Optimum Combustion and O&M Variables that

Affect Combustion and Emissions

Section 3 of 6
The Definition of Optimum Combustion is at least these Factors:
• Burn lowest quality (least expensive) fuel with no adverse consequence
• Flames stable and flame scanners satisfied
• Full load capability and meet all environmental and fuel quality requirements 
• No reducing atmosphere in the lower furnace causing water wall wastage

Heat rate factors of “optimum combustion”:
• Completed combustion within the furnace (no Secondary combustion)
• Fly ash unburned carbon satisfactorily 
• De‐superheating spray water flows minimal
• Design Steam temperature attained 
• Primary airflow is optimized
• No furnace slagging
• No convection pass fouling
• Minimal Pop corn ash

Environmentally driven factors of “optimum combustion”:
• Satisfactorily low LOI so that ESP performs satisfactorily for minimum opacity
• Acceptable NOX
• Acceptable CO

2
 Thirteen Prerequisites for Optimum Combustion For T-Fired Unit
Ensures Proper and Optimum “Inputs”
(>50% related to Pulverizers)
1. Furnace exit must be oxidizing, preferably no less than 3% oxygen
2. Fuel lines balanced to each burner by “Clean Air” test ±2% or better
3. Fuel lines balanced by “Dirty Air” test, using a Dirty Air Velocity Probe, to ±5% or better
4. Fuel lines balanced in fuel flow to ±10% or better
5. Fuel line fineness shall be 75% or more particles passing a 200‐mesh screen and 0.3% or less particles 
remaining on a 50‐mesh screen
6. Primary airflow shall be accurately measured and controlled to ±3% accuracy
7. Over fire air shall be accurately measured and controlled to ±3% accuracy
8. Primary air/fuel ratio shall be accurately controlled when above minimum
9. Fuel line minimum velocities shall be 3,300 fpm
10. Mechanical tolerances of burners, burner tilts and dampers shall be ±1/4” (±2°) or better.
11. Secondary air distribution to burners should be within ±5% to ±10%
12. Fuel feed to the pulverizers should be smooth during load changes and measured and controlled as 
accurately as possible. Load cell equipped gravimetric feeders are preferred.
13. Fuel feed quality and size should be consistent. Consistent raw coal sizing of feed to the pulverizers is a 
good start.

3
 13 Prerequisites For Optimum Combustion

Ensure “Inputs” to the Furnace are Optimal by Field Tests

Combustion is a simple process

ÎInject Fuel ÎAdd Air

All control lost after fuel & air (inputs) enter the furnace
4
 Symptoms of a Boiler Needing Combustion Optimization

FOULING AND SLAGGING

STEAM AND STEAM
• Furnace exit S.H. inlet slagging OXYGEN AND AIR:
TEMPERATURE CONTROLS
• Fouling of the convention pass and/or the air •Stratified oxygen at the furnace or boiler
• High de-superheating spray
heater baskets. exit.
flows.
• Burner eyebrows and waterwall slagging. •Air heater leakage greater than 10%.
• Higher or lower steam
•Combustion air distribution to the
temperatures than design.
HIGH GAS TEMPERATURES burners exceeds ±10%.
•Flue gas temperature at the furnace exit is  •Air in-leakage through the ash hoppers.
greater than 2,150°F (1177°C) peak. •Air in-leakage through the nose arch,
•Stratified flue gas temperatures. penthouse or convection pass areas.
BOILER DRUM •Economizer gas outlet temperature greater 
LEVEL than 750°F (399 °C Respectively).
• Uneven furnace •Overhead tube metals in the superheater
heat release can and the reheater.
contribute to non-
uniform steam
generation in the FLYASH
waterwall circuits, •Flyash unburned carbon 
resulting in varied (LOI) greater than 5% for 
steam by weight in bituminous coals and 
the furnace circuitry, greater than 0.5% for 
and sometimes tube subbituminous coals.
failures or steam •Electrostatic precipitator 
purity problems. performance reduced due 
to ash conductivity or high 
carbon content.
PULVERIZER AND BURNER LINES FUEL DISTRIBUTION:
•Fuel Imbalances
•Primary airflow for the Air/Fuel ratio is not correct FANS AND DAMPERS:
•Poor fineness  • I.D. fan capacity inadequate.
Less than 75% passing 75 micron (200 Mesh) & >0.3% not passing 300 micron (50 Mesh)
• I.D. and F.D. fan clearances are not
•Fuel temperatures less than 135°F (57°C)
•Pulverizer rejects high optimum.
•Mechanical tolerances are out of specification and the burners are not within ±1/4” • Damper, register, and fan control
louvers are not timed from 0-100% on
the operating drive or hand control.

