously pointed out by
Andersen & Austrheim (2006), that empirical relationships
between thickness and displacement should be used with
great caution, with the possible exception of areas of excep-
tionally good exposure (see, e.g. Pittarello et al., 2008).
Even if a connection theoretically exists, observational
uncertainties are such as to cast considerable doubt on any
proposed empirical correlation between the two variables,
for at least three reasons.
(1) The original thickness of melt formed during seismic
slip is not necessarily uniformly distributed along the fault
plane and may vary with position according to the
Fig. 5. (a) Variations of frictional shear resistance t
f
with coseismic
displacement d predicted by equation (6) assuming constant fault-
vein thickness h (03 cm in this case). This hyperbolic dependence can
be approximately verified when sufficient data are available (see dis-
cussion in the text). (b) Frictional shear resistance vs thickness h for
pseudotachylytes in tonalites from the Gole Larghe Fault Zone,
Adamello batholith. No clear dependence is observable. (Data from
Di Toro et al., 2005; symbols refer to rock type and method of deter-
mining h; see Di Toro et al. for details.)
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distribution of asperities and stress concentrations.
Furthermore, some melt (sometimes most melt) migrates
away from the fault plane to form dilational injection
veins in the surrounding rock (see, e.g. Sibson, 1975; Obata
& Karato, 1995). It follows that the thickness of fault-vein
pseudotachylytes may in many cases have only a weak con-
nection with the melt volume, and consequently with
earthquake size and coseismic displacement.
(2) In cases where displacement can be measured, it is
often difficult to ascertain if it is the result of a single epi-
sode or multiple episodes of slip. This is particularly true
for larger slips, of the order of several metres, sometimes
inferred from kinematic indicators in the host-rock.
(3) In addition to the above, both thickness and displace-
ment are very difficult to measure in the field and are
subject to large uncertainies that reduce the predictive
value of any empirically derived relation.
Frictional vs viscous shear resistance
As soon as a continuous layer of melt is formed along the
rupture plane, resistance to slip is no longer controlled by
solid friction, but by the viscosity of the melt. Viscosity
varies considerably according to composition, from 10
6
^
10
7
Pa s for felsic melts to 1^10 Pa s for mafic and ultrama-
fic melts (Clark, 1966; Dingwell, 1995). In the case of pseu-
dotachylytes, melt viscosity must be corrected for the
unmelted clast volume fraction, but this effect is not very
large. Volume fractions between 010 and 040 increase vis-
cosity by a factor between 16 and 25 (Kitano et al., 1981;
Ujiie et al., 2007).
Melt viscosity in pseudotachylytes is usually assumed to
be linear (strain-rate independent; e.g. Ujiie et al., 2007).
However, the viscosity of silicate melts becomes nonlinear
at high strain rates (_10
^3
s
^1
; Spray, 1993; Dingwell, 1995),
which are easily exceeded during seismic slip. Formally,
the problem is analogous to the superposition of linear
and nonlinear creep mechanisms in the mantle (see
Ranalli, 1995; Dal Forno & Gasperini, 2007). The change
in rheology with strain rate can be described by the
equation
g= (1=2Z
o
)[1 (g=g
o
)
(n1)=n
]
m
(7)
where g =v/h is the shear strain rate (1^10
3
s
^1
for
v =01^1m/s, h =01^10 cm), t
m
is the corresponding
shear stress, Z
o
is the linear viscosity (g t
m
for g5g
o
), n
the stress exponent (g t
m
n
for g4g
o
, usually n -3), and
g
o
=10
^3
s
^1
is the transition strain rate. Therefore, in
terms of the shear resistance to flow,

m
= 2Z
o
[1 (g=g
o
)
(n1)=n
]
1
g= 2Zg= 2Z(v=h) (8)
where Z=Z
o
[1 (g/g
o
)
(n^1)/n
]
^1
is the effective melt vis-
cosity as a function of strain rate.
Effective melt viscosities are shown in Fig. 6a for three
initial (low-strain rate) viscosities ranging from 1 to 10
4
Pa
s, the lower range of which is representative of ultramafic
melts even if they contain a sizeable proportion of
unmelted clasts (up to 40%). Predicted values of viscous
shear resistance for ultramafic melts (Fig. 6b) are lower
than the frictional shear resistance for all realistic values
of displacement and strain rates relevant to pseudotachy-
lyte formation. Therefore, as pointed out by Obata &
Karato (1995), frictional melting considerably decreases
slip resistance, which may result in large seismic stress
drops and moments in upper mantle earthquakes. This
has been confirmed by high-velocity slip experiments (Di
Toro et al., 2006; Nielsen et al., 2008), which show a decrease
in dynamic friction with increasing slip rates.
