Chapter 3

Energy methods form the foundations of computer aided structural analysis.

These methods can be classied as (a) force methods and (b) displacement
methods. As we know, energy is a scalar and it is simpler to deal with
compared to vector quantities. These methods can be used to nd deections
under applied loads or vice versa. They can also be useful in approximating
solutions based on certain minimum principles. We begin with a simple
presentation of virtual work theories, which form the starting point for energy
methods.
When a load P moves by a small distance du, the incremental work done
is given by
dW = P du.
This shown in Fig. 3.1. The quantity udP is called the complementary work,
dW .

dP

dW

dW

W
W
u

du

Figure 3.1: Work and complementary work.

When the displacements are virtual, that is they are ctitious, we denote
1

CHAPTER 3. ENERGY METHODS

them by u. Similarly virtual forces are denoted by P . Work and complementary work involving these virtual quantities are, similarly, written as W
and W .
u

u
P1

P3

P 1

P 3
P 2

P2
(a)

(b)

Figure 3.2: A particle particle subjected to actual forces moving by a virtual

displacement u in (a) and a particle subjected to virtual forces moving by
a real displacement u in (b).
In Fig. 3.2 (a) we have a particle subjected to a given system of forces
undergoing a virtual displacement u. In a complicated structure, virtual
displacements have to be selected to maintain compatibility. For example, in
the case of a beam these assumed shapes should not introduce any hinges or
breaks. As mentioned earlier, we denote virtual quantities with a in front.
The virtual work done by the system of forces is
W = P 1 u + P 2 u + P 3 u.

(3.1)

W = (P 1 + P 2 + P 3 ) u.

(3.2)

This can written as

If W = 0 for all possible choices of u, we conclude

P 1 + P 2 + P 3 = 0,

(3.3)

which is the requirement for equilibrium. Thus, equilibrium of a system of

forces is implied by the condition that the virtual work done on the body is
zero.
In Fig. 3.2 (b) we have a system of virtual forces in equilibrium.
P 1 + P 2 + P 3 = 0.

3
Under a real displacement u we see the virtual complementary work done is
W = P 1 u + P 2 u + P 3 u,
= (P 1 + P 2 + P 3 ) u,
= 0.

(3.4)
(3.5)
(3.6)

With a single displacement u, the virtual force principle here does not illustrate the enforcement of compatibility.
P1
P2
(a)
L1
u1

L2

u2

P 1
P 2
(b)
u1

L1

L2

u2

Figure 3.3: A lever subjected to actual forces moving by virtual displacements

in (a) and it subjected to virtual forces moving by actual displacements in
(b).
Let us apply these principles to the lever shown in Fig. 3.3. In (a), the
virtual displacements u1 and u2 have to be imposed without breaking the
lever, that is they have to be compatible. If the lever rotates by a virtual
angle ,
u1 = L1 , u2 = L2 .
. Then,
W = (P1 L1 P2 L2 ) = 0.
This gives the moment equilibrium,
P1 L1 P2 L2 = 0.

CHAPTER 3. ENERGY METHODS

In (b), the virtual forces have to be selected meeting the requirement of

equilibrium. Thus,
P1 L1 P2 L2 = 0.
The complementary virtual work becomes
W = P1 u1 + P2 u2 = P1 u1 +

L1
u2 = 0.
L2

From this we nd the compatible displacements due to a rotation given by

=

3.1

u2
u1
= .
L1
L2

Strain and Complementary Energies

Once we are familiar with the virtual work principles for rigid bodies, we
proceed to elastic bodies. Elastic bodies have stored energies and the virtual
work done on them will alter the stored energy. Thus W = 0. Let us begin
with a nonlinear spring, which has the force-displacement relation
F = k3 ,

(3.7)

where F is the internal force and is the extension of the spring.

