Earth and life – Chapter 2
: History and Geologic Time
Earth’s History ~
* Petrology is a branch of geology that deals with
the origin, composition, structure, and
classification of rocks.
* Stratigraphy is the study of rock layers (strata)
and layering (stratifications).
* Paleontology studies the life that existed prior to,
or sometimes at the start of, the Holocene epoch
(the current geologic epoch). It includes the study
of fossils to determine how they have evolved and
interacted with the environment.
Relative and Absolute Dating ~
* Relative dating places events or rocks in their
chronological sequence or order of occurrence
without knowing their actual age. Relative dating
cannot tell exactly how many years have passed
since the event happened.
The relative order of geologic events can be
established by applying the following basic
principles:
1. Principle of Original Horizontality - Sedimentary
rocks are deposited as horizontal or nearly
horizontal layers. Any deviation from horizontality
indicates that deformation occurs after the
deposition.
2. Principle of Superposition - In the sequence of
sedimentary rocks, the layer at the bottom of the
sequence is the oldest, and the succeeding higher
levels are successively younger.
3. Principle of Cross-cutting Relationships -
Geologic features like faults or igneous intrusions
are younger than the rocks they cut across.
4. Principle of Inclusion - If rocks or rock fragments
are included within another rock layer, the rock
fragments must be older than the rock layer where
they were embedded
*Absolute dating determines actual ages of rocks
and events. The method used in absolute dating is
based on the decay rate of certain radioactive
isotopes within fossils, rocks, and artifacts.
(For example, through carbon dating, sandstone
was found out to be 300 million years old.)
Fossils: Evidence of Past Life ~
* A fossil is a remnant or trace of organisms of a
past geologic age. When you visit a natural history
museum, you will find different types of fossils.
They are classified based on their formation.
1. True form fossils are entire animals or plants
trapped and preserved in ice, tar, or other material,
such as remains of prehistoric elephants or
mammoths that were frozen in the Arctic tundra of
Siberia and Alaska.
2. Mold fossils are hollow impressions of a living
thing in a rock. The mold reflects only the shape
and surface marking of the organisms.
3. Cast fossils are created when mold fossils get
filled with minerals. The minerals harden and form
a replica of the original fossil.
4. Trace fossils or ichnofossils are impressions on
rocks that showed various activities.
Fossils can be footprints, eggs, droppings. or nests
of animals.
- Based on his observations and of many geologists,
the principle of fossil succession was formulated. It
states that fossil organisms succeed one another in
a definite and determinable order and, therefore,
any time period can be recognized by its fossil
content.
- Once these fossils are recognized as time
indicators, they are used in correlating rocks of
similar age in different regions. These fossils are
called index fossils. Index fossils are associated
with a particular span of geologic time.
Geologic Time Scale ~
* The Geological time scale is a record of the life
forms and geological events in earth’s history.
* The largest sections are called “Eons”.
* “Eons” are divided into “Eras” (the 2nd largest
section)
* “Eras” are divided into “Periods”.
* “Periods” are divided into “Epochs”.
EONS:
- Largest
- 2 Eons
- The 2 are: Precambrian (Cryptozioc) eon
Phanerozoic eon
- These 2 Eons both consists three Eras.
ERAS: EPOCHS:
- Each Eon is broken up into Eras. - Tertiary period has 5 epochs:
- Precambrian eon consists of Hadean, Archaen, * Paleocene – first primate (65.5 Ma)
Proterozoic eras * Eocene – primitive horse (55.8 Ma)
- Phanerozoic eon consists of Plaeozoic, Mesozoic, * Oligocene – apes and elephants (33.9 Ma)
and Cenozoic eras * Miocene – grass abundant (23.0 Ma)
- Major eras in Earth's history: (mya = millions of * Pilocene – (5.3 Ma)
years) - Quaternary period has 2 epochs:
 Hadean – beginning of earth (4600 mya – 3800 * Pleistocene – (1.8 Ma)
mya) * Holocene – (0.01 Ma)
 Archean – oldest fossils ( 3800 mya - 2500 mya)
 Proterozoic – early life ; fossil remain of
bacteria and blue-green algae (2500 mya - 540
mya)
 Paleozoic – ancient life (540mya - 250mya)
 Mesozoic – middle life; age of dinosaurs (250
mya - 65.5 mya)
 Cenozoic – recent life; age of mammals (65.5
mya - present)

PERIODS:
- Each Era is divided into even more specific blocks
of time called periods.
- Various geologic events are associated with each
period.
- Each period is again classified into different
epochs

- Paleozoic era has 7 periods:

* Cambrian – marine shelled invertebrate
* Ordovician – first vertebrate fish
* Silurian – first land plants
* Devonian – first amphibians and finest
* Mississippian – large amount of amphibians,
extensive first, sharks abundant)
* Pennsylvanian – large nonflowering plants
* Permain – rise of reptiles

- Mesozoic era has 3 periods:

* Triassic – first dinosaurs
* Jurassic – age of dinosaurs
* Cretaceous – first mammals; extinction of
dinosuars

- Cenezoic has 2 periods:

* Tertiary
* Quanternary