The above considerations, however, hold only if melt
lubrication occurs along a large part of the fault plane,
Fig. 6. (a) Effective viscosities Z of silicate melts as functions of strain
rate g for different low-strain rate (linear) viscosities Z
o
[see equations
(7) and (8)]. Curves A, B and C illustrate the results for Z
o
=10
4
, 10
2
and 1Pa s, respectively. Melt viscosities are nonlinear (shear-
thinning) in the seismic range (g _1 s
^1
). (b) Corresponding values
of viscous shear resistance t
m
in terms of melt (fault-vein) thickness h
for seismic slip speed v =1m/s [equation (8)]. Curves A, B and C are
as in (a). In all cases, t
m
_t
f
(compare, for instance, with Fig. 5b).
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with the additional condition that the absolute value of the
stiffness of the ambient rock be less than the absolute
value of the weakening. The occurrence of a threshold
below which melting has no sizeable effect, and the depen-
dence of weakening on the fraction of the fault plane that
is frictionally melted, cannot be assessed by field studies
alone.
UPPER MANTLE SEI SMI CI TY
DURI NG EXTENSI ON AND
OPENI NG OF THE LI GURI AN
TETHYS
In this section, estimates of the total volume of the Mt.
Moncuni ultramafic pseudotachylytes are used to assess
the approximate level of upper mantle seismicity beneath
the incipient Ligurian Tethys in late Jurassic times.
Geological and petrological constraints show that the seis-
mic activity that produced the pseudotachylytes was con-
fined to a relatively short time span (approximately from
163 to 158 Ma) and occurred at P _05 GPa; that is, in
the lithospheric mantle at depths z _15^20 km, depending
on the thickness and density of the overlying thinned
crust. The widespread occurrence of pseudotachylytes and
the lack of a clear association with (brittle or ductile)
fault planes render impossible the identification of any
single-event melting episode. Consequently, in the follow-
ing discussion we reason primarily in terms of total (cumu-
lative) seismic energy release.
To infer the total energy required to produce a given
volume of melt [equation (3)], estimates of thermophysical
parameters, ambient and liquidus temperatures, and melt
and clast volumes are needed. Adopted values of density,
specific heat and latent heat of melting are those appropri-
ate for peridotite (3320 kg/m
3
, 1150 J/kg per 8C, and 860
kJ/kg, respectively; see e.g. Bradley, 1962; Andersen &
Austrheim, 2006). The ambient temperature at the time of
pseudotachylyte formation is constrained to be well below
9008C (the temperature of formation of the ductile shear
zones that clearly predate the pseudotachylytes; see the dis-
cussion on Geothermometry estimates above). Taking into
account that formation of the pseudotachylytes occurred
during continuing exhumation of the host-rock, and that
fault-vein pseudotachylytes are often associated with cata-
clastic bands, a valueT
o
=600 1008C is probably applica-
ble. This temperature is close to the brittle^ductile
transition of ultramafic rocks (see Ranalli, 1995) and is
consistent with geothermal gradients to be expected in
regions of lithospheric extension. Therefore, the seismic
activity was of the usual velocity weakening brittle type
(see Scholz, 2002), as inferred for similar ultramafic pseu-
dotachylytes in the Balmuccia peridotite (Obata &
Karato, 1995), and not a result of high-temperature instabil-
ities, as observed in some ultramafic pseudotachylytes
(Ueda et al., 2008) and modelled, for example, by
Kelemen & Hirth (2007) and Timm et al. (2009).
As petrological evidence shows near-complete melting of
the host peridotite, the relevant value of T
m
is the liquidus
temperature. The liquidus of peridotite depends on its
hydration state. On the basis of the relative scarcity of
hydrous minerals, we infer that the confining conditions
were water-deficient, with the liquidus somewhere between
15008C (water-deficient conditions) and 17008C (dry
conditions); we adopt T
m
=16008C. The volume fraction
of clasts in the injection veins varies with position, but is
usually in the 5^15% range; we take c=010.
