Aggregates & Binders in Concrete

Chapter 9 : Concrete
I. Introduction
II. Aggregates
2.1 definition
Aggregates are generally crushed rocks , used mainly in civil engineering, public works and
building construction.
The size of the aggregates is ranged between 0 to 125 mm.
Their nature and form depend on the production techniques.
Three type of aggregates can be distinguished :
 Natural
 Artificial
 Recycled
Eng. Olivia Kalakesh Page 1

they can be used :
 directly without binders to bind the grains together : railways , road subbase ,
backfill,…
 with binders : Cement for concrete , bitumen for asphalt
2.2 The main aggregates categories
2.2.1. Alluvial aggregates (Rounded)
They are alluvium ( sediments ( sand , clay , gravels,…)) that are carried by rushed stream
and deposited when the stream slow down in rivers ,seas,…
The rounded shape of these aggregates is due to the erosion . These aggregates are washed to
eliminate the clay.
They are sieves and classified based on grains sizes :
 d : the lower grain size
 D : the upper grain size

2.2.2 Aggregates from massive rocks (crushed aggregates)
They are prepared in quarries : blocs breaking and crushing ==> aggregates are sieved using
different sieves.
2.2.3 Artificial and recycled aggregates
Recycled aggregates are obtained from waste construction, building and road demolition
(concrete , pavement ,..),… and industrial products (slag of blast furnace ,…)
2.3 Origin
2.3.1 Sedimentary rocks
sedimentary rocks are rocks that are formed by the deposition of materials at the earth's
surface. They are the result of the accumulation and compaction of minerals (degradation of
other rocks ) , organics ( animals debris ) or chemical precipitation. Siliceous rocks and
limestone are examples of sedimentary rocks.

2.3.2 metamorphic rocks
Metamorphic rocks arise from the transformation of existing rock types ( sedimentary or
magmatic ) . The original rock is subjected to heat and high pressure causing profound
physical and or chemical changes. marbles and quartzite are examples of metamorphic rocks.
2.3.3 Igneous rocks

Igneous rocks "eruptive rocks "are endogenous rocks which means that they are formed
below the surface contrary to sedimentary rocks.
They are defined as eruptive rocks due to their volcanic origin and as igneous rock due to
the melting process they have had . Granit and basalt are examples of igneous rocks.
2.4 Aggregates treatment after extraction
The classifications and grains size distribution are obtained after the following operations :
Breaking , sieving and washing.


2.5 Appellation
The grain sizes ( in mm ) indicate the square mesh sieve sizes . The fine particle (<0.08 mm)
are named fine aggregates .
2.6 Classification
There are 5 classes of grains sizes according to (Norme NFP18-101)
2.7 Sieve analysis (granulometric analysis)
Sieve analysis is a procedure used to assess the particle size distribution of a granular
material . The size of particle is ranged between 0.063 and 125 mm
 Retained aggregates : the quantity of aggregates in the sieve

 Passing aggregates : the quantity of aggregates that passing through the sieve
The particle size distribution curve gives the following information :

 the dimensions d and D of the aggregates
 the proportion of fine elements
 if the soil is a well-graded soil or gap-graded soil

 1 : sand with a high amount of fine aggregates

 2 : Coarse sand
 3 : normal sand
 4 : well graded gravel 5/10
 5 : gap- graded gravel 8/25

2.8 Aggregates characteristics
2.8.1 Bulk density
Ranged between 1400 to 1600 kg/m3 for sands and natural gravels.
The gravel sample is thrown from 10 cm into a container of 2 liters volume ,without being
settled . The total mass of the aggregates is than 2 liters . The mass of the gravel sample is
measured with a balance (the container mass is eliminated) .

The bulk density is the ratio of the mass to the total volume
2.8.2 Absolute Density
The absolute volume is obtained by completely submerge the aggregates in a a graduated

container .
The increase in the water volume is due to the grains volume.

