Opto-electronic Devices

A study of the devices and their

characteristics….

LEDs are available in different shapes, sizes & colours.

 Blue, green, and red LEDs. These can be combined to produce
all colors and white. Infrared and ultraviolet (UVA) LEDs are
also available.

Like a normal diode,

diode, the LED consists of a chip of semiconducting material impregnated, or doped,
doped, with impurities to create a p-n junction.
junction. As in other diodes, current flows
easily from the p-side, or anode,
anode, to the n-side, or cathode,
cathode, but not in the reverse direction. Charge-carriers—electrons
Charge-carriers—electrons and holes—flow
holes—flow into the junction from electrodes
with different voltages.
voltages. When an electron meets a hole, it falls into a lower energy level,
level, and releases energy in the form of a photon.
photon.
 Choice of LED material-1

Semiconductor material selection for p & n region depends

upon the required colour of light to be emitted from the LED.
For Infra-red & red light Aluminium gallium arsenide
(AlGaAs).
For green colour light use Aluminium gallium phosphide
(AlGaP).
For yellow, orange, red colour light use
Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP).
Use Gallium nitride (GaN) — for green, pure green (or
emerald green), and blue also white (if it has an AlGaN
Quantum Barrier)
 Choice of material-2

Indium gallium nitride (InGaN) — 450 nm - 470 nm —

near ultraviolet, bluish-green and blue
Silicon carbide (SiC) as substrate — blue
Silicon (Si) as substrate — blue (under development)
Sapphire (Al2O3) as substrate — blue
Zinc selenide (ZnSe) — blue
Diamond (C) — ultraviolet
Aluminium nitride (AlN), aluminium gallium nitride
(AlGaN), aluminium gallium indium nitride (AlGaInN) —
near to far ultraviolet (down to 210 nm[13])
With this wide variety of colors, arrays of multicolor LEDs
can be designed to produce unconventional color
patterns.
Ultra-violet & blue LED
Ultraviolet GaN LEDs.
Blue LEDs are based on the wide
band gap semiconductors GaN (
gallium nitride) and InGaN (indium gallium
nitride). They can be added to existing red
and green LEDs to produce the
impression of white light, though white
LEDs today rarely use this principle.
 White LEDs
A combination of red, green and blue LEDs can produce
the impression of white light, though white LEDs today rarely use
this principle.
Most "white" LEDs in production today are modified blue LEDs:
GaN-based, InGaN-active-layer LEDs emit blue light of wavelengths
between 450 nm and 470 nm.
This InGaN-GaN structure is covered with a yellowish phosphor
coating usually made of cerium-doped yttrium aluminum garnet
(Ce3+:YAG) crystals which have been powdered and bound in a
type of viscous adhesive.
The LED chip emits blue light, part of which is efficiently converted
to a broad spectrum centered at about 580 nm (yellow) by the
Ce3+:YAG. Since yellow light stimulates the red and green
receptors of the eye, the resulting mix of blue and yellow light gives
the appearance of white, the resulting shade often called "lunar
white".
This approach was developed by Nichia Corporation and has been
used since 1996 for the manufacture of white LEDs.
 Forward voltage drop in F.B. condition
common standard LEDs in 3 mm or 5 mm packages, the
following forward DC potential differences are typically
measured. The forward potential difference depending
on the LED's chemistry, temperature, and on the current
(values here are for approx. 20 milliamperes, a
commonly found maximum value).

Colour Infrared red orange yellow green Blue White

Potential 1.8 to 2.6 V 3 to

1.6 V 2.2 V 2.4 V 3 t0 3.5 V
.Diff. 2.1 V 3.5V

Reverse break down voltage of many LED is of 5V .

 The wave length of
emitted light
The wavelength of the light emitted, and therefore its color, depends
on the band gap energy of the materials forming the p-n junction. In
silicon or germanium diodes, the electrons and holes recombine by
a non-radiative transition which produces no optical emission,
because these are indirect band gap materials. The materials used
for the LED have a direct band gap with energies corresponding to
near-infrared, visible or near-ultraviolet light.

LED development began with infrared and red devices made with
gallium arsenide. Advances in materials science have made
possible the production of devices with ever-shorter wavelengths,
producing light in a variety of colors.

Flashlights and lanterns that utilise white LEDs in tarchs are

becoming increasingly popular due to their durability and longer
battery life.
 Direct & Indirect Band gap Materials---
Solution of schrodinger equation leads to the band structure of a
semi-conductor.
The top of the valence band of most of the semiconductor
occures at wave vector k = 0 i.e., effective momentum having
value zero.
The bottom of the conduction band in some semiconductors
occurs at k=0 such materials or optically active & are called direct
band gap materials. As for example GaAs, InP, InGaAs etc.
In Indirect band gap semiconductor the bottom of C.B. does not
occur at k=0, but at certain non-zero value, as for example Si, Ge
& AlAs etc..such materials are optically inactive. These materials
have very weak photonic interactions and are unfit for optical
devices.
 E-k diagram of direct & Indirect B.G
materials
C.B.
E = Ec + h2k2/ 2me

Ec
Direct B.G. Photon of E = Eg
Indirect B.G.

