Buzzer and Bell

A standard bell ringer design works just like a buzzer except the contact arm is
attached to a long clapper that hits a metal bell.

As we saw in the last section, an electromagnet consists of a single

length of wire wrapped in a coil. In a buzzer, the simplest sort of
doorbell, an electromagnet is used to operate a self-interrupting
circuit. 

One end of the electromagnet wire is connected directly to one end of

the electrical circuit. The other end of the wire connects to a metal
contact, which is adjacent to a moving contact arm.

The contact arm is a thin piece of light, conductive metal, with a thin
iron bar soldered onto it. The anchored end of the contact arm is wired
to the electrical circuit. When the electromagnet is turned off, the free
end of the arm rests against the contact point. This forms a
connection between that end of the wire and the electrical circuit. In
other words, electricity can flow through the electromagnet when the
circuit is closed.
Closing the doorbell circuit (by pressing the button) puts this
mechanism in motion. Initially, the electromagnetic field attracts the
iron bar, which pulls the contact arm off the stationary metal contact.
This breaks the connection between the circuit and electromagnet, so
the electromagnet shuts off.

Without a magnetic field pulling it back, the contact arm snaps back
into position against the stationary contact. This reestablishes the
connection between the electromagnet and the circuit, and the
current can flow through it again. The magnetic field draws the
contact arm up, and the process repeats itself as long as you hold
down the buzzer button. In this way, the electromagnet keeps shutting
itself on and off.

The buzzing noise you hear is the sound of the rapidly moving arm

hitting the magnet and the stationary contact dozens of times a
second.

A bell system works on exactly the same idea, except the moving arm
is attached to a long clapper, which rests alongside a circular bell. As
the arm moves back and forth, the clapper hits the bell repeatedly.
This is the same system used in old-fashioned fire alarms and school
bells.

These days, most people don't have buzzers or bells in their homes.
The standard doorbell design today makes a softer chiming sound. In
the next section, we'll see how this system works.
How relays work

Here are two simple animations illustrating how relays use one circuit to
switch on a second circuit.

When power flows through the first circuit (1), it activates the electromagnet
(brown), generating a magnetic field (blue) that attracts a contact (red) and
activates the second circuit (2). When the power is switched off, a spring pulls
the contact back up to its original position, switching the second circuit off
again.

This is an example of a "normally open" (NO) relay: the contacts in the second
circuit are not connected by default, and switch on only when a current flows
through the magnet. Other relays are "normally closed" (NC; the contacts are
connected so a current flows through them by default) and switch off only
when the magnet is activated, pulling or pushing the contacts apart. Normally
open relays are the most common.

Here's another animation showing how a relay links two circuits together. It's
essentially the same thing drawn in a slightly different way. On the left side,
there's an input circuit powered by a switch or a sensor of some kind. When
this circuit is activated, it feeds current to an electromagnet that pulls a metal
switch closed and activates the second, output circuit (on the right side). The
relatively small current in the input circuit thus activates the larger current in
the output circuit:
1. The input circuit (blue loop) is switched off and no current flows through
it until something (either a sensor or a switch closing) turns it on. The output
circuit (red loop) is also switched off.
2. When a small current flows in the input circuit, it activates the
electromagnet (shown here as a dark blue coil), which produces a magnetic
field all around it.
3. The energized electromagnet pulls the metal bar in the output circuit
toward it, closing the switch and allowing a much bigger current to flow
through the output circuit.
4. The output circuit operates a high-current appliance such as a lamp or
an electric motor.
LED technology: how a LED works
The LED is a specialised form of PN junction that uses a compound junction. The semiconductor
material used for the junction must be a compound semiconductor. The commonly used
semiconductor materials including silicon and germanium are simple elements and junction made
from these materials do not emit light. Instead compound semiconductors including gallium arsenide,
gallium phosphide and indium phosphide are compound semiconductors and junctions made from
these materials do emit light.

These compound semiconductors are classified by the valence bands their constituents occupy. For
gallium arsenide, gallium has a valency of three and arsenic a valency of five and this is what is
termed a group III-V semiconductor and there are a number of other semiconductors that fit this
category. It is also possible to have semiconductors that are formed from group III-V materials.

How a light emitting diode works

The light emitting diode emits light when it is forward biased. When a voltage is applied across the
junction to make it forward biased, current flows as in the case of any PN junction. Holes from the p-
type region and electrons from the n-type region enter the junction and recombine like a normal
diode to enable the current to flow. When this occurs energy is released, some of which is in the
form of light photons.

It is found that the majority of the light is produced from the area of the junction nearer to the P-type
region. As a result the design of the diodes is made such that this area is kept as close to the
surface of the device as possible to ensure that the minimum amount of light is absorbed in the
structure.

To produce light which can be seen the junction must be optimised and the correct materials must
be chosen. Pure gallium arsenide releases energy in the infra read portion of the spectrum. To bring
the light emission into the visible red end of the spectrum aluminium is added to the semiconductor
to give aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs). Phosphorus can also be added to give red light. For
other colours other materials are used. For example gallium phoshide gives green light and
aluminium indium gallium phosphide is used for yellow and orange light. Most LEDs are based on
gallium semiconductors.

LED technology: how a LED works

The LED is a specialised form of PN junction that uses a compound junction. The semiconductor
material used for the junction must be a compound semiconductor. The commonly used
semiconductor materials including silicon and germanium are simple elements and junction made
from these materials do not emit light. Instead compound semiconductors including gallium arsenide,
gallium phosphide and indium phosphide are compound semiconductors and junctions made from
these materials do emit light.

