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Characteristics of LED, Photodiode, and LDR

The lighting emitting diode is a p-n junction diode. It is a specially doped diode and made
up of a special type of semiconductors. When current passes through an LED, the electrons
recombine with holes emitting light in the process. LEDs allow the current to flow in the
forward direction and blocks the current in the reverse direction. When the light emits in
the forward biased, then it is called a light-emitting diode.

Light-emitting diodes are heavily doped p-n junctions. Based on the semiconductor material used
and the amount of doping, an LED will emit a coloured light at a particular spectral wavelength when
forward biased. As shown in the figure, an LED is encapsulated with a transparent cover so that
emitted light can come out.

How does an LED work?

When the diode is forward biased, the minority electrons are sent from p → n while the
minority holes are sent from n → p. At the junction boundary, the concentration of
minority carriers increases. The excess minority carriers at the junction recombine with
the majority charges carriers.
The energy is released in the form of photons on recombination. In standard diodes, the
energy is released in the form of heat. But in light-emitting diodes, the energy is released
in the form of photons. We call this phenomenon electroluminescence.
Electroluminescence is an optical phenomenon, and electrical phenomenon where a
material emits light in response to an electric current passed through it. As the forward
voltage increases, the intensity of the light increases and reaches a maximum.
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Working Principle of LED

The working principle of the Light-emitting diode is based on the quantum theory. The
quantum theory says that when the electron comes down from the higher energy level to
the lower energy level then, the energy emits from the photon. The photon energy is equal
to the energy gap between these two energy levels. If the PN-junction diode is in the
forward biased, then the current flows through the diode.

The flow of current in the semiconductors is caused by the flow of holes in the opposite
direction of current and the flow of electrons in the direction of the current. Hence there
will be recombination due to the flow of these charge carriers.

The recombination indicates that the electrons in the conduction band jump down to the
valence band. When the electrons jump from one band to another band the electrons will
emit the electromagnetic energy in the form of photons and the photon energy is equal to
the forbidden energy gap.
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I-V Characteristics of LED

There are different types of light-emitting diodes are available in the market and there are
different LED characteristics which include the color light, or wavelength radiation, light
intensity. The important characteristic of the LED is color. In the starting use of LED, there
is the only red color. As the use of LED is increased with the help of the semiconductor
process and doing the research on the new metals for LED, the different colors were
formed.

Advantages and Disadvantages of LED’s

The advantages of light-emitting diode include the following.

 The cost of LED’s is less and they are tiny.
 By using the LED’s electricity is controlled.
 The intensity of the LED differs with the help of the microcontroller.
 Long Lifetime
 Energy efficient
 No warm-up period
 Rugged
 Doesn’t affect by cold temperatures
 Directional
 Color Rendering is Excellent
 Environmentally friendly
 Controllable

LEDs find applications in various fields, including optical communication, alarm and security
systems, remote-controlled operations, robotics, etc. It finds usage in many areas because of its
long-lasting capability, low power requirements, swift response time, and fast switching capabilities.
Below are a few standards LED uses:

 Used for TV back-lighting

 Used in displays
 Used in Automotives
 LEDs used in the dimming of lights
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Photodiode:
A photodiode is a PN-junction diode that consumes light energy to produce an electric
current. Sometimes it is also called a photo-detector, a light detector, and photo-sensor.
These diodes are particularly designed to work in reverse bias conditions, it means that
the P-side of the photodiode is associated with the negative terminal of the battery, and
the n-side is connected to the positive terminal of the battery. This diode is very
sensitive to light so when light falls on the diode it easily changes light into an electric
current. The solar cell is also branded as a large-area photodiode because it converts
solar energy into electric energy. Though, solar cell works only in bright light.
What is Photodiode?

A photodiode is one type of light detector, used to convert the light into current or
voltage based on the mode of operation of the device. It comprises optical filters, built-
in lenses, and also surface areas. These diodes have a slow response time when the
surface area of the photodiode increases. Photodiodes are alike to regular
semiconductor diodes, but that they may be either visible to let light reach the delicate
part of the device.

Working of Photodiode
The working principle of a photodiode is, when a photon of ample energy strikes the
diode, it makes a couple of an electron-hole. This mechanism is also called the inner
photoelectric effect. If the absorption arises in the depletion region junction, then the
carriers are removed from the junction by the inbuilt electric field of the depletion
region.
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Therefore, holes in the region move toward the anode, and electrons move toward the
cathode, and a photocurrent will be generated. The entire current through the diode is
the sum of the absence of light and the photocurrent. So the absent current must be
reduced to maximize the sensitivity of the device.