EV
E = Ev – h2 k2 / 2mh Lattice vibration &
Phonon heat liberation

V.B.
VB

E-k bands of Ga As E-k bands of Si, Ge.

Direct B.G. material Indirect B.G. material
 At 0K temperature CB is empty & V.B. is totally
filled by electrons, no transport possible.
At room temperature some of V.B. e- moves to
C.B. and adds to conductivity to pure
semiconductor. Holes & electrons are equal in
numbers.
De-Boggle λ = h/p i.e. p = h / λ
Wave vector, k = 2π/λ
E = p2/2 m* = h2 / 2 λ2 m* = h2k2/8π2 m*
Momentum p = h/λ = h k / 2π i.e. p = n . K,
where n= h/2π.
If wave number be 1/λ then E = h2k2/2 m* and
velocity v = h .k /m* .
Semiconductor Alloy Ax B(1-x) equivalent lattice
constant, αalloy = x αA + (1-x) αB by vegard law.
 Ex. Calculate the wavelength associated with a 1eV,
i) photon ii) electron, iii) neutron, iv) corresponding
wave vector k = 2π/λ for photon & electron.
i) λph = hc/E = 6.6x10-34 3x108 / 1.6x10-19
= 1.24µm.
ii) λe = h/(2m0E)1/2
= 6.6x10-34Js/[2x(0.91x10-30 kg)(1.6x1019)]1/2
λe = 12.3 A0
iii) λn = λe (mo/mn)1/2 = 12.3 A0 x (1/1824)1/2
= 0.28 A0.
iv) kph = 2 x π / (1.24 x 10-6) = 5 x 106 /metre
= 5 x 10-4 / A0
ke = 2x 3.14 / 12.3 A0 = 0.5 / A0 >>>>> kph
hence electron of finite k value can not emit photon of energy Eg in
indirect B.G semiconductors i.e. this event is very less probable
& does not occur directly. It may occur with a third body help ie
phonon or lattice vibration & heat emission process.
Energy & Momentum conservation
Absorption: Ef = Ei + hω, hω is Energy of photon.

Emission Ef = Ei – hω, Ef & Ei are final & initial

energy of electron. E of photon hω≥ Eg.

Momentum k of crystals having holes & electrons

needs to be conserved. The photon kph = 2π/λ.Since 1ev photon
have λ = 1.24µm, the corresponding k= 10-4 A0 = 0 as compared to
k value for electrons. So initial and final electron states should
have same k value for optical transition to be possible. Transition
is impossible & very less probable otherwise. Indirect B.G.
transitions have weak tendency & absorption coefficient is very
less. It requires lattice vibration & phonon heat emission, instead
of photon.
If e- in CB have same value of k as the hole has in C.B. then this
transition causes spontaneous emission of photon, when EHP
combines. This spontaneous emission is non-coherence or
incoherent.
Light emission in LED is of this type. So λ of various photons have
some range of wave length say 540nm to 560nm for green LED.
Spectral band width = 20nm or 200 A0.LED light output is not
adequate for long distance communication. LASER diode must be
used for it.
Stimulated emission: If some photons of frequency ω are present in
pn junction cavity it enhances the recombination, causing population
inversion and stimulated photon emission. All photons have very
narrow band of frequency and λ and emission is coherence. This
light is LASER light.
Emission may either be radiative (visible or non-visible), or non-
radiative (Phononic heat). So designer must choose a
semiconductor material for pn junction, which causes radiative
emission to great proportion.
 Mono Junction-LED
LED when forward biased, emits light of colour, which depends on semiconductor material.
Electrons are injected from n side to p side & holes are injected from p side to n side.
LED should be designed so that photons are emitted close to the top layer i.e. p layer if be at the
top side, rather than the berried layer other wise many of photon will be reabsorbed in lattice.
Electron injection must be predominant, so we need pn+ diode with n side highly doped. i.e. Jn >>
Jp. So np >> pn
The injection efficiency, γinj = Jn /( Jn+ Jp + JGR)
Diffusion current has three components:
i) minority carrier electron diffusion current.
ii) minority carrier hole diffusion current.
iii) trap assisted recombination current in the
depletion region of width w.
Jn = e Dn np / Ln [exp {eV / (kB T)}-1]
Jp = e Dp pn / Ln [exp {eV / (kB T)}-1]
JGR = e ni w / 2 ζ [exp {eV / (2 kB T)}-1] ,, where ζ is the
recombination time in the depletion region & depends upon trap density.
For a perfect material of high purity trap centres & recombination centres are very few and injection
efficiency is close to 1.
 Radiative emission & non-radiative, via defect or via phonon

