Introduction

▪ A diode is a two-terminal electronic

component that conducts
current primarily in one
direction (asymmetric conductance). It
has low (ideally zero) resistance in one
direction, and high (ideally infinite)
resistance in the other.
▪ A semiconductor diode, the most
commonly used type today, is a
crystalline piece. of semiconductor
material with a p-n junction connected
to two electrical terminals. It has an
exponential current-voltage
characteristic . Semiconductor diodes
were the first semiconductor electronic
devices. The discovery of asymmetric
electrical conduction across the contact
between a crystalline mineral and a
metal was made by German physicist
Ferdinand Braun in 1874.
 TYPES OF DIODES
• There are many types of diodes. The
most widely used are the following:
Light-Emitting Diode
• An LED produces light when electricity
flows through it. It is a longer lasting and
more efficient way of creating light than
incandescent light bulbs.
• Depending on how it was made, the LED
can make different colors. LEDs were
first used in the 1970's. The light-
emitting diode may eventually replace
the light bulb as developing technology
makes it brighter and cheaper (it is
already more efficient and lasts longer).
In the 1970's the LEDs were used to
show numbers in appliances such as
calculators, and as a way to show the
power was on for larger appliances.
WORKING PRINCIPLE OF
LED
• The working principle of the Light-emitting
diode is based on the quantum theory. The
quantum theory says that when the
electron comes down from the higher
energy level to the lower energy level then,
the energy emits from the photon. The
photon energy is equal to the energy gap
between these two energy levels. If the PN-
junction diode is in the forward biased, then
the current flows through the diode.
• The flow of current in the semiconductors is
caused by the flow of holes in the opposite
direction of current and the flow of electrons in the
direction of the current. Hence there will be
recombination due to the flow of these charge
carriers.
• The recombination indicates that the electrons in
the conduction band jump down to the valence
band. When the electrons jump from one band to
another band the electrons will emit the
electromagnetic energy in the form of photons and
the photon energy is equal to the forbidden energy
gap.
• For example, let us consider the quantum theory,
the energy of the photon is the product of both the
Planck constant and frequency of electromagnetic
radiation. The mathematical equation is shown
• Eq = hf
• Where his known as a Planck constant, and the
velocity of electromagnetic radiation is equal to
the speed of light i.e c. The frequency radiation is
related to the velocity of light as an f= c / λ. λ is
denoted as a wavelength of electromagnetic
radiation and the above equation will become as
• Eq = he / λ . We can say that the wavelength of
electromagnetic radiation is inversely proportional
to the forbidden gap.
APPLICATION OF LED
• There are many applications of LED and some
of them are explained below.
• LED is used as a bulb in the homes and
industries
• The light-emitting diodes are used in
motorcycles and cars
• These are used in mobile phones to display the
message
• At the traffic light signals LEDs are used,
ADVANTAGES OF LED
• LEDs need a very low input power.
• They are not fast in action, requires no heating
time.
• They are ON-OFF switching is very fast.
• They are small in size and light in weight.
• They are quite safe against mechancial shocks.
• They are quite safe against mechanical shocks.
• They emit nearly monochromatic light having a
bandwidth of about 100 Å to 500 Å.
 PHOTODIODE
• A photodiode is a light-sensitive
semiconductor diode. It produces current
when it absorbs photons.
• The package of a photodiode allows light
(or infrared or ultraviolet radiation, or X-
rays) to reach the sensitive part of the
device. The package may include lenses
or optical filters . Devices designed for use
specially as a photodiode use a PIN
junction rather than a p-n junction, to
increase the speed of response.
Photodiodes usually have a slower
response time as their surface area
increases. A photodiode is designed to
operate in reverse bias . A solar cell used
to generate electric solar power is a large
area photodiode.
 PRINCIPLE OF
OPERATION
• A photodiode is a PIN structure p-n
junction . When a photon of sufficient
energy strikes the diode, it creates an
electron hole pair. This mechanism is
also known as the inner photoelectric
effect. If the absorption occurs in the
junction's depletion region , or one
diffusion length away from it, these
carriers are swept from the junction
by the built-in electric field of the
depletion region. Thus holes move
toward the anode , and electrons
toward the cathode, and a
photocurrent is produced. The total
current through the photodiode is the
sum of the dark current (current that
is generated in the absence of light)
and the photocurrent, so the dark
current must be minimized to
maximize the sensitivity of the device.