V-I Characteristics of Photodiode

A photodiode continually operates in a reverse bias mode. The characteristics of the
photodiode are shown clearly in the following figure, that the photocurrent is nearly
independent of reverse bias voltage which is applied. For zero luminance, the
photocurrent is almost zero excluding for small dark current. It is of the order of nano
amperes. As optical power rises the photocurrent also rises linearly. The max
photocurrent is incomplete by the power dissipation of the photodiode.

 PN Photodiode
 Schottky Photo Diode
 PIN Photodiode
 Avalanche Photodiode

Advantages
The advantages of photodiode include the following.
 Less resistance
 Quick and high operation speed
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 Long life span.

 Fastest photodetector.
 Spectral response is good.
 Doesn’t use high voltage.
 Frequency response is good.
 Solid and low-weight.
 It is extremely responsive to the light.
 Dark current is less.
 High quantum efficiency.
 Less noise.

Disadvantages
The disadvantages of photodiode include the following.
 Temperature stability is poor.
 Change within current is extremely little, therefore may not be enough to drive the
circuit.
 The active area is small.
 Usual PN junction photodiode includes a high response time.
 It has less sensitivity.
 It mainly works by depending on the temperature.
 It uses offset voltage.

Applications of Photodiode
 The applications of photodiodes involve similar applications of photodetectors like
charge-coupled devices, photoconductors, and photomultiplier tubes.
 These diodes are used in consumer electronics devices like smoke detectors, compact
disc players, and televisions and remote controls in VCRs.
 In other consumer devices like clock radios, camera light meters, and street lights,
photoconductors are more frequently used rather than photodiodes.
 Photodiodes are frequently used for exact measurement of the intensity of light in
science & industry. Generally, they have an enhanced, more linear response than
photoconductors.
 Photodiodes are also widely used in numerous medical applications like instruments
to analyze samples, detectors for computed tomography, and also used in blood gas
monitors.
 These diodes are much faster & more complex than normal PN junction diodes and
hence are frequently used for lighting regulation and in optical communications.
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LDR
What is a Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) or Photoresistor?
A Light Dependent Resistor (also known as a photoresistor or LDR) is a device whose
resistivity is a function of the incident electromagnetic radiation. Hence, they are light-
sensitive devices. They are also called as photoconductors, photoconductive cells or
simply photocells.
They are made up of semiconductor materials that have high resistance. There are many
different symbols used to indicate a photoresistor or LDR, one of the most commonly
used symbol is shown in the figure below. The arrow indicates light falling on it.

Construction of an LDR

The construction of an LDR includes a light-sensitive material that is placed on an

insulating substrate like ceramic. The material is placed in a zigzag shape in order to get
the required power rating and resistance. The area of zigzag separates the metal-placed
areas into two regions.

Where the Ohmic contacts are made either on the sides of the area. The resistances of the
contacts must be as less as possible to make sure that the resistance, mainly varies due to
the light effect only. The use of lead & cadmium materials is avoided as they are
injurious to the environment.

Working Principle of Light Dependent Resistor

The working principle of an LDR is photoconductivity, which is nothing but an optical

phenomenon. When the light is absorbed by the material then the conductivity of the
material enhances. When the light falls on the LDR, then the electrons in the valence band
of the material are eager to the conduction band. But, the photons in the incident light must
have energy superior to the bandgap of the material to make the electrons jump from one
band to another band (valance to conduction).
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Hence, when light having ample energy, more electrons are excited to the conduction band
which grades in a large number of charge carriers. When the effect of this process and the
flow of the current starts flowing more, the resistance of the device decreases.

Characteristics of LDR

The light-dependent resistor is very responsive to light. When the light is stronger, then
the resistance is lower which means, when the light intensity increases then the value of
resistance for the LDR will be decreased drastically to below 1K.

When the light drops on LDR, the resistance will be decreased and when the resistor is
placed in the dark then the resistance will be increased which is called dark resistance. If
any device absorbs light then its resistance will be reduced radically. If a stable voltage is
given to it, the light intensity will be increased & the flow of current starts increasing. So,
the following diagram represents the characteristics between resistance & illumination for
a specific LDR.

 Detect absences or presences of light like in a camera light meter.

 Used in street lighting design (can be combined with a good Arduino
starter kit to act as a street light controller)
 Alarm clocks
 Burglar alarm circuits
 Light intensity meters