The variation in volume corresponds to the gravel absolute volume .
The mass of gravels is measured using a balance .
The absolute density is the ratio of the mass to the absolute volume of the sample.
2300 < absolute density <3000 kg/m3
2.8.3 Porosity
2.8.4 Compactness
Generally 0,5<c<0,7

2.8.5 Gravels shape : Flakiness index A
The granular geometry is defined by :

 The length L , minimum distance between two parallel planes that are tangents to the
grain both ends.
 The thickness E , minimum distance between two parallel planes that are tangents to
the grain.
 The size G , it is the size of the minimum sieve mesh that allows the grain passing.
The flakiness index A is the percentage by weigh of particle that verify the following relation
G/E>1.58
The flakiness index in obtained by a double analysis of the particle grain size . Two series of
sieves are used for the same aggregates sample :
 A number of square mesh sieve

 A number of sieve with slotted perforations
Passing aggregates : bad shape ( very flat)

Retained aggregates : good shape
For gravels 10% <A <30%
Flaky and elongated particles should be avoided for the following reasons :
 They cause weakness and breakdown under heavy loads

 They reduces the workability of concrete mix
 They tend to be placed in the direction of their largest dimension

2.8.6 Wear resistance
« Micro – Deval» test with a rotated roll determines the aggregates resistance to wear.
The micro-Deval coefficient MDE expresses the resistance to wear of aggregates of
dimensions varying between 4 to 50 mm .
MDE=(m/M)100
• M : The total mass of the material
• m : The mass of elements with sizes lower than 1.6 mm after the test
2.8.7 Shock and fragmentation resistance
« LOS ANGELES » (LA) test determines the category of the mechanical resistance of the
aggregates . It is a hardness test .
LA=(m/M)100
 M : The total mass of the material
 m : The mass of elements with sizes lower than 1.6 mm after the test
the lower is the LA the higher is the aggregates resistance to fragmentation

3. Hydraulic binders
3.1.Cement
3.1.1.Presentation
Cement is a hydraulic binder made by grinding of limestone and clay to a fine powder that
can hydrate when mixed with water . Cement can sets and hardens gradually even in the
presence of water . It is used as a component in the production of concrete. the cure of cement
depends on :
 The cement reactivity

 The temperature
 The mixture ( presence of additions ),…
3.1.2. Principle of fabrication









3.1.3 Cement classification
Cement made of clinker and other secondary components are classified according to their
composition into 5 main types based on NF P15-301 et ENV 197-1. They are denoted CEM I
to V according the European standards ( French standards : see notations in parenthesis ) :
 CEM I : Portland cement (CPA) : 95% of it is made of clinker and 5% of other

secondary components. It is used in the confection of reinforced concrete or prestressed
concrete.
 CEM II : Portland-composite cement (CPJ): 65% of this type is made of clinker , 35%
of secondary components . It is used for general construction using reinforced concrete.
 CEM III : Blastfurnace cement (CHF) : 5 to 64% of this type is made of clinker and 36
to 80% of slag. It is used in foundations and underground works or in aggressive areas.
 CEM IV : Pozzolanic cement ( CPZ) : 45% to 89% of this type of clinker and of 10 to
555 of pozzolan , fly ashes and silica fumes. It is made of reinforced concrete in maritime
works.
 CEM V : Composite cement (CLC) : 20% to 64% is made of clinker , 18 to 50% in

made of slag and 50% is made of fly ashes . it is used in concrete in aggressive areas.
Remark :
Pozzolan : Calcined shale, shale is a rock characterized by its flaky appearance.
Shale Rock
 Silica : Silicon dioxide

 Pozzolan : Calcined shale
 Slag : It is a mix of lime , alumina and silica obtained by the melting of iron in blast
furnace .

