Dr.

Albrecht Kaupp Page 1

Excess air in combustion
Issue
Incorrect amount of air in fuel combustion
accounts for the largest losses in combustion
systems.
Learning
Objectives
Understanding the technical jargon
behind combustion technologies
Knowing the very basics of combustion
fundamentals
Appreciating the various methods to
calculate excess air levels
Being able to relate O

and !O

measurements to fuel properties
Assessing fuel cost reduction potentials
Applying "uic# estimates to calculate
energy losses
Excess air in combustion Page 2
NOTES
1. A crash course in combustion principles
As shown in lecture $% all fuels consist mostly of atomic !arbon
&!'% (ydrogen &('% Oxygen &O'% )itrogen &)'% *ulfur &*'% minerals
&ash' and water &(

O'.
+uel combustion means to let the molecular Oxygen &O

' in air react

with the combustible components of a fuel. As an example the fuel
!arbon &!' reacts with O

of the air to generate !arbon ,ioxide

&!O

'. If the reaction is incomplete !arbon -onoxide &!O'% a

deadly gas% is generated.
It is worthwhile to point out that all combustion products such as
!O

% !O% )O
x
% !
n
(
m
% *O

% *O
.
% except for the water generated by
combustion of ( to (

O% are harmful. /here is essentially nothing

benign in stac# gas% except the water vapor. And even the water
vapor% because it reacts with *O
.
to sulfuric acid &(

*O
$
' is not
really harmless.
/his environmental and health threat of stac# gas is one more
reason to reduce energy consumption per unit of product output.
2. The excess air parameter
One #g of fuel re"uires a certain minimum of ambient air to be fully
combusted. 0e call this minimum amount of air the 1stochiometric
air2 or sometimes also 1the theoretical air2 to combust the fuel. /he
stochiometric air would completely combust the fuel to !arbon
,ioxide &!O

'% water &(

O'% and *ulfur ,ioxide &*O

' if *ulfur is
present. If the fuel does not get enough air for combustion it will
generate smo#e and a potential unhealthy mixture of stac# gas
products. In addition energy is wasted. /he same applies if too
much excess air is used for combustion. A less trivial issue in
combustion technology is therefore to ensure the proper amount of
air that minimi3es environmental impact and fuel consumption. +or
convenience we define the 1stochiometric air2 as the air to fuel
ratio% A+ &#g air4#g fuel'% and the excess air factor as
5A 6
-ass of air &#g' to combust one #g of fuel
*tochiometric air &A+'
/he A+ is a property of a fuel that can be calculated from the
ultimate chemical composition of the fuel.
able 1! Air-to-fuel ratio of various fuels
Excess air in combustion Page "
NOTES
#uel Phase A#
$O2 max
%et
$O2 max
&r'
7ery light fuel oil li"uid 8$.9 8..:;
<ight fuel oil li"uid 8$.=; 8..9
-edium heavy fuel oil li"uid 8..9> 8$.==
(eavy fuel oil li"uid 8..$; 8$.8$
Bun#er ! li"uid 8.;. 8;..
?eneric Biomass &maf' solid :.@@ 89.>8
!oal A solid ;.>9 8;.=>
<A? &>= A B 8= B' gas 8:.:: 88.;:
!arbon solid 88.$$ 8.==
3. Terminology and equations
5xcess air and the excess air factor were defined in the previous
paragraph. )ote% that both parameters describe the same
phenomena.
+or instance saying a burner re"uires = C excess air to correctly
combust fuel oil% is the same as saying the burner operates at an
excess air factor of 8.. A ideal combustion process would re"uire =
C excess air or has an excess air factor of 8.
A combustion process re"uiring 8== C excess air uses twice as
much air as necessary% or in other words has an excess air factor of
two.
/he technical literature and car industry reserves the ?ree# symbol
<ambda &' for the excess air factor. -ost modern fuel efficient
cars have therefore <ambda sensors &6 Oxygen sensors' to control
the fuel efficiency. In boilers and furnaces they are called an
1oxygen trim2.
Instead of 5A we will also use the symbol .
6
-ass of air to combust one #g of fuel
A+
It is repeated% the A+ ratio is a fuel specific parameter that has
nothing to do with the furnace design or combustion process% while
is a parameter that tells us how efficiently a fuel was combusted.
/he closer is to one% the more efficient is the furnace or burner
design and operation. Operating a boiler very close to 68 &or = C
Excess air in combustion Page (
NOTES
excess air' will re"uire a 1oxygen trim2 that closely monitors excess
air and adjusts it.
Operating very close to the minimal amount of air &6 stochiometric
air 6 theoretical air' has the inherent danger of smo#e and !O
generation.
Once is #nown it is fairly easy to calculate the mass of stac# gas
generated from the combustion process by
m
*?
6 m
f
&8 D A+' E m
ash
It is worthwhile to examine the last e"uation. In case the boiler does
not have any lea#s% where stac# gas escapes we can be assured that
the mass entering the boiler must also leave the boiler through either
the chimney or the ash bin.
In the case of oil we #now m
ash
6 =.
/herefore m
*?
6 m
f
&8 D A+'
6 m
f
D m
f
A+
6 fuel D combustion air
)ote% that the term combustion air refers to dry air% excluding the
humidity in air that could be anything from 8 to = grams of
moisture per #g of air.
. !eri"ation o# excess air #actor$
/he amount of excess air can not be measured directly% but is rather
derived from a measurement of either the O