PHOTOVOLTAIC MODE
• In photovoltaic mode (zero bias),
photocurrent flows into the anode
through a short circuit to the cathode.
If the circuit is opened or has a load
impedance, restricting the
photocurrent out of the device, a
voltage builds up in the direction that
forward biases the diode, that is,
anode positive with respect to
cathode. If the circuit is shorted or
the impedance is low, a forward
current will consume all or some of
the photocurrent. This mode exploits
the photovoltaic effect , which is the
basis for solar cells – a traditional
solar cell is just a large area
photodiode. For optimum power
output, the photovoltaic cell will be
operated at a voltage that causes only
a small forward current compared to
the photocurrent.
 PHOTOCONDUCTIVE
MODE
• In photoconductive mode the diode is
reverse biased , that is, with the
cathode driven positive with respect to
the anode. This reduces the response
time because the additional reverse
bias increases the width of the
depletion layer, which decreases the
junction's capacitance and increases
the region with an electric field that
will cause electrons to be quickly
collected. The reverse bias also creates
dark current without much change in
the photocurrent.
• Although this mode is faster, the
photoconductive mode can exhibit
more electronic noise due to dark
current or avalanche effects. The
leakage current of a good PIN diode is
so low (<1 nA) that the Johnson –
Nyquist Noise of the load resistance in
a typical circuit often dominates.
 ADVANTAGES OF
PHOTODIODE
• It is highly sensitive to light. It shows a quick
response when exposed to light.
• It has a better frequency response and
spectral response compared to LDR.
• It is a linear circuit element. The
photocurrent of the photodiode is
extremely linear to the light level.
• It can be manufactured from a variety of
materials including, but not limited to,
silicon, germanium, and indium gallium
arsenide.
• It can operate at high frequencies.
• It has a lower noise level.
• It is the fastest photodetector. The speed of
the operation is extremely fast.
• It has a low dark current.
• It requires no high voltage.
• It is durable, reliable and can withstand
mechanical stress.
• It can be designed and tested to meet the
requirements of your application
 APPLICATION OF
PHOTODIODE
• P–n photodiodes are used in similar applications to
other photodetectors, such as photoconductors,
charge-coupled devices,
(CCD) and photomultiplier tubes. They may be
used to generate an output which is dependent
upon the illumination (analog for measurement),
or to change the state of circuitry (digital, either
for control and switching or for digital signal
processing).
• Photodiodes are used in consumer electronics
devices such as compact disc players, smoke
detectors , medical devices and the receivers for
infrared remote control devices used to control
equipment from televisions to air conditioners.
Either type of photosensor may be used for light
measurement, as in camera light meters, or to
respond to light levels, as in switching on street
lighting after dark.
• P–n photodiodes are not used to measure
extremely low light intensities. Instead, if high
sensitivity is needed, avalanche photodiodes,
intensified charge-couple devices or
photomultiplier tubes are used for applications
such as astronomy, spectroscopy, night vision.
 DIODE AS A RECTIFIER
• A rectifier diode is a semiconductor diode, used
to rectify AC (alternating current) to DC (direct
current) using the rectifier bridge application.
The alternative of rectifier diode through the
Schottky barrier is mainly valued within digital
electronics. This diode is capable to conduct
the values of current which changes from mA to
a few kA & voltages up to a few kV.
• The designing of rectifier diodes can be done
with Silicon material and they are capable of
conducting high electric current values. These
diodes are not famous but still used Ge or
gallium arsenide-based semiconductor diodes.
Ge diodes have less allowable reversed
voltage as well as a lesser allowable junction
temperature. The Ge diode has a benefit as
compared to Si diode that is low threshold
voltage value while operating in a forward-bias.
• The rectifier diode has two groups of technical
parameters like permissible limit parameters
and characteristic parameters.