Starting with = 0, as the spring is pulled to an extension , the work
done by the force is stored as elastic energy,

U(l) =
0

1
F d = k4 .
4

This is shown as an area U in the F diagram in Fig. 3.4. If we impose an additional virtual extension , the change in area is U. From the
rectangular of area F , if we subtract U, the remaining area is called the
complementary energy,
U = F U().
From integrating dU = dF we get
F

U (F ) =

dP =
0

1
k 1/3

F 1/3 dF =
0

3
F 4/3 .
4k 1/3

3.1. STRAIN AND COMPLEMENTARY ENERGIES

F
U
U

Figure 3.4: Strain energy and complementary energy.

The relation between the functions U and U is analogous to that between
the internal energy and enthalpy in thermodynamics where the variables are
pressure and specic volume instead of force and extension.
We distinguish between internal quantities and externally applied quantities. If this spring is under an applied external load P and we give a virtual
displacement u to the tip of the spring, compatibility requires that the virtual extension = u. We get by equating virtual work to the change in
strain energy,
P u = U,

P u = k3 u,

P = k3 ,

P = F,

which is the equilibrium equation relating the internal and external loads. If
it is stretched to a distance u under a load P then equilibrium requires that
the internal force F = P and we apply a virtual force P at its end we have
P = F . Using virtual complementary work, we nd
1
1
uP = U , uP = 1/3 F 1/3 P, u = 1/3 F 1/3 , u = ,
k
k
which is the compatibility of displacements.
3.1.1 Flexibility and Stiffness Coefcient
Let us consider a truss with applied forces P1 , P2 , and P3 at three node
points. The displacements under these loads oriented in the direction of the

CHAPTER 3. ENERGY METHODS

loads will be denoted by u1 , u1 , and u3 . We restrict our selves to three loads,

but extending them to arbitrary number of loads is straight forward. In a
linear elastic material the system of forces and displacements are linearly
related in the form
u1 = c11 P1 + c12 P2 + c13 P3 ,
u2 = c21 P1 + c22 P2 + c23 P3 ,
u3 = c31 P1 + c32 P2 + c33 P3 ,

(3.8)

where the constants cij are called the exibility coecients. The inverse of
these equations can be written as
P1 = k11 u1 + k12 u2 + k13 u3 ,
P2 = k21 u1 + k22 u2 + k23 u3 ,
P3 = k31 u1 + k32 u2 + k33 u3 ,

(3.9)

where the new constants kij are called the stiness coecients. We have
used the nonlinear spring to illustrate that U and U are numerically and
functionally dierent. If a structure is linear elastic, in Fig. 3.4 we will have,
numerically, the areas U and U identicalbut, one is a function of and the
other a function of F . For our three-point loading, we have the functional
dependence,
U = U(u1 , u2, u3 ), U = U (P1 , P2 , P3 ).
(3.10)
If we apply a virtual force P1 at point 1, from the virtual complementary
energy principle,
u1 P1 = U =

U
P1 ,
P1

u1 =

U
.
P1

(3.11)

Generalizing this to any node i,

U
.
ui =
Pi

(3.12)

This is the rst theorem of Castigliano.

By applying a virtual displacement u1 on node 1, we get
P1 u1 = U =

U
u1 ,
u1

P1 =

U
.
u1

(3.13)

3.1. STRAIN AND COMPLEMENTARY ENERGIES

From this

U
,
ui
which is the second theorem of Castigliano.
Castiglianos rst theorem combined with Eq. 3.8, gives
Pi =

(3.14)

U
= c11 P1 + c12 P2 + c13 P3 ,
P1
U
= c21 P1 + c22 P2 + c23 P3 ,
P2
Dierentiating the rst equation with P2 and the second by P1 and noting
that in the mixed derivative of U the order of dierentiation commutes, we
get
c12 = c21 .
We can generalize this to show that the exibility matrix [cij ] and the stiness
matrix [kij ] are symmetric.
It is worth noting that we may add moments to the list of applied forces
provided we use the angle of rotation of the moments in the displacement
list.
Before we apply these principles to elastic structures we have to get expressions for the stored energy.
If we consider an element of length x with a cross sectional area A =
yz, it will have a length of x(1 + xx ) under a normal stress xx . The
work done by the force xx A in moving through a distance xxx is the
energy stored,
1
UT = xx xx V, V = xyz,
2
where we use the subscript T to indicate the total energy. We dene the
strain energy density U as the energy stored per unit volume, i. e.,
1
U = xx xx .
(3.15)
2
The energy stored from the work done by shear stress xy can be assessed
from Fig. 3.5.
Here
1
[(xy xz)(y1 ) + (xy yz)(x2 )],
UT =
2
1
xy xy V.
=
2

