Explain the working principle, schematic diagram,

symbol of

i) LED i) LASER ii) photo diode

Working Principle of Light Emitting Diode

October 28, 2020 by Electrical4U

An LED is just like a normal p n junction diode, but with light-emitting properties. Its
construction and working can be explained as follows.

Working of LED

Like an ordinary diode, the LED diode works when it is forward biased. In this case, the n-type
semiconductor is heavily doped than the p-type forming the p-n junction. When it is forward
biased, the potential barrier gets reduced and the electrons and holes combine at the depletion
layer (or active layer), light or photons are emitted or radiated in all directions. A typical figure
blow showing light emission due electron-hole pair combining on forward biasing.

The explanation behind the emission of photons in an LED diode lies in the energy band theory
of solids. According to this theory, whether the electron-hole combining will give out photons or
not depends on whether the material has a direct band gap or indirect band gap. Those
semiconductor materials which have a direct band gap are the ones that emit photons. In a direct
bandgap material, the bottom of the energy level of conduction band lies directly above the
topmost energy level of the valence band on the Energy vs Momentum (wave vector ‘k’)
diagram. When electrons and hole recombine, energy E = hν corresponding to the energy gap △
(eV) is escaped in the form of light energy or photons where h is the Planck’s constant and ν is
the frequency of light.

Direct Band Gap

While the indirect band gap is non-radiative in nature as the bottom of the conduction band does
not coincide with the top of the valence band and the energy corresponding to the energy gap is
mostly given in the form of heat. Examples are Si, Ge etc.
Indirect Band Gap
Example of material which has direct band gap is Gallium Arsenide(GaAs), a compound
semiconductor which is the material used in LEDs. Dopant atoms are added to GaAs to give out
a wide range of colors. Some of the materials used in LEDs are:

 Aluminium Gallium Arsenide(AlGaAs) – infrared.

 Gallium Arsenic Phosphide(GaAsP) – red, orange, yellow.
 Aluminium Gallium Phosphide(AlGaP) – green.
 Indium gallium nitride (InGaN) – blue, blue-green, near UV.
 Zinc Selenide(ZnSe) – blue.

Physical Structure of LED

LED is structured in such a way so that light emitted does not get reabsorbed into the material.
So it is ensured that the electron-hole recombination takes place on the surface.

The above figure shows the two different ways of structuring LED p-n junction. The p-type layer
is made thin and is grown on the n-type substrate. Metal electrodes attached on either side of the
p-n junction serve as nodes for external electrical connection. The Light emitting diode p-n
junction is encased in a dome-shaped transparent case so that light is emitted uniformly in all
directions and minimum internal reflection to take place.
The larger leg of LED represents the positive electrode or anode.

LEDs with more than 2 legs are also available such as 3, 4 and 6 pin configurations to obtain
multi-colors in the same LED package. Surface mounted LED displays are available that can be
mounted on the PCBs.

The current rating of LED is of few tens milli-amps. Hence it is necessary to connect a high
resistance in series to it. The forward voltage drop of an LED is much larger than an ordinary
diode and is around 1.5 to 3.5 volts.

White Light LEDs or White LED Lamps

LED lamps, bulbs, street lighting are becoming very popular these days because of the very high
efficiency of LEDs in terms of light output per unit input power(in milliWatts), as compared to
the incandescent bulbs. So for general purpose lightings, white light is preferred. To produce
white light with the help of LEDs, two methods are used :
 1. Mixing of three primary colors RGB to produce white light. This method has high
quantum efficiency.
2. The other method is coating an LED of one color with phosphor of a different color in
order to produce white light. This method is commercially popular to manufacture LED
bulbs and lightings.

Applications of LEDs

 Electronic displays such as OLEDs, micro-LEDs, quantum dots etc.

 As an LED indicator.
 In remote controls.
 Lightings.
 Opto-isolators.

Distinguish between optical fiber communication system and conventional communication

system? And List out the advantageous and disadvantage of optical fiber communication? Ans:
Optical Fiber Communication System Conventional Communication System 1. Requires a
bandwidth of 10 13 to 10 16 Hz. 1.Requires a bandwidth of 500 MHz 2 .Light weight. 2. Heavier
in weight. 3. Immune to R.F. interference. 3. Needs external shielding. 4. Electrical isolation. 4.
Exhibits earthing problems. 5. Low loss of about 0 .2 dB/km. 5. Loss of about 10dB/km. 6.
Secure signal propagation. 6. Signal can be tapped easily.
Optical Communications Unit I 7.Due to increased bandwidth higher data 7. Low data rates
compared to optical fiber. Advantageous Of Optical Fibers Communication: 1. Information
bandwidth is more. 2. Optical fibers are small in size and light weighted. 3. Optical fibers are
more immune to ambient electrical noise, electromagnetic interference. 4. Cross talk and internal
noise are eliminated in optical fibers. 5. There is no risk of short circuit in optical fibers. 6.
Optical fibers can be used for wide range of temperature. 7. A single fiber can be used to send
many signals of different wavelengths using Wavelengths Division Multiplexing (WDM). 8.
Optical fibers are generally glass which is made up of sand and hence they are cheaper than
copper cables. 9. Optical fibers are having less transmission loss and hence less number of
repeaters are used. 10. Optical fibers are more reliable and easy to maintain. Disadvantageous Of
Optical Fibers Communication: 1. Attenuation offered by the optical fibers depends upon the
material by which it is made. 2. Complex electronic circuitry is required at transmitter and
receiver. 3. The coupling of optical fibers is difficult. 4. Skilled labors are required to maintain
the optical fiber communication. 5. Separated power supply is required for electronic repeaters at
different stages. 4. Compare the advantages and disadvantages of guided optical communication
lines with that of microwave systems? Ans: Optical Communication System Microwave System
1. Uses glass optical fibers or plastic optical fibers for transmission. 1. Uses co-axial cable or
microwave waveguides for transmission. 2. Low weight, hence large transmission distance or
same weight of microwave link. 2. Heavier than optical fibers. 3. Large bandwidth of range 10
13 tol0 16 Hz. 3. Bandwidth is lesser in the range of 10 8 to 10 10 Hz.
Optical Communications Unit I 4. Electrically isolated, hence no shielding is required. 4. Prone
to electrical disturbances and hence, shielding for reducing RE interference. 5. Low loss of
0.2dB/km. 5. A considerable loss of 5 dB/km. 6. Large spacing between repeaters about 1 in 300
km. 6. Spacing distance between repeaters is less, is suitable only for short distance if
waveguides are used.