or !O

content of the
stac# gas. 0hether one measures O

or !O

is irrelevant for the

calculation of the excess air% or % as long as one has obtained an
accurate measurement of either O

or !O

. As previously shown in
lecture ;% various sensors and methods exist to measure O

or !O

.
/here is no simply and also accurate e"uation to calculate if O

or
!O

is #nown. /he correct e"uation based on a !O

measurement is
6
8 8 +

!O
!O

7
7
max

*?
A+
where
!O max 6 the maximum !O content of the dry stac# gas at stochiometric
combustion. ?iven in volume C
Excess air in combustion Page )
NOTES
7*? 6 dry stac# gas in mn
.
4#g at stochiometric condition
7A+ 6 airEtoEfuel ratio expressed as mn
.
4#g
mn
.
6 normal cubic meter at =
o
! and 8.=8.: bar.
/he factor f 6
V
V
SG
AF
is between =.>. to =.>9 for fuel oils.
It is between =.>@ and 8 for solid fuels and between =.> and 8.> for
gases.
It is best to calculate and generate appropriate charts expressing
as a function of either O

or !O

in the stac# gas by computer

software.
One should appreciate the complexity involved% that has resulted in
"uite a number of simplistic e"uations. -ost commonly used
e"uations are
6
8 8

CO
CO
max
6
8
8

O
All e"uations apply only if no !O and (

is found in the stac# gas.

In case of incomplete combustion% !O is found in the stac# gas. In
this case is given as
6
8

CO g
g
V
V
SG
AF
max

where g 6
& '
. .
CO CO
CO H

8==
8== =: 8:
+



)ote that !O is commonly measured in ppm and 8=%=== ppm 6 8C.
!O contents of 8%=== ppm 6 =.8 C are considered high in the
combustion of li"uid and gaseous fuels.
%. Excess air #actors #ound in practice
As mentioned% the excess air factor of a burner furnace or boiler is a
yardstic# about its efficiency as well as the s#ill of the operator.
Excess air in combustion Page *
NOTES
*tandard average figures are
?as burners% forced draft 8.8 E 8..
Atmospheric gas burners 8.: E 8.:
Oil burners 8.8: E 8..
!oal dust burners 8. E 8..
!oal firing &mechanical' 8.. E 8.:
!oal firing &hand' 8.: E .:
/hese are best values that can be achieved with careful monitoring
and constant adjustment of the combustion air at varying loads. In
reality energy auditors may see much higher numbers.
&. 'et stac( gas "ersus dry stac( gas "alues
/here can be a considerable amount of confusion and misjudgment
of the situation if one does not clearly indicate whether O

or !O

measurements were conducted on either a wet or dry stac# gas
basis. As discussed in lecture ;% chemical cell sensors for O

and !O
measure on a dry stac# gas basis while Firconium Oxide sensors
measure the O

on a wet and hot stac# gas basis.

Of the four options O

C &dry'% O

C &wet'% !O

C &dry' !O

C
&wet' only one value needs to be measured. /he others are
calculated based on the ultimate chemical composition of the fuel.
Excess air in combustion Page +
NOTES
E,E-$I.E.
Tas( 1
In actual field wor# one measures or calculates !O

on a 1dry2
basis% meaning the gas sample is cooled to almost ambient
temperature and the stac# gas is in a saturated state% with little
moisture left.
!alculate !O
max
in a dry stac# gas and complete table 8 on page $.
Tas( 2
Assume the !O

content of stac# gas from a <A? fired boiler was

measured at > C &dry basis'. (owever we donGt #now the
composition of the <A?. ,oes it matter for calculation of the
excess airH
/int! ?enerate the 15xcess Air2 graphics for Butane &@'and Propane
&>' and determine the excess air at > C !O