CHAPTER 3. ENERGY METHODS

xy

xy

x
Figure 3.5: Work done by shear stresses.
The energy density is
1
(3.16)
U = xy xy .
2
For the three dimensional case, by adding the work done by all the stresses,
we get
1
U = [xx xx + yy yy + zz zz + xy xy + yz yz + xz xz ].
2

(3.17)

3.1.2 Voigt Notation

Instead of dealing with stress and strain as square matrices, Voigt introduced
the following notation:

1 xx
1 xx

2 yy

2 yy

zz
3
zz
3
.
(3.18)
=
, {} =
=
{} =
4 yz
4 yz

5 xz
5 xz

xy
6
xy
6

In this notation the generalized Hookes law for

written as

1
0
0
1
0
0

1 1
0
0
{} =
0
0
2(1 + ) 0
E 0

0
0
0
0
2(1 + )
0
0
0
0
0

isotropic materials can be

0
0
0
0
0
2(1 + )

{}.

(3.19)

3.1. STRAIN AND COMPLEMENTARY ENERGIES

For anisotropic materials we have

{} = [C]{},

{} = [S]{},

(3.20)

where the symmetric matrices [C] and [S] are called the elastic compliance
and stiness matrices. The existence of a strain energy requires that these
matrices have to be positive denite (which means for all non-zero choices
for strain and stress components the stored energies must be positive).
The strain energy function and the complementary energy function can
be expressed in the form
1
U = {}T [C]{},
2

1
U = {}T [S]{}.
2

(3.21)

3.1.3 Uniform Bar subjected to an Axial Tension

For an axially loaded member with cross sectional area A and Youngs modulus E,
1
xx = Exx , U = E2 .
2 xx
Using xx = du/dx, the energy per unit length of this bar is
1
U = EA(u )2 ,
2

du
.
dx

If the internal force is F , xx = F/A. The complementary energy per unit

volume is
1 2
F2
U =
xx =
.
2E
2EA2
Per unit length of the bar, multiplying the above density by A, we get
U =

F2
.
2EA

For a bar of length L with uniform cross section and constant value for E,
under a tensile load F ,

du
= ,
(3.22)
dx
L
where is its extension (change in length), and The total energies are
EA2
1
,
UT = EA(/L)2 L =
2
2L

UT =

1 F2
F 2L
L=
.
2 EA
2EA

(3.23)

10

CHAPTER 3. ENERGY METHODS

The virtual changes are given by

UT =

EA
,
L

F F L
EA

UT =

(3.24)

3.1.4 Circular Shaft subjected to a Torque

Using a cylindrical coordinate system, (r, , z), the non-zero stress is = z
and strain is = z , which are related as

= .
(3.25)
G
For a uniform shaft of radius c and length L, if the relative rotation of one
end of the shaft with respect to the other is ,
=

r
.
L

(3.26)

The energy density G 2 /2 can be integrated across the cross section to nd

the energy per unit length as
U=

1
2

c
0

1
G 2 2rdr = GJ2 ,
2

J=

c4
,
2

,
L

(3.27)

where is the rate of twist and J is the polar second moment of the area.
Using = r from Eq. 3.26, = Gr, and the internal torques, T is
obtained as
c
T =
r 2 2dr = GJ.
(3.28)
0

We may convert the strain energy to the complementary energy by substituting for in terms of T , to have
U =

1 T2
.
2 GJ

(3.29)

For a shaft of length L with uniform properties we get

UT =

GJ2
,
2L

UT =

T 2L
,
2GJ

(3.30)