 WORKING
• Both the n-type & p-type materials are chemically
combined with a special fabrication technique which
results in the formation of a p-n junction. This P-N
junction has two terminals which can be called as
electrodes and due to this reason, it is called to be a
“DIODE “(Di-ode).
• If an external DC supply voltage is applied to any
electronic device through its terminals, it is called as
Biasing.
Unbiased Rectifier Diode
• When no voltage supplied to a rectifier diode then it is
called an Unbiased Diode, N-side will have a majority
number of electrons, and very few numbers holes (due to
thermal excitation) whereas the P- side will have a
majority of charge carriers holes and very few numbers
of electrons.
• In this process, free electrons from N-side will diffuse
(spread) into the P side and recombine takes place in
holes present there, leaving +ve immobile (not
moveable) ions in the N- side and creating -ve immobile
ions in the P side of the diode.
• The immobile in the n-type side near the junction edge.
Similarly, the immobile ions in the p-type side near the
junction edge. Due to this, numbers of positive ions and
negative ions will accumulate at the junction. This region
so formed is called as depletion region.
• At this region, a static electric field called Barrier
Potential is created across the PN junction of the diode.
• It opposes the further migration of holes and electrons
across the junction.
 Forward Biased Diode
• Forward Biasing: In a PN junction diode, the positive terminal
of a voltage source is connected to the p-type side, and the
negative terminal is connected to the n-type side, the diode is
said to be in forwarding bias condition.
• The electrons get repelled by the negative terminal of the DC
voltage supply and drift towards the positive terminal.
• So, under the influence of applied voltage, this electron drift
causes current to flow in a semiconductor. This current is
termed as “Drift current”. As majority carriers are electrons,
current in n-type is the electron current.
• As holes are majority carriers in p-type, these get repelled by
the positive terminal of DC supply and move across the
junction towards the negative terminal. So, the current in p-
type is the hole current.
• So, the overall current due to majority carriers creates a
Forward current.
• The direction of conventional current flows from positive to
negative of battery in the direction of conventional current is
opposite to the electrons flow.
 Reverse Biased Diode
• Reverse Biased condition: if the diode is the positive terminal
of the source voltage is connected to the n-type end, and the
negative terminal of the source is connected to the p-type end
of the diode, there will be no current through the diode
except reverse saturation current.
• This is because at the reverse biased condition the depletion
layer of the junction becomes broader with increasing
reverse-biased voltage.
• Although there is a small current flowing from the n-type to p-
type end in the diode due to minority carriers. This current is
called Reverse Saturation Current.
• Minority carriers are mainly thermally generated electrons/
holes in p-type semiconductor and n-type semiconductor
respectively.
• Now if reverse applied voltage across the diode is continually
increased, then after certain voltage the depletion layer will
destroy which will cause a huge reverse current to flow
through the diode.
• If this current is not externally limited and it reaches beyond
the safe value, the diode may be permanently destroyed.
 Half-Wave Rectifier
• One of the most common uses for the diode is to
rectify the AC voltage into a DC power supply. Since, a
diode can only conduct current one way, when the
input signal goes negative, there will be no current. This
is called a half-wave rectifier. The below figure shows
the half-wave rectifier diode circuit.

• Full-Wave Rectifier
• A full-wave rectifier diode circuit builds with four
diodes, by this structure we can make both halves of
the waves positive. For both positive and negative
cycles of the input, there is a forward path through the
diode bridge..
• While two of the diodes are forward biased, the other
two are reverse biased and effectively eliminated from
the circuit. Both conduction paths cause current to flow
in the same direction through the load resistor,
accomplishing full-wave rectification.
• The Full-wave rectifiers are used in power supplies to
convert AC voltages to DC voltages. A large capacitor in
parallel with the output load resistor reduces the ripple
from the rectification process. The below figure shows
the full-wave rectifier diode circuit.
• Applications Of Diode Rectifiers
• The rectifier diodes have many
applications. Here are a few of the typical
applications of diodes include:
• Rectifying a voltage, such as turning the AC
into DC voltages
• Isolating signals from a supply
• Voltage Reference
• Controlling the size of a signal
• Mixing signals
• Detection signals
• Lighting systems