5
Common Boiler Tests to Optimize Combustion
and Boiler Reliability

6
 Heat Rate Consequences of
Non-Optimum Burner Belt Performance

• High Furnace Exit Gas Temperature (FEGT)
• High spray water flows to S.H. and R.H.
• Tube metal over heating and reliability 
problems
• Slagging and fouling 
• “Popcorn” ash 
• SCR fouling 
• APH fouling 
• Possible elevated economizer outlet gas 
temperature 
The “Inputs” must be Optimal

7
 Non-Optimum Combustion

• The furnace size and configuration is fixed.

• Furnace cleanliness (furnace, upper furnace and convection pass) is controlled 
by soot blowing and profoundly influences flue gas temperatures.

• If FEGT, Boiler exit and‐or APH exit gas temperatures are higher, it is more often 
than not caused by the “inputs.”

• Lower FEGT is achieved when combustion is completed lower in the furnace. 
Flue gas, tube metal and steam temperatures are more balanced with lower 
FEGT.

• Imbalanced O2 is caused by imbalances in the burner and OFA zones unless 
biased by leakage (assuming control room indication of O2 is accurate and 
representative).

8
 Typical Full Load Steam Generator Temperatures

More often than not, high Boiler/APH exit gas temperature are the result of high FEGT.

1800°F (982°C) 1400°F (760°C)

2150°F (1178°C) (Carbon Quench Zone)
2250°F (1232°C) 1100 - 1200°F (593°C - 649°C)

700-750°F
2800 - 3000°F
(370°C - 398°C)
(1538°C - 1649°C)

550 - 700°F
290°F (143°C)
(260°C - 371°C)

70°F (21°C)

Cold End Temperature =

(70 + 290)/2 = 180°F (82°C) Average

9
Proper O2 in the right places is needed because combustion must be
completed and carbon to CO2 in ~1 to 1.5 seconds at full load.

10
 Combustion Basics
• Excess air and excess oxygen are the same thing expressed differently.
• Excess O2 is always measured as % by volume. 
• Excess air is calculated as percent weight, NOT volume.
• Air is 20.9% O2 and ~78% Nitrogen; ~1/5th Oxygen, 1% excess O2 = 5% excess air.
• 1.00 Stoichiometry is 0% 02
• 1.15 Stoichiometry is an excess oxygen of ~3% O2

• Not all carbon is converted into CO2
• Some carbon is incompletely burned and produces CO
• Some carbon does not burn and remains as carbon in the fly ash or bottom ash.

• Air and fuel are not mixed perfectly, having the exact amount of air to complete combustion 
(stoichiometric) is not enough.
• Extra air or excess air is supplied to ensure combustibles are burned.

• Nitrogen combines with free oxygen to create NO and NO2
• Nitrogen comes from fuel and air (78% nitrogen)

• Sulfur combines with oxygen to create SO2 and SO3; combines with water and creates sulfuric 
acid (H2SO4)

11
 Controlling FEGT
FEGT is controlled by the amount of heat absorbed by
the water walls. “Normal” FEGT set by heat release
rate, water wall surface (size of furnace).