3.1.4. Chemical composition of cement and notations
 Chemical summary and notations

 Water …………..H2O…………..abbreviation………..H
 Silica …………...SIO2………....abbreviation………..S
 Lime ……..…....CaO…………..abbreviation………..C
 Alumina ………..Al2O3………..abbreviation………..A
 Iron Oxide ……...Fe2O3………..abbreviation………..F
 Portland cement contains four main components :

 Tricalcium silicate 3CaO.SiO2 ….abbreviation C3S.
 Dicalcium silicate 2CaO.SiO2…. abbreviation C2S.
 Tricalcium aluminate 3CaO.Al2O3…. abbreviation C3A.
 Ferro-aluminate of lime 4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3…. abbreviation C4AF
 The noble element of cement is the tricalcium silicate (C3S) as it is the element that provides to
cement its high resistance .
3.1.5. Resistance
The behavior of each component when mixed to water is presented in the table below :
The resistance variation of each component of Portland cement with respect to time :
 The C3S acts mainly on immediate resistances : the higher the amount of C3S the
higher are the immediate resistances.
 The C2S acts on long-term resistances

The evolution of the compressive strength curves of mortar containing both components of
Portland cement C2S and C3S are given below
3.1.6. Cement classification according to the resistance
The normal resistance of cement is the mechanical compressive strength measured in MPa at
28 days according to the NF EN 196-1.
For each normal resistance class , two immediate resistance classes are defined :
 a class with ordinary immediate resistance

 a class with high immediate resistance indicated by R
for cement classes 32,5 and 42,5 , the maximal resistance value is obtained at 28 days.
3.1.7. Mechanical resistance test according to NF EN 196-1
3 mortar specimen of 4*4*16 cm are stocked in water at 20C until the date of termination :

Composition of ordinary mortar
Three points bending test
3.1.8. Cement hardening
 Cement is a hydraulic binder that that sets by hydration.

 Cement hardening is not provided by water vaporization but by chemical reaction.
 Cement hardens by hydration of silicates and lime aluminates.
 by hydration , tri- and dicalcium silicates (C3S and C2S) give the hydrated
monocalcium silicate (CSH) and release hydrated free lime (CH). The CSH crystals
fixed to each other and to granulates, provide the cement resistance .

Mixed to water , the cement grains form hydrates that precipitate and form a mechanically
resistant structure through 3 main steps :
 water absorption at the grain surface

 dissolution
 crystallization
The resultant of this reaction are the following hydrates :
 C-S-H
 Portlandite
25 to 30 liters of water are theoretically sufficient to hydrate 100 kg of cement.
when water and cement are mixed together a flocculation phenomenon is observed.
3.1.9. Cement designation

3.2 . Limes
3.2.1. Presentation
Lime is calcium oxide (CaO) obtained by the heating of limestone at 800C to 1000C.
Limestone mainly contains calcium carbonates CaCO3 (more than 70% ). It also contains
silica , iron oxide , aluminum and other minerals in low proportions. The calcinations of
calcium carbonate lead to the lime formation :
CaCO3→ CaO + CO2
Based on the nature of the limestone rock (%of silica) , we obtain calcium quicklime or
hydraulic quicklime .
3.2.2 Lime types
3.2.2.1 Natural hydraulic limes
The most used in construction. They are obtained from siliceous limestone. They ensure the
protection of the structure through two hydration processes : hydraulic hydration and
hydration in air. the last one provide to the plaster its patina. They are used in masonry ,
plasters and decorations.
3.2.2.2 Natural calcium limes
They are obtained from limestone of low percentage of silica. Generally, they are not used in
construction works because of the lack of their natural hydraulicity. They are recommended
in decoration because of their delicate shape and white color.
3.2.2.3 non natural and artificial limes
Non natural lime are obtained from natural limes and cement . They are used in new
constructions (plaster,…). Old artificial lime are not used today ( matt composition) , they
have been replaced by what we call "masonry cement".

3.2.4 Principle of fabrication of natural hydraulic lime (Symbol :XHN)

3.2.4 Principle of fabrication of artificial hydraulic lime (Symbol :XHA)
*Grinding : to crush or break aggregates into very fine particles "powder".
3.2.5 Mechanical characteristics

3.2.6 The main uses of lime
 Plaster
 Exteriors brick or concrete blocs
 Interiors
 plaster in new and restoration works
 Masonry
All kind of interior and exterior decorative masonry that are not supposed to present
high mechanical resistances .
 Bricks
 Concrete blocs
 Stones
 Tiling
 Tile leveling works
 Preparation for tiling laying works in moist environment
 Coverage