GJ
,
L

UT =

T T L
.
GJ

(3.31)

and their virtual changes are

UT =

11

3.2. EXAMPLE: TWO-BAR TRUSS

3.1.5 Beam subjected to a Moment

Consider a beam of width b and height 2c. Under elementary beam theory
assumptions, = xx and = xx are given by
=

My
,
I

2
I = bc3 ,
3

y
,
R

1
d2 v
= 2.
R
dx

(3.32)

The energy density per unit volume, E2 /2, can be integrated across the
cross section, to get the energy density per unit length,
1
U=
2
U =

1
E2 bdy = EI(v )2 .
2
c
1
2E

2 bdy =
c

1 M2
.
2 EI

(3.33)
(3.34)

The change in energy densities are given by

U = EI(v )(v),

3.2

U =

MM
.
EI

(3.35)

Example: Two-bar truss

Consider the two-bar truss shown in Fig. 3.6. The two bars: Bar 1, BC, and
bar 2, AC, have the same values for EA. We assume the applied loads P and
Q are known. The displacements along P and Q are u and v, respectively.
Taking the moment about A, the internal forces can be obtained as follows:
F1 (3L) = P (3L) Q(4L),

4
F1 = P Q.
3

Vertical Forces at the hinge C give

F2 (3/5) = Q = 0,

F2 = 5Q/3.

3.2.1 Solution Without Using Energy

In order to appreciate the simplicity of energy methods, it is worthwhile to
solve this simple problem directly. Having obtained the member forces, we
compute the changes in the lengths of the two members as
1 =

F1 L1
,
EA

2 =

F2 L2
,
EA

12

CHAPTER 3. ENERGY METHODS

Q
B 4L

F1

C
3L

F2

5L
A

(b)

(a)

v
2

1
d
2
(c)

v
(d)

Figure 3.6: Two-bar truss(a) geometry and loads, (b) free-body diagram
to nd internal forces, (c) extensions of individual members and compatible
reconnection, and (d) as a prescribed displacement problem.
where
L1 = 4L,

L2 = 5L.

To nd the nal location of the joint C, we reconnect the two deformed

bars by rotating them. When the extensions are small the displacement
contribution from rotation is assumed to be perpendicular to the original
position of a member. In this process, we see the horizontal deection of C,
u = 1 =

4F1 L
L
16
=
[4P Q].
EA
EA
3

(3.36)

To nd the vertical deection v, we use the four-sided gure amplied in Fig.

3.6 (c). We have
sin = 3/5, cos = 4/5.
2 sin = v + d cos ,

2 cos = u d sin .

13

3.2. EXAMPLE: TWO-BAR TRUSS

5
4
d = u 2 ,
3
3
This can be simplied to get

3
4
4
v = 2 [u 2 ].
5
3
3

5
4
1 2 ,
3
3
L
16
=
[21P + Q].
EA
3

v =

(3.37)

The exibility matrix for this case can be seen in the relation
u
v

L
EA

21
16
9

16
9

P
Q

(3.38)

The symmetry of the matrix is obvious. When a large truss has to be analyzed, the displacements are cumulative and geometrically satisfying the
compatibility of displacements will be tedious.
3.2.2 Virtual Force Method
In this method, we apply virtual forces P and Q at the joint C. These two
forces are independent quantities, that is, we may apply them one at a time.
To maintain equilibrium, the internal forces
4
F1 = P + Q,
3

5
F2 = P,
3

are needed. From the complementary energy

Fi2 Li 2Ei Ai ,

U =
i=1,2

where, in our case, Ei = E and Ai = A the virtual change in complementary

energy is
L
[4F1 F1 + 5F2 F2 ],
EA
L
4
4
5
5
=
4( P + Q)( P + Q) + 5( P )( P ) ,
EA
3
3
3
3
L
16
16
=
(21P + Q)P + ( P + 4Q)Q .
EA
3
3

U =

(3.39)

14

CHAPTER 3. ENERGY METHODS

The virtual complementary work done by the forces is

W = uP + vQ.