Lower FEGT by increasing water wall absorption is

achieved when:

1. Wall blowers are blown, water walls absorb more 
heat.

2. Burner tilts down on tangentially fired units .

3. Combustion is completed faster
• Better fineness
• Good fuel & air Balance

4. Better mixing in the lower furnace, more uniform:
• O2
• Temperature
• Slag deposition

12
Coal Combustion Workshop
 Changing FEGT with Burner Tilts

2250°F 2000°F 1850°F

Burner Tilts (+) UP Burner Tilts (0) Horizontal Burner Tilts (-) Down

Low Retention Time Moderate Retention Time Higest Retention Time

Low W.W. Heat Absorption Moderate W.W. Heat Absorption Highest W.W. Heat Absorption
Higest FEGT Lower FEGT Lowest FEGT

13
 Poor Pulverizer Performance Increases FEGT by Delaying
Combustion
Increased Slagging and Lower Performance
Tube spacing permits slag
bridging between the tube
Excessive de-superheating assemblies, when the ash is
water sprays, for both S.H. soft, sticky and/or molten.
and R.H.
Sticky plastic slag deposits on
pendants. Slag temperature at or
above ash softening
temperature.

Reducing areas w/fuel

stratifications and excessive
CO levels.

Molten slag on
the furnace wall.

Good /uniform mixing in the

burner zone. Burner Air inlet & outlet flue
mechanical tolerances, gases higher than
fineness, fuel/air balance design.
and PA flow proper and
precise.

Poor fuel fineness and

distribution aggravates high
center of combustion.

14
 Burner Belt Performance is Never Optimal
with less than Perfect Pulverizer Performance

Consequences of Non-Optimum Burner Belt

Performance:

● High spray water flows to S.H. and R.H.
● Tube metal over heating and reliability 
problems
● Slagging and Fouling 
● Higher NOx
● “Popcorn” Ash 
● SCR Fouling 
● APH Fouling 
● Elevated economizer outlet gas 
temperature 
The “inputs” must be Optimal
No control of air and fuel after it enters the boiler

15
 Overall Plant Performance Opportunities
(>50% are Related to the Pulverizers)
High furnace exit gas temperatures
contribute to overheated metals,
slagging, excessive sootblower High furnace exit gas
operation, production of popcorn temperatures contribute to high
ash, fouling of SCR’s and APH’s. de-superheating spray water
flows that are significant steam
turbine cycle heat-rate
penalties.

Coal pulverizer spillage

from pulverizer throats
that are too large.
Flyash Carbon losses

Bottom ash Non optimum primary airflow

carbon content. measurement and control ;
High primary airflows contribute to Excessive NOX levels.
unnecessarily high dry gas losses
and also poor fuel distribution and
poor coal fineness.

16
 Optimizing Mill and Burner Performance

1. Evaluate Coal Factors that influence mill capacity (Raw Coal

Size, HGI, Moisture, HHV, Fineness, Hp/Ton).
2. Fuel Loading & Feed Rate Control.
3. Clean Air Balance within + 2%.
4. Dirty air flow Balance within + 5%.
5. Measured Primary air Hot “K” Factor calibrations +2-3%
(measured vs. actual).
6. Mill temperature Control, Damper Control and Responsiveness
to Load Control.
7. Air-Fuel Ratio /fuel ratios are required for Optimum Flame
Lengths and Carbon Burnout.
8. Total air flow Measurement / Control Optimized; Balance of
Mass Air & Fuel Flow.
9. Fuel line fineness and distribution testing by air/fuel ratio
sampling & ensuring optimum fineness levels of >75% thru 200
mesh (75 micron) & 99.7% thru 50 Mesh (300 Micron).
10. Fuel line balancing through classifier changes or fuel line
distribution modifications to achieve +10%.
11. “Blueprinting” of tolerances, mechanical settings and control
settings.

17
 Importance of Fineness

‹ Higher fineness levels always promote more even distribution of fuel between a mill’s
separate burner lines.

‹ Better distribution promotes better combustion, inherently lower NOx emissions and lower fly
ash L.O.I. or carbon content.