4 Admixtures
Admixtures are materials in the form of powder or fluids that are added to the concrete to
give it certain characteristics not obtainable with plain concrete mixes. In normal use,
admixture dosages are less than 5% by mass of cement and are added to the concrete at the
time of batching/mixing. They modify the plasticity , workability , hardening and
compactness of concrete .Generally the decrease the mechanical properties of concrete .
Based on the required effect, three main categories of admixtures are distinguished :
 Effect on the plasticity and compactness

 Plasticizers water reducers
 Superplasticizers high-range water reducers
 Effect on the hydration and hardening speed
 Hydration accelerators
 Hardening accelerators
 Retarders
 Effect on the resistance to external agents
 Air entrainments
 Permeability-reducing admixtures (used to increase the concrete and mortar
permeability)
4.2."Water - Reducers" admixtures

 Reduce the water content of a concrete while maintaining workability
 Increase the slump without modifying the water content
 Produce the both effect already mentioned
 The effect of the admixture depends on the required water reduction
 Plasticizer reduce water of 5 to 10%
 Superplasticizer high-range water reducers reduce water of 10 to 30%
4.2. "Accelerators" admixtures

Hydration accelerators are used to speed up the hydration process of concrete and mortar.
They are useful in cold weather , rapid form removal, underwater works ,…
Effect on concrete :
 Speed up the hydration
 increase the short-term resistance
 Increase the heat of hydration

4.3. "Retarders" admixtures

 They are added to the mixing water , they are supposed to slow the hydration of
cement in concrete and mortar.
 They are useful in hot weather , ready-mix concrete , large or difficult pours.
 Effect on concrete :
 Regulate the heat of hydration
 Slow the hydration start and end
 decrease initial resistances
 Ensure longer working time

4.5 "Air entrainment" admixtures
They add and entrain tiny air bubbles uniformly distributed in the concrete and mortar mass.
Effect on fresh or wet concrete :
 Bubbles stabilize the aggregates

 Improve the cohesion
 Increase the workability (effect of water reducer)
 improve the concrete appearance after form removal
 increase the resistance of concrete with low cement content .
4.6 "Permeability-reducing admixtures" PRA
 They block water penetration in concrete
 Applications :
 Concrete for tanks
 Concrete exposed to water
 Precast concrete : pavement , decorative panels,..

Plasticizer
Admixture Plasticizer Superplasticizer
Water reducer
It separates the
cement grains and Reduces water
decreases the internal content and thus Water reduction and
Role friction. the cement increases the increase of the
paste is lubricated mechanical workability
and workability is resistance
increased
Amount < 0.5% < 0.5% 0.5% to 3%
With concrete before

Addition With mixing water With mixing water
pouring
Increase the For constant High concrete

workability for workability ==> fluidization for
Effects on concrete
constant water / Water reduction constant water
cement ratio >6.5% /cement ratio
Increases the High-performances

Accelerates the compactness and concrete could be
Secondary effect
hardening process reduces the fabricated with low
permeability water/cement ratio
Other effects Possible increase of the shrinkage value

Water Hardening Hydration Air

Effect Plasticizer Superplasticizer retarder
reducer accelerator accelerator entrainment
Workability + + +
Hardening
- +
time
Short-term
+ + + + - -
résistance (3 d)
Long-term
résistance (28 + + + = + -
d)
Entrained air +
Freeze-thaw
Resistance of
+ +
hardened
concrete
Compactness + + +
Appearance + +