(3.40)

Equating the change in complementary energy with the work done and separating the coecients of P and Q, we get
u
v

L
3EA

63 16
16 12

P
Q

(3.41)

We note that this approach is entirely scalar and no geometric calculation is

needed.
3.2.3 Castiglianos First Theorem
Consider Q = 0 in the preceding calculation. Then,
uP =

U
P,
P

u=

U
.
P

(3.42)

When P = 0, we nd
v=

U
.
Q

(3.43)

The procedure consists of writing U in terms of applied loads P and Q by

eliminating the member forces F1 and F2 (using the equilibrium equations)
in the energy expression. Dierentiating with respect to P and Q gives d u
and v, respectively.
3.2.4 Unit Load Method
In order to facilitate a systematic way of arranging the calculations, we may
write
U
u=
fi ,
Fi
i=1,2
where

Fi
.
P
The quantities fi are the member forces due to a unit load applied at C in
the direction of P . We may do the calculations as shown in the Table 3.1
fi =

15

3.2. EXAMPLE: TWO-BAR TRUSS

i
1
2

U
Fi

4L 4
[ P
EA 3

F i Li
E i Ai

fi

+ Q]

4
3

5L 5
P
EA 3

u=

U
f
Fi i
L 64
[ P
EA 3

16
Q]
3

L 125
P
EA 9

5
3
L
[21P
EA

16
Q]
3

Table 3.1: Unit load calculation in a tabular form

3.2.5 Virtual Displacement Method

As shown in Fig. 3.6 (d), we assume displacements are given at C as u and
v. As shown in Fig. 3.7, the eect of u on member 1 is an extension of u.

v
2

Figure 3.7: Resolving displacements to nd member extensions.

Member 2 has to rotate and elongate by u cos . Due to v, member 1 purely

rotates with no extension and member 2 rotates and extends by v sin . It
is to be noted that under small displacements the rotation causes the node
to move perpendicular to the original direction of the structural memeber.
Thus, the total extensions are:
1 = u,

2 = 4u/5 + 3v/5.

16

CHAPTER 3. ENERGY METHODS

The change in strain energy is obtained as

EA 1 1 2 2
,
+
L
4
5
1
EA 1
uu + (4u/5 + 3v/5)(4u/5 + 3v/5) ,
=
L 4
5
EA 1
16
12
9
12
=
( +
)u +
v)u + (
v+
u)u ,
L
4 125
125
125
125
EA
[(189u + 48v)u + (48u + 36v)v] .
=
500L

U =

(3.44)

The virtual work done by the forces are

W = P u + Qv.

(3.45)

Equating the coecients of u and v, in the equation W = U, we nd

P
Q

EA
500L

189 48
48 36

u
v

(3.46)

The stiness matrix on the right is the inverse of the exibility we found
before. We may verify this by inverting one of these matrices.
3.2.6 Castiglianos Second Theorem
In the virtual displacement method, if we assume that u is given with v = 0,
rst, we see
U
P =
,
u
and if we let u = 0 and v = 0,
Q=

U
.
v

These are the results of applying the second theorem of Castigliano.

3.2.7 Unit Displacement Method
Writing
U=

2
Ei Ai li
,
2Li
i=1,2

17

3.2. EXAMPLE: TWO-BAR TRUSS

and using the second theorem of Castigliano,
P =

Ei Ai li gi
,
Li
i=1,2

where

li
.
u
The quantity gi can be seen as the extension of the member i due to a unit
displacement in the direction of u. We may compute the force P using Table
3.2.
gi =

i
1
2

U
li

Ei Ai li
Li

gi

U
g
li i

EA 1
u
L 4

EA
u
4L
EA 4
[ u
5L 5

+ 3 v]
5

P =

4
5

EA 16
[ u
L 125

EA
[189u
500L

12
v]
125

+ 48v]

Table 3.2: Unit displacement calculation in a tabular form

3.2.8 Minimum Total Complementary Potential Energy Theorem
The prescribed displacements u and v may be expressed in terms of a complementary potential energy, as
u=

V
,
P

v=

V
,
Q

where V is called the complementary potential energy of the displacements.