‹ Better than ±10% fuel balance is not achieved until better than 70% passing 200 Mesh (75
micron) is achieved.

18
 Understanding the Effects of Coal Fineness

• Higher coal fineness will promote less slagging, lower NOx and lower unburned
carbon in ash.

• Smaller particles (higher fineness) burn more quickly, combustion is completed

lower in the furnace cavity.
• Increased heat release in the lower furnace results in a higher proportion of
heat absorbed by the water walls. This lowers exit gas temperatures.
• The increase in time for mixing will reduce carbon in ash.

• Reduction in furnace exit gas temperature resulting from completion of combustion

in the lower furnace with higher fineness results in lower slagging propensities and
lower NOx. Furnace temperatures are also more uniform reducing localized
slagging.

• NOx is reduced by reducing conversion of fuel nitrogen into NOx, reduced furnace
temperatures and improved fuel balance.

Elmer Smith Power Plant  19
April‐May 2016
 Optimizing Primary Airflow
300,000

280,000

260,000

240,000

Primary Airflow (Lbs./Hr.)

220,000

200,000

180,000
0 % PA Bias, Mill 5

-6 % PA Bias, Mill 5
160,000

Coal Rejects often demand elevated Primary 
Airflow which relates to high A/F ratio. 140,000 -10 % PA Bias, Mill 5

Effects:
120,000
• Poor coal  fineness. Recommended Mill
Inlet Airflow Ramp

• Poor fuel balance. 100,000
40,000 55,000 70,000 85,000 100,000 115,000 130,000
• Higher NOx and higher fly ash LOI Coal Flow (Lbs./Hr.)

• Poor flame stability. Recommend primary air-fuel ramp

"As Found" Unit 2 Mill Fuel Line Measurements
• High FEGT. Unit 2 Installed Air-Fuel Curve
"As Found" Unit 1 Mill Fuel line Measurements
(slagging, high exit gas temperatures, hot 
tubes, higher spray flows, etc.)
• More tempering air (bypasses APH)

20
Typical Slagging Conditions on a Tangentially Fired Boiler

21
Ash Fusion Temperatures

ID ST HT FT

22
Low O2 at the Furnace Exit also Causes Slagging

Ash “chemistry changes and 
ash fusion (melts) at lower 
temperature

FEGT is higher because there is 
insufficient excess oxygen to 
complete combustion in the 
lower furnace

23
The Furnace Exit should be Oxidizing because:
1. Reducing Ash Fusion Temperatures are always lower
2. Low or No O2  increases Furnace Exit Gas Temperature

24
Use good walk downs and/or permanent cameras to 20 Tips to Improve Combustion and
identify slag before it becomes a problem in the SH, the
plant can then shift from a “normal” to “aggressive”
Prevent Slagging
sootblowing/cleaning mode of operation to manage or
remove the clinker online. Take Action rather than
waiting for a forced outage.

Good control of the furnace exit conditions to minimize

or stop slagging. (Proper & uniform O2 and
Temperature) Uniform furnace exit conditions across
the furnace (°F/O2) = uniform slag deposition. (Uniform
slag is more easily managed. Active monitoring of the
FEGT is KEY. Operators need to be aware of FEGT to
optimize their cleaning strategies and make
adjustments. Trust but verify optical, acoustic and
calculated FEGT. High Velocity Thermocouple Testing
is the Gold standard of FEGT measurement – HVT
measures bulk and discrete point temperatures.
Don’t overuse OFA – NOx can be “too good” –
the benefits of over-staging will be short lived

Practice “preventative” not “reactive” soot

blowing by cleaning water walls, reducing FEGT
and Slagging conditions. Keeping the walls
clean and lowering furnace temperatures can
also reduce NOx, sometimes as much as 15%.
Know your coal before it enters the furnace
(Operator awareness) Control the coal quality
issues that you have control of, “Plant” coal
quality control starts in the coal yard. Raw coal
sizing, moisture (coal pile management), coal
drying (mill outlet temperature) and fineness.