5 Concrete
5.1. Introduction
Two aspects of concrete are presented below :
 Wet concrete
It is the mix of solid materials in suspension in water (cement, aggregates, possibly
admixtures ) . wet concrete is not fully compacted until it is poured into the
framework.
 Hardened concrete
It represents the solid state of concrete after hydration . The mechanical resistance and
sustainability of hardened concrete increase due to physico-chemical reactions
between components ( duration : days or weeks ).
The three main criterion of concrete are presented below :
1. Compressive strength
2. The sustainability of hardened concrete
3. the consistency and workability of wet concrete : it measures the ability of
concrete to fill the form properly.
These properties depend on :
 The quality of components
 The composition of concrete which means the quantities of the different
components in one meter cube of concrete.
The fundamental relationship between the compressive strength fc of concrete and the
volumes of cement c , water e ( the total water ) and voids v contained in one meter
cube of hardened concrete ( established by Rene and Feret in 1898 ) :
 Based on this expression we can deduce that the increase of the amount of
cement increases the compressive strength fc .
 The coefficient k depends on the cement type.
if ehydr is the amount of water needed to ensure the concrete hydration, an excess quantity of
water remains such as
e= ehydr + eexc
 eexc : is the origin of the void volume that will be added to the physical void
volume v .
 These voids will present the porosity of concrete
 The concrete resistance increases with the decrease of its porosity.
The porosity of concrete can be reduced by :

 Using the minimal amount of water
 Optimization of the particle sizes : Addition of filler and ultra fines that fill the voids
between aggregates and cement grains.
 by vibration and compaction of wet concrete .
Let E and C be the water and cement weight , the theoretic minimal quantity of water needed
to ensure the cement hydration corresponds to the ratio E/C=0.2 .
The E/C ratios of high resistance concrete can reach 0.25 by adding water reducers as
admixtures.
The E/C ratios of regular concrete are ranged between 0.5 and 0.6.
The amount of cement depend on the concrete type as shown below :
 150 to 300 kg/m3 for plain concrete

 250 to 400 kg/m3 for reinforce concrete
 350 to 400 kg/m3 for prestressed concrete.
As an example , consider the typical mix proportions of 1m3 of concrete :
 Sand : 600kg
 gravel :1200 kg
 cement :350 kg
 water :180 L
5.2. Concrete mixing proportions
Data
Construction Execution plan Work type Conditions of Required
Project implementation characteristics of
concrete
Localization Dimensions Foundations Pouring Consistency
and Columns Vibration Compressive
environment Reinforcement Shells Stripping of the strength
With or without density slabs forms Workability
risk of freezing appearance
Climatic conditions
Interior of during concrete
exterior pouring (summer,
structure winter)

To determine the concrete composition , two phases are required :
Phase 1 Phase 2
Methodical approach Adjustment of mixes

(taking into consideration the main (Considering consistency test and
parameters ) characteristic resistance )
The method used is the result of laboratory
test (Faury method, Dreux, LCPC) Laboratory tests :
 Slump test (Abrams cone) or by the
Principle : Obtaining the maximal maniabilimeter of consistency.
compactness which leads to maximal  Mechanical tests in compression and
mechanical resistances using a suitable bending
amount of the binder  measuring of shrinkage
According to site conditions : (suitability
The simplified expression of the resistance is tests)
 Consistency is assessed at the site
 samples are casted at site and then
subjected to mechanical tests in labs.
fc28 : the compressive strength at the age of Rqs : the adjustment of mixes concerns :
28 days . (i) granular size distribution, (ii) types and
G: granular coefficient >= 0.5 proportions of admixtures, (iii) the type of
σc : cement real resistance cement in use.
C/E : cement water ratio (mass)
5.2.1 Measurement of consistency : Abrams cone


The slump measurement checks the workability of concrete . water content is adjusted based
on the results of the test . The water content is decreased in the case of high slump values.
Four classes of consistency are presented based on the slump values :
Observation Slump value Class
Stiff 0 - 4 cm S1
Plastic 5 - 9 cm S2
Very plastic 10 - 15 cm S3
Higher than 16
Fluid S4
cm
5.2.2 Minimum amount of binder
5.2.3 Amount of aggregates
 The choice of the granular size distribution depends on the requirements of the
construction work (dimensions , bar spacing , surface finishes,…) .
 A mix of 2 or 3 granular classes is admitted in order to obtain a higher compactness.
Example of 2 classes mixing
 Sand 0/4 or 0/5
 Gravels 5/12.5 or 8/10 or 10/12.5 or 10/20
Example of 3 classes mixing
 Sand 0/4 round
 Gravels 6/10 crushed
 Gravels 14/20 crushed