Then Castiglianos rst theorem states
U
V
=
,
P
P

U
V
=
Q
Q

By dening a total complementary potential energy function

= U + V ,

18

CHAPTER 3. ENERGY METHODS

Castiglianos theorem can be expressed as

= 0,
P

= 0,
Q

which shows is a minimum when compatibility is satised. As U is a

positive denite quadratic function, this is indeed a minimum condition and
not a maximum condition.
3.2.9 Minimum Total Potential Energy Theorem
The prescribed forces P and Q are expressed as
P =

V
,
u

Q=

V
,
v

where V is the potential energy of the forces. Now, Castiglianos second

theorem becomes

= 0,
= 0,
u
v
where is the total potential energy given by
= U + V.
When the equilibrium equations are satised the total potential energy is a
minimum.
3.2.10 Dummy Load and Dummy Displacements
Assuming in our two-bar truss problem only the load P is applied, to nd
the vertical deection v we are left with no variable Q to dierentiate U
with. In this situation we apply a dummy load Q in the direction of v and
after dierentiation we set the dummy load to zero. We can follow the same
procedure if in the case of displacement u is given and vertical displacement
is given as v = 0. We provide a dummy displacement v to construct U and
after dierentiation, it is set to zero.

3.3

Statically Indeterminate Problems

In redundant structures subject to nodal forces, the number of equilibrium

equations are not sucient in number to nd all the member forces. We call

3.3. STATICALLY INDETERMINATE PROBLEMS

19

these problems statically indeterminate. As an example consider the truss

shown in Fig. 3.8. We assume EA is common for all three members. At the
node O the equilibrium equations are
F1 cos 45 F3 cos 30 = P
F1 sin 45 + F2 + F3 sin 30 = Q.
We have three unknowns and two equations. One way to proceed is to solve
B

45
2
1

F2

30
L

O
Q

Figure 3.8: A statically indeterminate truss.

for F1 and F3 in terms of P , Q, and F2 . This leads to

2
[P + 3(Q F2 )],
F1 =
1+ 3
2
[Q F2 P ].
F3 =
1+ 3
The complementary energy is obtained as
L 2
2
2
2F1 + F2 + 2F3 ,
EA

2 2
L
8
2
(P + 3Q 3F2 )2 + F2 +
(P Q + F2 )2 .
=
2
EA (1 + 3)
(1 + 3)2

U =

. From Fig. 3.8 we observe that the force F2 does not do any work. Then
U
= 0.
F2
This gives the needed additional equation to solve for F2 in terms of the
applied loads.

20

CHAPTER 3. ENERGY METHODS

If we use the displacement method we can nd the extensions of all the

members in terms of the nodal displacements at O. The problem of static
indeterminacy does not arise in the displacement method. In fact, the degree
of static indeterminacy is dened as the dierence between the number of
unknown member forces and the number of equilibrium equations. When this
degree is large, it is always advantageous to use the displacement method.
3.3.1 Example: Statically Indeterminate Torsion
Consider a shaft with torsional rigidity GJ clamped between two rigid walls
(Fig. 3.9). A torque T is applied at a distance a from the left wall. The freebody diagram shows that there are two unknown torques T1 and T2 reacting
from the walls. We have one equilibrium equation:
T + T2 T1 = 0.
The complementary energy is
U =

1
2
2
[aT1 + bT2 ].
2GJ

Eliminating T1 using the equilibrium equation

U =

1
2
[a(T + T2 )2 + bT2 ].
2GJ

T
a

T2

T1

L=a+b
Figure 3.9: A statically indeterminate shaft.