With the above values of the parameters, the resulting
energy of melting per unit volume [equation (3)] is
E
+
=639 10
9
J/m
3
. Uncertainties in the parameters are
unlikely to vary this value by more than 1 10
9
J/m
3
,
which is neglibible when compared with uncertainties in
the estimation of total pseudotachylyte volume. The
expected relations between pseudotachylyte volume, total
energy of melting, and seismic moment are shown in Fig. 7.
As mentioned in previous sections, pseudotachylytes
cover approximately 5% of the outcrops at Mt. Moncuni.
Typical thicknesses of fault veins and injection veins are
01^03 cm and 10^20 cm, respectively, with typical lengths
of about 3 m. Mt. Moncuni has an approximately conical
shape with a basal radius of 1km and height 300 m
above the surrounding topography, resulting in a volume
of 3 10
8
m
3
. Assuming that the same area fraction
extends to parts that are not visible, and making the sim-
plest stereological extrapolation that the volume fraction
is equal to the area fraction (see, e.g. Russ, 1986), the esti-
mated total pseudotachylyte volume, contained in the pre-
sent topography alone, is 15 10
7
m
3
. For an average 1%
seismic efficiency, the associated cumulative seismic
energy and moment [equations (3) and (5)] are
96 10
14
J and 19 10
19
N m, respectively.
The estimate of total pseudotachylyte volume is subject
to large and unquantifiable errors. Any extrapolation to
depth is precluded by lack of observations, as is an estimate
of the eroded volume. An error of one order of magnitude
(e.g. if the pseudotachylyte volume were only 05% of the
volume of Mt. Moncuni, or if the 5% value applied to a
rock volume 10 times larger) would translate directly into
a similar error in the seismic energy and moment estimates
(see Fig. 7). Only order-of-magnitude arguments are used
in the following discussion.
If the estimated seismic energy had been released in a
single shock, the magnitude would have been 68 [equa-
tion (4)]. However, this is clearly not the present case, as
shown by the ubiquitous occurrence of pseudotachylytes
and the lack of a clear slip plane. There are no observa-
tional constraints at Mt. Moncuni on the average number
of single-event pseudotachylytes associated with a seismic
shock (and this number itself is in all likelihood highly
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variable among seismic events), but hundreds of fault and
injection veins can be observed.
A single seismic event can produce hundreds of pseudo-
tachylytes (see, e.g. Wenk et al., 2000). If, however, a
single-event pseudotachylyte at Mt. Moncuni is assumed
to consist of one fault vein and two injection veins (surely
a lower bound assumption), and to have an approximately
square shape of which the observed length is a side (to
account for the randomness of exposure), its typical
volume would be 2^3 m
3
, which corresponds to M
S
-
22^23 and M
o
- (25^38) 10
12
N m. Applying Brunes
(1970) model for small earthquakes and using the definition
of seismic moment, this hypothetical single-event pseudo-
tachylyte would be associated with a seismic shock with
rupture radius and coseismic displacement in the 50^
120 m and 01^05 cm ranges, respectively.
Although the evidence at Mt. Moncuni does not provide
any constraints on the number of seismic shocks, the
above estimate of total seismic moment is compatible with
both the physics of the earthquake source and global seis-
motectonics. Most estimates of the energy per unit area of
fault released by earthquakes [Q
A
, equation (2)] are in the
10
7
^10
8
J/m
2
range (e.g. Andersen & Austrheim, 2006;
Pittarello et al., 2008). The thickness of the resulting pseu-
dotachylyte in ultramafic rocks is roughly Q
A
/E
+
016^
16 cm. Therefore, the estimated total volume could have
been produced by a large number of events with limited
rupture areas (e.g. 100 events each with average rupture
area of 15 km
2
).
On a global scale, the level of seismicity inferred from
the Mt. Moncuni pseudotachylytes is compatible with
present-day seismicity, if stochastic uniformity of seismic
activity over time is assumed. The present-day global rate
of sesmic energy release is of the order of 10
18
J/a (see, e.g.
Stacey & Davis, 2008), of which 510% comes from conti-
nental and oceanic extension zones. Taking an estimate of
10
5
km for the total length of extension zones, the seismic
energy release rate per unit length in these zones is 510
12
J/a per km. In the Mt. Moncuni area, the maximum dura-
tion of seismic activity is bracketed by the age difference
between the two generations of dykes (5 Myr; see the dis-
cussion in the section on Timing of pseudotachylyte for-
mation), resulting in a minimum energy release rate of
2 10
8
J/a. The seismic activity could have lasted a
shorter time, but further controls are lacking. However,
even assuming a duration of 1 Myr (and therefore 10
9
J/
a for the seismic energy release rate) and a 10 km length
of the local extensional boundary, the resulting energy
release rate per unit length represented by the Mt.