Recommended proportions
Ratio G(Gravels) / S (Sand) >= 2
5.2.4 Water Content
The water content is influenced by :
 The moisture content of the aggregates .
 Binder content
 The required consistency : stiff , plastic, very plastic, fluid
 The type of work : paving, shells,…
 Added admixtures of not .
Practically ,
Remark : an excess of water content decreases the mechanical resistance of concrete. the
determination of the optimum quantity of water is important to conserve the required
mechanical resistance of concrete .
Water
Based on the European standards : EN 206-1(3.1.30)
Origin Distribution
 Added water  Filling
 Moisture content of the aggregates  Spaces
 admixtures  Absorbed by the aggregates

5.3 Mechanical Properties
5.3.1. Compressive strength
 Concrete is qualified for its relatively high compressive strength.

 Its resistance depends on the mix proportions
 Generally , compression tests are carried out on cylindrical specimens of 32 cm height
and 16 cm diameter, graded 16*32 ( Area = 200 cm2).
Based on the stress-strain curve of the compression test , the following variables are
deduced :
 The instantaneous modulus of elasticity Eij  30 000 MPa
 The maximum stress σmax  20 to 40 MPa.
 The maximum strain at rupture  2 ‰ = 2 10-3
 Concrete is defined by its compressive strength at 28 days , named " Specified

characteristic resistance" fc28 .
 To determine the stresses that could be applied on concrete owning an age less than 28
days we should refer to the characteristic resistance fcj .

Based on the BAEL and BPEL codes , for concrete age <= 28 days and for concrete non
subjected to thermal treatment :
for j >= 28 days , fcj = fc28
The factors that influence the concrete compressive strength are :

 The class of the cement strength : 32,5 - 42,5 - 52,5
 The E/C ratio ( water / cement , mass)

5.3.2 Tensile strength

5.3.2.1 Bending tensile strength test
This test indicates the bending tensile strength of concrete and then its resistance to
crack initiation.
The bending tensile strength is calculated as follows :
with P is the maximum applied load , L is the clear span , b is the width and h is the
height of the prism.
5.3.2.2 Transverse tensile strength test " Brazilian test"
This test determines easily the direct tensile strength of concrete which not the case in
the tensile test that requires complicated loading system.
Test principle : two opposite compression forces are applied at the center of the
specimen . The induced stresses lead to the initiation and propagation of cracks in the
diametrical plane of the specimen.
The transverse tensile resistance in calculated as follows :
with P is the maximum load , d is the diameter of the cylinder ( thickness), l is the
length of the specimen on which the load is applied.
5.3.3 Tensile strength

The characteristic tensile resistance of concrete at j days is , noted ftj , is given by the
following relations :

5.3.4 Concrete deformations

 Shrinkage :
It is the contraction of the load-free concrete element. It is similar to the contraction of
materials induced by the temperature reduction.
Causes Treatment
Plastic shrinkage : The shrinkage manifesting soon after Prevent the rapid loss of water
the concrete is placed in the forms is due to the loss of from surface for example by using
water by evaporation from the surface . a reduction of admixtures
volume is observed and cracks initiation is than
possible.
- Thermal shrinkage : Prevent to use an excess amount of

Hardening reactions increases the temperature of cement
concrete element . the concrete element will be
subjected to a reduction in temperature due to the heat
dissipation when hardening reactions are completed. A
contraction of the element is than observed.
Hydraulic shrinkage is due to the reduction of volume Higher concrete compactness leads
resultant from the cement paste hydration and to higher prevention to shrinkage .
hardening. This finer cement the more is the shrinkage . Compactness is ensured by using
the adequate grains size as an
excess of fine elements as well as
impurities (clay, silt) induce
shrinkage.
 Thermal expansion
The coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete is 10-5 /C.
 Creep
Creep is the phenomenon of slow plastic deformation with time under a constant load . Once
concrete is subjected to a certain load for a long period of time , it shows a viscous-elastic
behavior. The instantaneous deformation induced at the moment of load application is
followed by a slow or deferred deformation that continues for a few years.