3.3. STATICALLY INDETERMINATE PROBLEMS

21

As T2 does not do any work, U /T2 = 0. This gives

LT2 = aT,

U =

1
abT 2
[a(T aT /L)2 + ba2 T 2 /(L2 )] =
.
2GJ
2GJL

The rotation of the shaft under the torque is obtained as

=

abT
U
=
.
T
GJL

For this problem if we use the displacement method

U=

GJ 2 2
[ + ].
2 a
b

T =

U
GJL
=
.

ab

The torque is obtained as

3.3.2 Example: Beam under a Concentrated Load

L=a+b
Figure 3.10: A simply-supported beam under a concentrated load.
Consider a beam of bending stiness EI under a load P . We are interested
in nding the deection under the load. By taking moments about supports
we obtain the left and right reactions as
R1 = P b/L,

R2 = P a/L.

22

CHAPTER 3. ENERGY METHODS

Using the left support as the origin of the x-axis, the bending moment in
0 < x < a is
M1 = R1 x = P bx/L.
The bending moment in a < x < L is given by
M2 = R2 (L x) = P a(L x)/L.
The complementary energy stored is found as
a
L
1
2
2
M1 dx +
M2 dx ,
2EI 0
a
b2 a3 a2 b3
1
P 2,
+
=
2EIL2
3
3
P 2 a2 b2
=
.
6EIL

U =

The deection under the load v is found as

v=

U
P a2 b2
=
.
P
3EIL

In this example we used a single coordinate x from left to right. Using a

second coordinate from right to left to express M2 is possible.
If we want to use the displacement method we have a family of choices
for the deection v(x) subjected to the admissibility conditions: they are
continuous with continuous derivatives, they are zero at the support points,
and they have a prescribed value (say, v0 ) under the load. Out of this innite
choices, the one which makes the total potential energy a minimum is the
true solution. If we pick any arbitrary shape, meeting the stated conditions,
will be higher than the actual minimum value, and we get a higher value
for P , implying a stier beam. For example, let us try a parabolic shape,
v(x) = V x(L x),

v(a) = v0 = V ab,

Then

V = v0 /(ab).

v0
x(L x),
ab
meets all the admissibility conditions. The strain energy U can be obtained
as
EI L 2
2EIL 2
U=
(v ) dx = 2 2 v0 .
2 0
ab
v(x) =

23

3.3. STATICALLY INDETERMINATE PROBLEMS

Using P = U/v0 ,

4EIL
v0 .
a2 b2
Here, we get a factor of 4 instead of the exact value 3! We may improve our
result by systematically using improved displacements. For example
Papprox =

v(x) =

v0
x(L x)[1 + A1 (x a) + A2 (x a)2 + ].
ab

This has additional degrees of freedom and U has to be minimized with respect to A1 , A2 , etc. This approach is called the Rayleigh-Ritz method. The
modern approach to solving elasticity problems is the nite element method.
For our example, the beam will be considered as a collection of smaller beams
assembled together with common deections and slopes between the joined
ends of two adjacent beam elements. These deections and slopes form additional degrees of freedom in minimizing the potential energy. There are a
number of software packages available to accomplish this task.
3.3.3 Example: Axial Extension Calculation of a Variable Cross-section
Bar by the Finite Element Method
For the bar shown in Fig. 3.11, the cross-section varies in the form
A = A0 ex/L .
where L is the length. The Youngs modulus E is constant. The coordinate
x is taken from left to right. At x = 0 the bar is clamped to a wall and there
is no displacement. The other end x = L is given an elongation u. First, let

i1

i
L

i+1

ui1 ui

ui+1

Figure 3.11: A bar sectioned into nite elements.

24

CHAPTER 3. ENERGY METHODS

us nd an exact solution for this problem. The end displacement u is caused

by an applied force P . Then the stress and strain at any section x is given
by
= P/A,

= P/(EA).

