EARTH AND SCIENCE (FINAL REVIEWER)

Geologic Time
Stratified Rocks - stratified rocks are almost the same as sedimentary rocks. They are
layered Earth materials that are deposited as successive beds of sediment that have
been solidified by compaction, cementation, or crystallization.
Stratification - also called bedding, is the layering that occurs in most
sedimentary and igneous rocks.
Stratigraphy - the study of rock layers and their relationships to each other.

Relative and Absolute Dating - two methods used by geologists in determining the
age of rocks and fossils.
Relative Dating - is a method wherein events based on the rock sequence are
arranged as geological events.
Law of Superposition - states that older rocks are found at the
bottom-most layer.
Absolute Dating - gives the actual age of the rock or fossil, or the period of an
event.
Radiometric Dating - also referred to absolute dating.
Radioactive Decay - is the tendency of certain atoms to decay into
lighter atoms, emitting energy in the process.
Radioactive Dating - is the most accurate method of absolute dating.
Carbon Dating - is one of the best radiometric dating techniques used
by scientists.

Index Fossils and Formation of Fossils

Index Fossils - is used to establish the age of rock layers. These fossils act as
“bookmarks” in the stratified rock layers so that geologists can easily
determine the age or period of the rock layers.
4 characteristics for a fossil to be considered an index fossil -
abundance, widespread distribution, distinct identifiable features, and
existed only in a short yet specific span of geologic time.
Many fossils may qualify as index fossils - ammonites, trilobites, and
graptolites are often used as index fossils.
Protista - a commonly used index fossil single-celled.
Viviparus Glacialis - a mollusk, serves as an index fossil for the
Pleistocene.
How Fossils Form - there are 5 ways fossils can form.
Mummification - mummified remains are often founds in very dry
places where bacteria that cause decay cannot survive.
Amber - amber is hardened tree sap.
Tar Seeps - when thick petroleum oozes the Earth’s surface, the
petroleum forms a tar seep.
Freezing - the low temperatures of frozen soil and ice can protect and
preserve organisms.
Petrification - organic matter exposed to minerals over a long period
is turned into a stony material.
 Types of Fossils - aside from the preservation of the organisms, include
imprints, molds and casts, coprolites, and gastroliths.
Imprints - are carbonized imprints of leaves, stems, flowers, and even
fish that are made in soft mud or clay.
Molds and Casts - the mold is simply the hardened impression of the
organism, the cast is a replica of the original organism formed from
the mold.
Coprolites - fossilized dung or waste materials from ancient animals.

The Geologic Time Scale - is a model of Earth’s history. Scientists put together the
geologic time scale to describe two things: the order, which tells which comes first,
and the duration, which refers to how long the major events were.
MYA - million years ago.
Eon - is further divided into smaller chunks called eras.
Era - is divided into smaller time units called periods.
Epoch - is the smaller time unit. Further, epochs can be divided into smaller
units of time called ages.
Phanerozoic eon, Cenozoic era, and Quaternary period - our present
time.

EON - Phanerozoic, Proterozoic, Archean

ERA - Cenozoic, Mesozoic, Paleozoic, Late Proterozoic|Middle Proterozoic|Early
Proterozoic, Late Archean|Middle Archean| Early Archean, Pre-Archean
PERIOD - Quaternary, Tertiary, Cretaceous, Jurassic, Triassic, Permian,
Pennsylvanian, Mississippian, Devonian, Silurian, Ordovician, Cambrian

Precambrian Time (4.6B - 542 mya) - is the interval of time in the geologic time scale
from Earth’s formation to the beginning of the Paleozoic era.
Stromatolites - reef-like deposits form by blue-green algae.
- first crustal rocks form. Earth’s surface is cool enough for liquid
water.
- first known unicellular life appears.
- Earth’s atmosphere starts to become oxygen-rich.
- first known multicellular life appears.
- first fungi appears.
- first shelled organisms, such as arthropods and mollusks, appear.
Paleozoic Era (542 - 251 mya) - the era that followed the Precambrian time is the
Paleozoic era.
Pangaea - was form during this era.
Cambrian Period (488 mya) - first possible vertebrates appear.
Ordovician Period (444 mya) - modern, oxygen-rich atmosphere has
formed.
Silurian Period (416 mya) - first land plants appear. First arthropods
appear on land.
Devonian Period (359 mya) - first amphibians appear.
Carboniferous Period|Mississippian & Pennsylvanian (318 - 299
mya) - firt reptiles appear.
 Permian Period (251 mya) - formation of Pangaea is complete.
Permian mass extinction results from major environmental changes.
Mesozoic Era - is the geologic era that lasted from 251 million years to 65.5 mya.
This era has a rich fossil record. It has rock records that show an environments that
favored the development of reptiles.
“Age of Reptiles” - dinosaurs are the best-known reptiles of this era and they
dominated Earth for about 150 million years. Aside from reptiles, flowering
plants also appeared during this period.
Triassic Period (251 - 200 mya) - Pangaea begins to break apart.
First mammals appear.
Jurassic Period (146 mya) - first primitive birds appear.
Cretaceous Period (65.5 mya) - first flowering plants (angiosperms)
appear. First modern birds appear. The last dinosaurs become extinct.
Catastrophic meteorite impact occurs.
Cenozoic Era - our present time belongs to the Cenozoic era. This is the current
geologic era which began 65.5 mya.
“Recent Life” - it means Cenozoic and this includes the present period.
“Age of Mammals” - because mammals are the dominant life form.
- terrestrial
- aquatic
- aerial
TERTIARY PERIOD
Paleocene Epoch (65.5 - 55.5 mya)
Eocene Epoch (33.9 mya) - most modern mammal families, including whales,
carnivores, hoofed animals, and primates have appeared. First grasses
appeared.
Oligocene Epoch (23.0 mya) - India, collides with Asia, and Antarctica drifts
over South Pole.
QUARTENARY PERIOD
Miocene Epoch (5.3 mya)
Pliocene Epoch (1.8 mya) - first hominids (early human ancestors) appear.
Modern ice age begins.
Pleistocene Epoch (0.0115 mya)
Holocene Epoch (present) - modern humans appear.