Creep is almost completed after about 3 years . 40 % of creep deformation are induced during
the first month and 80 % after about six months.
An estimation of the creep deformation gives : dl = 4 to 5 ‰ of L with L is the total length.
This deformation depends on the value of the permanent mean stress applied to the material.
 Poisson's ratio
Poisson's ratio defines the reduction in the specimen section when subjected to tension
forces . It is the ratio between the section contraction and the elongation.
The Poisson's ratio of concrete is equal to :

 0.2 in non cracked zones
 zero in cracked zones

5.4 Reinforced concrete

5.4.1 Definition
Cement concrete shows high compressive strength and low tensile strength (about 1/10 of the
compressive strength ). In addition it shows a brittle behavior.
Steel is characterized for its high tensile strength (and high compressive strength for small
lengths) . It shows a very low resistance to corrosion if not protected. It also shows ductile
behavior with significant deformations before rupture .
==> to overcome the low tensile strength of concrete and its brittleness , a combination of
both materials , steel and concrete are used to form a composite material named : Reinforced
concrete .
we distinguish the longitudinal reinforcement when steel bars are placed parallel to the long
axis of the concrete member and transverse reinforcement when steel bars are at right angles
of the longitudinal reinforcement.
5.4.2 Principle of construction with reinforced concrete : Bending
1. Test : Consider a 4-point bending beam

2. First beam : Non reinforced concrete ( plain concrete )
A brittle failure is observed when a low load is applied due to the low tensile strength.
The compressive strength of concrete is ranged between 25 to 35 MPa . It is 10 times greater
than the tensile strength
3. Second beam : beam with only longitudinal reinforcement
Longitudinal reinforcement is placed inside the beam near the bottom to resist the tensile
forces . Steel reinforces concrete where forces exist that the concrete cannot withstand. while
cracks could rapidly propagate in the case of loaded unreinforced beam, the existence of steel
reinforcement resist to the micro-cracks initiation.
For higher load values , cracks start to appear at 45 near supports . The insufficient
resistance of concrete against shear efforts induces what we call diagonal tension. These
cracks may propagate until the failure of the structure.
4. Third beam : beam with longitudinal and transverse reinforcement
Transverse reinforcement are added near supports. Longitudinal and transverse reinforcement
resist against cracks initiation which means a higher prevention against failure .

5. Conclusion : based on the previous results we can deduce the principle of the
reinforcement of a reinforced concrete beam subjected to bending.
Consider a beam of a span l and transverse section dimensions b*h :
 d is the effective depth

 y is the height of compressed concrete
 z is the lever arm steel-concrete ( between the bottom steel and the middle of the
compressed section )
 st is the spacing between transverse reinforcement (frames or stirrups )
5.4.3 Steel used in reinforced concrete
the steel types used in concrete reinforcement are designated by :
 Their conventional limit of elasticity E (MPa)

 Their grade (mild , semi-hard , hard)
 Their form (round , high adherence steel )
The steel types that are usually used in reinforced concrete are :
The high adherence steel bars are characterized for their surface deformation (lugs and ribs )
that increases the bond between steel bars and concrete.

5.4.4 The shape of steel bars
Development length is defined as the minimum length of bar in which the bar stress can
increase from zero to the yield strength. If the distance is less than the development length the
steel will pull out the concrete .

5.4.5 Bars shaping and assembly
5.5 Prestressed Concrete

5.5.1 Principle and definition
the principle of prestressed concrete consists of providing a clamping load which produces a
compressive stress that balances the tensile stress that the concrete compressive member
would otherwise experience due to bending loads.
Prestressed concrete : concrete in which reinforcing steel bars are stretched and anchored to
compress it and thus increase its resistance to stress. The aim of prestressed concrete is to
provide a compressive stress that balances or limits the tensile strength in concrete.
Prestressing can be accomplished by two ways :

1. Pre-tensioned concrete
2. Post- tensioned concrete.

5.5.2 Pre-tensioned concrete
In this procedure , steel tendons (cables or bars ) are subjected to tension before concrete
pouring.
5.5.3 Post-tensioned concrete
This procedure consists of applying compression after pouring concrete and during the curing
process. The concrete is cast around a curved duct to follow the area where otherwise tension
would occur in the concrete element . This technique is used in heavy construction .