Optimize lower furnace fuel & air interactions to

maximize water wall heat absorption.
Pulverizer performance is critical to preventing
lower furnace slag/clinkers. Avoid the “splat”
factor.

25
20 Tips to Improve Combustion and
Prevent Slagging Boiler setting air ingress minimized; furnace O2 is 
not low with normal economizer exit O2.
SH/RH Heating surface areas optimized – Good
steam temperatures with FEGT at or less than ash
softening temperature.
Help pendant/platens clean themselves by
removing slag anchor points such as certain types
of wrapper tubes, alignment lugs and rigid
alignment/tie bars to allow some “swinging” of
the pendants.
Soot blowing technologies have also advanced a
long way from a pipe with two holes – Ensure
soot blower PM ’ s are being completed to
maximize soot blowing effectiveness.
Amount of heat absorbed by the water walls
regulates Furnace Exit Gas Temperature. LOOK at
the water walls; know what you’re looking for.
(Slagging Conditions)
Remember the boiler is a heat engine, get the
inputs right. Fuel and air need to be in the right
places in the right amounts.
Air heater is clean & well maintained; a high DP or
Leakage doesn’t lower furnace O2 due to fan
capacity.
Practice prevention of slag rather than managing slag
incidents. Listen to your boiler when it tells you it is sick;
fevers – high exit gas temperatures or FEGT, hot tubes,
vomiting – high spray flows, ash spills, dark bottom ash or
fly ash, Shortness of breath – ID and FD fan limitations,
high DP’s and low wind box pressures.

26
 Slagging / Fouling

Tube spacing becomes

SLAGGING 

FOULING 
more restrictive as the heat

ZONE 
transfer process changes ZONE
from “Radiant” in the furnace
to “Convective” heat transfer
in the back pass.

27
Proper and Optimum Boiler Air Flow Management is Essential to
Achieving Lowest NOX without upper or lower furnace slagging,
725 Mw boiler firing subbituminous coal.

Secondary air flow

measured to ensure
uniform and proper total
air to fuel ratio between
burner elevations.

Pulverizer air flow

measured within ±3%;
Critical for best NOX,
slagging and exit gas
temperature.

28
Precise Measurement & Management of all
Airflow Inputs to the Boiler is Ideal

29
 Combustion Airflow Distribution & Control
Combustion Air Flow Paths
• Primary Air
• Secondary Air – Inner
• Secondary Air – Outer
• Secondary Air – OFA
• Tramp Air – In‐Leakage*
* Expected < 2% of total theoretical air
Over‐Fire Air 
(20%‐30%)

Secondary Air 
(55%‐65%)

Primary 
Airflow
(15%‐20%)
 A proper pulverizer primary air flow curve ensures
proper and optimal mill airflow and coal flow relationship.

The ability to maintain optimum primary airflow requires:

• Accurate measurement and control of mill airflow (PA) within ±3%.
• Accurate measurement and control of coal flow better than ±5%.
23
22
21
20
19
P.A. FLOW (kg/s)

18
17
LCV
16
15
During these test all values should be on the blue Normal
14 PAF MIN
(LCV) line.
13 Measured
12
11
10
10 15 20 25 30 35
FEEDER SPEED (RPM)

31
Typical HVT Test locations to measure FEGT and Furnace O2

Typical FEGT 
Measurement Location

Controlling Furnace Exit 
Conditions, one if not 
the most important 
factor to controlling 
slagging, optimum 
steam temperatures & 
combustion efficiency.