Vertical transistion concerned with same k value of electrons in

C.B. & holes in V.B. are radiative.
The photon energy & electron & hole energy are related by:
hω – Eg = h2 k2/2 [ 1/ m*e +1/ m*h]
= h2k2/2 m*r.
where m*r is mass of EH system.
Pn+ mono junction LED
Light photons p n+
Buried region

+ --

5V dc
R= 1.2 kΩ

Un bised pn+ junction band diagram

Photons moving this side will get

absorbed in this layer

Forward bised case band diagram

Very less hole injection

 Hetro-junction LED
Problems with single semiconductor LED
1) In homo-junction single semiconductor LED,
photon emission volume is not close to surface
& it causes photon re- absorption, reducing the
emission efficiency.
2) Since surface has many defect states & is not
clean and pure, it causes non-radiative
recombination & reduces efficiency.
Effective volume is large as e- are duffusing
through a long length to reach to p side from n+
side.
 Hetro-junction LED structure
Alx Ga(1-x) As Ga As Alx Ga(1-x) As
Active region

p p- n
Wide B.G. semiconductor Narrow B.G
material material.

Wide B.G. material

Energy Band digram of hetro jn LED
electron injection

E g > E” g
E” g
Photons of E = Eg

Hole injection

Active region confined in NBG region.

Features of hetro-junction LED--------

Charges are injected in to a narrw B.G

active region from a wide B.G. n+ region.
Electrons & holes both are injected in two the middle
active region of narrow B.G.
The electrons can not enter in to wide gap p layer &
donot suffer from poor surface condition.
Photons emitted from active region do not move towards
top or bottom side since the photon energy is smaller
than the B.G. of n or p – region.
Active region in confined to a rang of
0.1 to 0.2µm.
 Recent LED
In September 2003, a new type of blue
LED was demonstrated by the company
Cree, Inc. to provide 24 mW at 20 mA.
This produced a commercially packaged
white light giving 65 lumens per watt at 20
mA, becoming the brightest white LED
commercially available at the time, and
more than four times as efficient as
standard incandescents.
 Recent LED-2
In 2006 they demonstrated a prototype with a
record white LED luminous efficacy of 131 lm/W
at 20 mA. Also, Seoul Semiconductor has plans
for 135 lm/W by 2007 and 145 lm/W by 2008,
which would be approaching an order of
magnitude improvement over standard
incandescents and better even than standard
fluorescents.[20] Nichia Corporation has
developed a white light LED with luminous
efficacy of 150 lm/W at a forward current of 20
mA.
It should be noted that high-power (≥ 1 watt)
LEDs are necessary for practical general lighting
applications. Typical operating currents for these
devices begin at 350 mA. The highest efficiency
high-power white LED is claimed by Philips
Lumileds Lighting Co. with a luminous efficacy of
115 lm/W (350 mA).
In early 2008, researchers at Bilkent University
in Turkey demonstrated a new technique for
producing white light from blue LEDs coated with
nanocrystals. This approach was shown giving
off "more than 300 lumens per watt".
 Bicolour & flashing LEDs
Bicolor LED units contain two diodes, one
in each direction (that is, two diodes in inverse
parallel) and each a different color (typically red &
green), allowing two-color operation or a range of apparent colors to be
created by altering the percentage of time the voltage is in each polarity.
LEDs are usually constantly illuminated when a current passes through
them, but flashing LEDs are also available. Flashing LEDs resemble
standard LEDs but they contain an integrated multivibrator circuit inside
which causes the LED to flash with a typical period of
one second. This type of LED comes most
commonly as red, yellow, or green. Most
flashing LEDs emit light of a single
wavelength, but multicolored flashing LEDs
are available too.
 LED Driver Circuit
DC supply ON/OFF Indicator Vo ±VSat
IF = 10mA -
+ VCC
+
R1 VF=1.6V
Fig.1(a) R R
+ VCC
Fig.1(b)
+ VCC
D1
D1 D2
R2
R1

Q1 +
VB Q1
VB Fig.2 (b)

Fig.2 a R1
 Conclusions
Light emitting diodes are small size pn mono-
junction or hetro-junction device, which emits light
if forward biased, by a suitable low dc source.
Most of the LED have current rating typically ranging
From 10mA to 20 mA so must be connected in series
With a suitable resistor to limit the current through it.
If forward drop across the LED is known & safe
Value of current is known, then select the dc bias
Voltage, & calculate the series resistor required.
LEDs are being used in many display devices &
Meter panels. Tri-cvolour LED array may generate
Light of any colour, since brightness of emitted
Light depends upon current flowing through the
RGB tri-LED array.