.
5xcess air for Butane at > C !O

e"uals IIIIIII C.
5xcess air for Aropane at > C !O

e"uals IIIIII C.
Tas( 3
Assume the !O

content of stac# gas from a coal fired boiler was

measured at 8$ C &dry basis'. (owever we donGt #now the ultimate
chemical analysis of the coal. (ow large could the error beH
/int! Use the 15xcess Air2 graphics for Carbon% Coal A and Coal B%
as well as Bunker C oil and complete the following table.
#uel 012 3 $O24 &r' 565actor Excess air
!arbon &89' 8$ 8 :=
!oal A &8' 8$
!oal B &8.' 8$
Bun#er ! &9' 8$
Excess air in combustion Page 7
NOTES
Tas(
!omplete the following sentencesB
5xcess air of . C is e"uivalent to 6 IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
5xcess air of = C is e"uivalent to 6 IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
5xcess air of 8== C is e"uivalent to 6 IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
,ecreasing excess air close to = C may have the following
undesirable side effectsB
a' IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
b' IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
c' IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
Increasing excess air beyond 8== C may have the following
undesirable side effectsB
a' IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
b' IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
Tas( %
It is fairly easy to ma#e mista#es in the assessment of the excess air%
if it is not "uite clear what basis% either 1dry2 or wet stac# gas is
used.
)ote% very rarely sensors that measure !O

in the wet stac# gas are

used. Assume the wrong !O
max
&wet' is used. !alculate the error
for excess air at 9 C !O

and 8. C !O

for Bunker C oil% by using

the e"uation
6
8 8

CO
CO
f
max

/he fEfactor calculated by the software is always based on a dry gas
composition. /he values for !O
max
and !O

refer to a dry gas

measurement.
Tas( &
Excess air in combustion Page 8
NOTES
,ecide whether the following statements are true or false.
.tatement
rue #alse
8. A !O content of : C was measured in the stac# gas of
a coal fired boiler% but the stac# loo#ed clean.

. /he excess air of a coal fired boiler is 8= C.

.. A very low excess air means a high energy efficiency.

$. /he !O content decreases whenever excess air increases.

:. /he !O content increases whenever excess air increases.

;. /he !O content increases whenever excess air decreases
to = C.

9. *mo#e generation is a sign of too little excess air.

@. *mo#e generation is a sign of too much excess air.

>. /he excess air increases at low boiler load.

8=. Increased !arbon -onoxide generation is always a sign
of too little excess air.

88. *olid fuels have always a higher !O max than <A?.

8. /he highest possible !O max of a fuel is : C.

8.. /he !O max of a fuel is changing whenever excess air
is changed.
8$. 5xcess air and excess air factor are in principle the same.

8:. /he airEtoEfuel ratio is a fuel property that characteri3es
a fuel.
8;. /he !O max &dry basis' of a fuel changes with the
moisture content of the fuel.

89. *tac# gas could have 8 C Oxygen.

8@. *tac# gas could have = C Oxygen.

8>. /he percent O content of wet stac# gas is always
smaller than the percent O content of 1dry2 stac# gas.
Excess air in combustion Page 19
NOTES
.tatement
rue #alse
=. A wea# !O adsorbent solution will underestimate
the boiler efficiency.

8. A wea# O adsorbent solution will overestimate the
boiler efficiency.

. /oo much excess air increases corrosion.

.. /oo much excess air increases the flame temperature.

$. /oo much excess air decreases the pressure in a boiler.

Tas( )
5xplore the shape of the 15xcess Air2 curve. 0hat happens% if !O

is very close to =H
/int! /a#e any 15xcess Air2 printout and extend the !O

axis to the left.

!alculate the excess air for 8 C% =.: C% and =.8 C !O

..
/a#e the e"uation for and set f68
6
8 8

CO
CO
max

,ecrease !O

in steps from 8 to =.==8C for !O
max
68C
!O

&Cdry basis' 8 =.: =.8
5xcess Air&C'
Tas( *
Often the power consumption of the forced draft fan% and
occasionally an additional induced draft fan of the boiler is not
#nown or data is not available. On the other hand the annual fuel
consumption and annual operating hours are fairly well #nown.
Use the e"uation
P
=

+
p v
M F

in 0att
where
p
6 pressure drop across a fan in Aascal
Excess air in combustion Page 11
NOTES
v 6 volume flow in m
.
4s of air or stac# gas
-D+ 6 system efficiency of fan and electric motor
&about =.$ to =.@'
to roughly estimate the hourly electricity consumption of a boiler
that combusts .:= #g4h of Bunker C at := C excess air.
.teps
-esults 0P in /2O2
" cm ) cm + cm 19 cm
Aressure drop in Aascal
A+ ratio of Bun#er !% #g4#g fuel
Jeal air #g4#g fuel
Jeal air m
.
4#g of fuel
#0h4hour at -D+ 6=.;
)ote% the pressure drop across the system depends very much on
the height of the chimney% the stac# gas temperature and the setting
of the fan louvers.
Tas( +
In the field one is never sure whether the measuring e"uipment
wor#s properly. 0ea# adsorbent solutions% or chemical cells% short
circuits in the Firconia Oxide sensors or incorrect calibration will
yield false results. A clever way to safeguard against undetected
measurement errors is to measure both the O

and !O

content of
the gas. In this case one can ta#e advantage of the fact that O

and
!O

are not independent from each other. Once one value is #nown
the other can be calculated. Use the software to explore the
functional relation of O

&!O

' and !O

&O

'.