32
 Furnace Exit HVT Test Procedure

A Furnace High Velocity Thermocouple Traverse (HVT) performs the following:

1. Quantifies furnace exit gas temp. (FEGT)

2. Ascertains furnace temperature profile
3. Quantifies furnace oxygen level
4. Ascertains furnace oxygen profile

Temperature (deg. F) Ports 1-12

33
 Boiler Variables that can Influence Heat Rate/Efficiency

• Combustion Performance
• Air/Fuel Ratio Control (total)
• Fuel Quality
• Boiler Design/Heat transfer (absorption performance)
• Fan performance
• Auxiliary Power Consumption
• Tube Alignment /Reliability
• Boiler performance
• Controls
• Turn-Down
• Excess Air / Representation of actual flue gas Oxygen
• Environmental Equipment
• Emissions

34
 22 Boiler Controllable Heat Rate Factors
1. Fly ash Loss On Ignition (LOI)
2. Bottom ash carbon content
3. Boiler and ductwork air in‐leakage
4. More precise primary airflow measurement and control by reducing tempering air and improved mixing.
5. Reducing pulverizer air in‐leakage on suction mills.
6. Pulverizer throat size and geometry optimization to reduce coal rejects and compliment operation at 
lower primary airflow.
7. Secondary airflow measurement and control for more precise control of furnace stoichiometry, 
especially important for low NOx operation.
8. Reduction of extremely high upper furnace exit (FEGT) peak temperatures, which contribute to 
“Popcorn Ash” carryover to the SCRs and APHs, High spray water flows, Boiler slagging and fouling, and 
high draft losses due to fouling. The high draft losses cause increased in‐leakage, increased fan auxiliary 
power wastage and increased associated losses with the high spray water flows
9. High de‐superheating spray water flow to the superheater.
10. High de‐superheating spray water flow to the reheater.
11. High air heater leakage (note: Ljungstrom regenerative air heaters should and can be less than 9% 
leakage)
12. Auxiliary power consumption/optimization i.e., fan clearances, duct leakage, primary air system 
optimization, etc.

35
 22 Boiler Controllable Heat Rate Factors – (Continued)
13. Superheater outlet temperature.
14. Reheater outlet temperature. 
15. Air heater outlet temperature.
16. Air heater exit gas temperature, corrected to a “no leakage” basis, and brought to the optimum level
17. Burner “inputs” tuning for lowest possible excess oxygen at the boiler outlet and satisfactory NOX and 
LOI. Ensuring the “Prerequisites for Optimum Combustion” are met.
18. Boiler exit (economizer exit) gas temperatures ideally between 650°F to 750°F, with zero air in‐
leakage (no dilution!).
19. Cycle losses due to valve leak through – i.e. spray water valves, reheater drains to the condenser, 
superheater and re‐ heater drains and vents, and especially any low point drains to the condenser or to 
the hot well.
20. “Soot blowing” Optimization – or smart soot blowing based on excellence in power plant operation. 
(Remember, soot blowing medium is a heat rate cost, whether compressed air or steam). Steam could 
be Megawatts, however, compressed air for soot blowers requires a tremendous amount of energy.
21. Feed water heater level controls and steam cycle attention to detail.
22. Steam purity and the costly impact of turbine deposits on heat rate and capacity.

36
Don’t Overlook a Simple Thing such as
Ineffective Wall Blowers

37
Coal Combustion Workshop
 Typical Soot Blower Locations
“Preventative” versus “Reactive” Soot blowing

“Reactive” Soot blowers

“Preventative” Soot blowers

Wall Blower Locations
Long Retractable Soot Blower Locations

38
Poor coarse coal fineness (>300 Micron particles) can impact on the
lower furnace slope causing heavy slagging in the lower furnace.

39
 Relationship of Poor Coal Fineness and
Increased Furnace Slag Propensity

Poor Fineness results in poor distribution and induces 
heavier concentration of ash constituents with low meting  
(fusion) temperatures in localized areas. “SPLAT” factor.

40
 Another example of serious lower furnace slagging
Caused by poor coarse coal fineness
(>300 µ Particles that will not pass a 50 Mesh screen)

41
 Another example of serious lower furnace slagging
caused by poor coarse coal fineness
(>300 µ Particles that would not pass a 50 Mesh screen)

42