Moncuni pseudotachylytes would be 10
8
J/a per km; that
is, four orders of magnitude less than the present-day aver-
age. These estimates are not to be taken at face value, but
they do show that the inferred seismic energy release at
Mt. Moncuni is not large when compared with present-
day activity, and is robust in the sense that uncertainties
of 1^2 orders of magnitude do not invalidate the conclu-
sions. What is peculiar in this area is not the level of seismi-
city, but the fact that it occurred in a region of exhuming
upper mantle.
CONCLUSI ONS
The occurrence of ultramafic pseudotachylytes at Mt.
Moncuni shows that some segments of the upper mantle
were seismically active during lithospheric extension lead-
ing to the formation of the Ligurian Tethys ocean basin.
Field and petrographic observations, theoretical considera-
tions on frictional and viscous shear resistance, and empir-
ical seismological relations lead to the following
conclusions.
(1) The pseudotachylytes formed by near-total melting of
the host peridotite at ambient temperature^pressure condi-
tions T=600 1008C, P505 GPa during progressive
exhumation of a region of lithospheric mantle that was
close to the brittle^ductile transition in ultramafic rocks.
Their age (and the maximum duration of the related seis-
mic activity) is constrained to be approximately between
163 and 158 Ma, on the basis of the time span of MORB
gabbroic intrusion in the Lanzo peridotites.
(2) Coseismic displacement is not observable at Mt.
Moncuni. The use of fault-vein thickness as a proxy for dis-
placement is subject to wide and unquantifiable uncertain-
ties, as shown in cases where both are measured with
reasonable accuracy. Therefore, estimates of dynamic
shear resistance should be limited to cases where both
quantities are measurable with an acceptable degree of
precision.
Fig. 7. Total energy of melting E
V
and seismic moment M
o
as func-
tions of melt volume V, using the melting energy per unit volume
inferred from the conditions at Mt. Moncuni (E
+
= 639 10
9
J/m
3
).
Blue segments on the curves and red segments on the axes show
the estimates (within 1 order of magnitude) of these quantities
adopted in the discussion. The total seismic energy E
S
is taken as
1% of E
V
.
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(3) Once melting occurs, the local shear resistance
depends on the melt viscosity, which is nonlinear (strain-
rate softening) at high strain rates. The viscous shear resis-
tance is orders of magnitude less than the frictional shear
resistance under pseudotachylyte-forming conditions.
However, any corresponding decrease in overall fault resis-
tance depends on the distribution of melt on the fault
plane.
(4) The total seismic energy release and moment related
to the formation of the Mt. Moncuni pseudotachylytes,
inferred from estimates of the energy of melting and pseu-
dotachylyte volume, are of the order of 10
15
J and 10
19
N
m, respectively, with probable error margins of 1 order
of magnitude. These values do not require very large
earthquakes. For instance, 100 shocks with a rupture area
of 15 km
2
, or 1000 shocks with rupture area of 15 km
2
,
would generate the required volume of melt. The inferred
seismic energy release rates (10
8
^10
9
J/a) are well within
present-day rates at extensional plate boundaries.
Among the above four points, the first and the last are
based on evidence from Mt. Moncuni. The other two,
although not verifiable from specific observations in the
present case, are in our opinion of general validity. The
basic question that remains to be answered is whether
upper mantle seismicity at relatively shallow levels in
extending lithosphere, under conditions of decreasing tem-
perature and pressure, is a general feature of this tectonic
environment, or is confined to a limited number of occur-
rences by some as yet unidentified factors.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
G.B.P.s and L.G.s work was supported by a grant from the
Italian MIUR (Ministero dellIstruzione, dellUniversita' e
della Ricerca) (PRIN2007: Mantle heterogeneity and geo-
dynamic evolution of the lithosphere^asthenosphere
system) and the University of Genova. G.R.s work is sup-
ported by a grant from NSERC (Natural Sciences and
Engineering Research Council of Canada). The authors
are grateful to the Editor, Marjorie Wilson, two anon-
ymous reviewers and Masaaki Obata for their criticism of
an earlier version of the manuscript and for many sugges-
tions for improving the final version of the paper.
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