These compound semiconductors are classified by the valence bands their constituents occupy. For
gallium arsenide, gallium has a valency of three and arsenic a valency of five and this is what is
termed a group III-V semiconductor and there are a number of other semiconductors that fit this
category. It is also possible to have semiconductors that are formed from group III-V materials.
 How a light emitting diode works
The light emitting diode emits light when it is forward biased. When a voltage is applied across the
junction to make it forward biased, current flows as in the case of any PN junction. Holes from the p-
type region and electrons from the n-type region enter the junction and recombine like a normal
diode to enable the current to flow. When this occurs energy is released, some of which is in the
form of light photons.

It is found that the majority of the light is produced from the area of the junction nearer to the P-type
region. As a result the design of the diodes is made such that this area is kept as close to the
surface of the device as possible to ensure that the minimum amount of light is absorbed in the
structure.

To produce light which can be seen the junction must be optimised and the correct materials must
be chosen. Pure gallium arsenide releases energy in the infra read portion of the spectrum. To bring
the light emission into the visible red end of the spectrum aluminium is added to the semiconductor
to give aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs). Phosphorus can also be added to give red light. For
other colours other materials are used. For example gallium phoshide gives green light and
aluminium indium gallium phosphide is used for yellow and orange light. Most LEDs are based on
gallium semiconductors.
Working Principle of Light Dependent Resistor
The working principle of an LDR is photoconductivity, that is nothing
but an optical phenomenon. When the light is absorbed by the
material then the conductivity of the material reduces. When the
light falls on the LDR, then the electrons in the valence band of the
material are eager to the conduction band. But, the photons in the
incident light must have energy superior than the bandgap of the
material to make the electrons jump from one band to another band
(valance to conduction).

LDR Working Principle

Hence, when light having ample energy, more electrons are excited
to the conduction band which grades in a large number of charge
carriers. When the effect of this process and the flow of the current
starts flowing more, the resistance of the device decreases.

Light Dependent Resistor Circuit

The circuit of LDR is an electronic circuit built with LDR,
relay, Darlington pair, diode, & resistors shown in the below circuit
diagram. A voltage supply is given to the load
The required DC voltage of the LDR circuit is supplied from a bridge
rectifier circuit or a battery. This circuit changes the AC supply into a
DC. The bridge rectifier circuit uses a step-down transformer to step-
down the voltage from 230v into 12v. The diodes are connected in
the form of a bridge used to alter the AC voltage into DC.
The voltage regulator is used to change the 12v DC-6v DC, and
then, this DC voltage is supplied to the entire circuit. A 230v AC
supply for both the bridge rectifier and the load is to be kept
continuously for continuous operation of the light sensor circuit.

Light
Dependent Resistor Circuit Diagram

In the morning time, this sensor has a low resistance around 100Ω.
Thus, the power supply flows through the LDR & ground through the
variable resistor and resistor as shown in the above light sensor
circuit. This is due to the resistance offered by the light-dependent
resistor in the daytime or when the light falls on the LDR, then it is
less compared to the resistance of the remaining part of the sensor
circuit. We are alert of the principle of current, that the flow of
current always flows in the path of low resistance.

Therefore, the relay coil does not get sufficient supplies to get
strengthened. Hence, the light is switched off in the daylight. In the
same way, during the night time, the resistance of the LDR
increases to a high value (20MΩ). Thus, due to the high resistance
of the resistor, the flow of current is low or almost zero. Now, the
flow of current through the low-resistance lane such that it increases
the base voltage of the Darlington pair to reach more than 1.4v. As
the Darlington pair transistor is triggered, the relay coil acquires
enough supply to get energized, and hence, the light switches in the
night time.
Applications of LDR

Light-dependent resistors are simple and low-cost devices. These

devices are used where there is a need to sense the presence and
absence of light is necessary. These resistors are used as light
sensors and the applications of LDR mainly include alarm clocks,
street lights, light intensity meters, burglar alarm circuits. For a
better understanding of this concept, here we have explained one
project namely; power conserving of intensity controlled street lights
using LDR.
Thermistor

A thermistor is a specific type of resistor that uses sensors to help

regulate cold and heat. They can do more then simply regulate
temperature. They are also used for voltage regulation, volume
control, time delays, and circuit protection. These products are
made up of ceramic and metal oxides, but it also contains circuits
and wires. These resistors have many practical applications both in
terms of manufacturing and personal products. Below, we will be
going over some of the different uses and applications for
thermistors throughout multiple industries.

Microwave

For those who have used a microwave, you have used a thermistor.
They are used in these machines to determine and maintain internal
temperature. Without the resistor in the microwave, there is a
possibility of overheating in the unit. This could lead to potential
fires.

Circuit Protector

If you have a power supply or surge protector in your home or office

then you are also using a thermistor. Without a thermistor in this
product, surges of energy would be uncontrolled. This could lead to
overheating or too much electricity being pushed to whatever is
plugged in. This could lead to some of your electronics shorting out.

Automotive
Cars, trucks, and buses all use thermistors. They are used to
determine the temperature of oil and coolants. This is how you are
able to know if your car is overheating or not. The thermistors are
connected to indicators on the dashboard of the vehicle.
Thermistors in cars do not prevent or regulate. Instead, they are
used to gather information. This allows a driver to fix their car or
truck before something serious happens.

Digital Thermometers

Have you ever wondered how digital thermometers are able to

accurately gauge someone’s temperature? This is possible because
of thermistors. Just like with cars, these devicesused to gather
information rather than helping to maintain temperature.

Rechargeable Batteries

The ability to recharge a battery is only possible because of the help

it gets. When you start charging batteries, there is a tendency for
things to get hot. The low resistance of the thermistor allows it to
stop the charging if things are getting too hot.

Thermistors are used in everyday life, and they are used in so many
different ways.