5.5.4 Applications
Prestressed concrete is used in heavy construction such as high rise buildings. It is mainly
used in bridge construction and beams and floor slabs construction . It is also used in the
construction of : tanks , piles , ground anchors , some marine construction works, dams ,
nuclear reactors,..
5.6 High-performance concrete HPC (BHP : Bétons Hautes Performances )
The high-performance concrete are concrete with compressive strength at 28 days ranged
between 50 to 80 MPa. Ultra high-performance concrete are concrete with compressive
strength at 28 days higher than 80 MPa (UHPC or BTHP : Bétons Très Hautes Performances)
Properties :
 very high mechanical resistance comparing to traditional concrete

 easy of placement with very low water content
 very low porosity and good sustainability
 Very good resistance to freezing
Applications :
 heavy structures
 Beams with large spans
 Slabs subjected to important loads
 structures in aggressive area
 Underpinning works

5.7 Fiber-reinforced concrete
Principle : Fiber reinforcement are added to a fluid concrete of type B30-B35. Fiber
reinforcement are used to control cracking , increase the tensile strength and increase the
resistance to wear.
Composition type :
1. Cement 350 to 400 kg
2. Sand 700 to 800 kg
3. Gravels 920 to 970 kg
4. Water 185 à 210 l
5. Superplasticizer : amount for slump > 18 cm
6. metallic fibers 25 to 50 kg
Applications :
 Retaining structures, dams , seismic designed construction
 Compression slab , industrial slab on grade , runway
 Fiber reinforcement reduce the brittleness of concrete
 Higher sustainability
 Higher tensile and bending strength
5.8 Cellular concrete
Principle : Fluid mortar ( Portland cement ) in which a variable quantity of foam in injected
according to the required density.
Composition :
• Cement 300 to 350 kg
• sand adjusted according to the required density
• water amount depending on the foam quantity
• foam (added on site )
Different types

Foam fabrication
 Fabricated and injected in the mortar with a foam gun (1310 l/mn)
 The quantity of foam is controlled with a timekeeping.
Advantages
 High thermal and acoustic insulation

 low density ==> lightweight slabs
 simple and rapid application ( pump )

Aggregates & Binders in Concrete

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Chapter 9 : Concrete

Eng. Olivia Kalakesh Page 1

they can be used :

 with binders : Cement for concrete , bitumen for asphalt

2.2 The main aggregates categories

2.2.1. Alluvial aggregates (Rounded)

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2.2.2 Aggregates from massive rocks (crushed aggregates)

2.2.3 Artificial and recycled aggregates

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2.3.2 metamorphic rocks

2.3.3 Igneous rocks

2.4 Aggregates treatment after extraction

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There are 5 classes of grains sizes according to (Norme NFP18-101)

2.7 Sieve analysis (granulometric analysis)

 Retained aggregates : the quantity of aggregates in the sieve

The particle size distribution curve gives the following information :

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 1 : sand with a high amount of fine aggregates

2.8.1 Bulk density

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2.8.2 Absolute Density

The absolute volume is obtained by completely submerge the aggregates in a a graduated

The increase in the water volume is due to the grains volume.

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2.8.5 Gravels shape : Flakiness index A

The granular geometry is defined by :

 A number of square mesh sieve

Passing aggregates : bad shape ( very flat)

 They cause weakness and breakdown under heavy loads

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2.8.6 Wear resistance

2.8.7 Shock and fragmentation resistance

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 The cement reactivity

3.1.2. Principle of fabrication

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3.1.3 Cement classification

 CEM I : Portland cement (CPA) : 95% of it is made of clinker and 5% of other

 CEM V : Composite cement (CLC) : 20% to 64% is made of clinker , 18 to 50% in

 Silica : Silicon dioxide

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3.1.4. Chemical composition of cement and notations

 Chemical summary and notations

 Portland cement contains four main components :

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3.1.6. Cement classification according to the resistance

 a class with ordinary immediate resistance

3.1.7. Mechanical resistance test according to NF EN 196-1

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Composition of ordinary mortar

Three points bending test