Using = du/dx and u((0) = 0, we nd

u(x) =

P
EA0

ex/L dx =
0

P L x/L
[e
1].
EA0

From this
u=

PL
(e 1).
EA0

The exact value of the load is

Pex =

EA0 u

,
L(e 1)

and the exact displacement distribution is

uex (x) = u

ex/L 1
.
e1

Now, if we use the displacement method, we have to choose a displacement

which satises the admissibility conditions: u(0) = 0, u(L) = u and conti
nuity. Following the nite element method, we divide the length L in to N
elements. Let
h = L/N.
Then, the ith element is between x = (i 1)h and x = ih. We assume
the displacement is distributed linearly inside this element with the value of
u = ui1 at the left end and u = ui at the right end. In this element the
slope of the displacement u = (ui ui1 )/h. The displacement distribution
in two adjoining elements is shown in Fig. 3.11. We have the admissibility
conditions, u0 = 0 and uN = u. We will have (N 1) unknowns, u1 , u2 , ,

3.3. STATICALLY INDETERMINATE PROBLEMS

25

uN 1 to nd. The strain energy can be expressed as

1
U =
2

EA(u )2 dx,
0

EA0
=
2
=

ih

ex/L
i=1 (i1)h
N

EA0 L
2h2

i=1

(ui ui1 )2 [e(i1)h/L eih/l ],

EA0 L h/L
=
(e
1)
2h2
=

(ui ui1 )2
dx,
h2

eih/L (ui ui1 )2 ,

i=1
N

EA0 N 2 1/N
(e
1)
2L

i=1

ei/N (ui ui1 )2 .

This can be written as

EA0
U=
2L

i=1

Ii (ui ui1 )2 ,

where
Ii = N 2 (e1/N 1)ei/N .

If we write this explicitly, we have

U=

EA0
[I1 u2 + I2 (u2 u1 )2 + I3 (u3 u2 )2 + + IN ( uN 1 )2 ].
u
1
2L

Using this in the total potential energy = U uP and minimizing with

ui , i = 1, 2, , N 1, we get
(Ii + Ii+1 )ui Ii ui1 Ii+1 ui+1 = 0,

i = 1, 2, N 1

Dierentiating with u, we get

P =

EA0
IN ( uN 1 ).
u
L

The crudest approximation we can make is:

N = 1.

26

CHAPTER 3. ENERGY METHODS

Then
IN =

e1
,
e

P =

EA0 e 1
u.

L
e

We nd

(e 1)2
P
=
= 1.0862.
Pex
e
As mentioned earlier, displacement approximation leads to a stier structure.
3.3.4 Example: Frame Deection
When beam elements are joined with rigid corners as shown in Fig. ??,
we have what are called frames. Here let us try to compute the horizontal
displacement at B due to the applied vertical load P at C. We assume EI is
a constant along the frame. In this example, we neglect the deections due to
axial forces. Compared to bending deections, these are usually negligible.
C

B
L
P

A
Figure 3.12: A frame with a vertical load.
As there is no applied load at B, we apply a dummy load Q (pointing to
the left). The bending moment between C and B is found using a coordinate
x to the right from C as
M1 = P x.
For the segment AB, we use a new x starting from B going downward. Then
M2 = (P L + Qx).

3.4. EXAMPLE: SHEAR CORRECTION FACTOR

27

The complementary energy is

L
1
2
2
(M1 + M2 )2 dx,
2EI 0
Q2
L3 P 2
,
+ P2 + PQ +
=
2EI 3
3
U
P L3
u =
=
.
Q Q=0 2EI

U =

3.4

Example: Shear Correction Factor

Consider the cantilever beam of length L shown in Fig. 3.13. It has a width
b and height 2c. The second moment of area is
I = 2bc3 /3.
The bending moment and normal stress at a section x are
M = P x,

xx = P xy/I.

From the equilibrium equation (neglecting body forces)

P

x
L
Figure 3.13: A cantilever beam with a tip load.

xx,x + xy,y = 0,

xy,y = P y/I.

Integrating this we get

xy =

P 2
(y c2 ).
2I

28

CHAPTER 3. ENERGY METHODS

The complementary energy due to bending and shear can be written as

L

U =
0

M2
dx +
2EI

b
0

2
xy
dydx,
2G

c
P
P2
x2 dx + 2bL
(y 2 c2 )2 dy,
2EI 0
8GI 2 0
P2 5 1 2
P 2 L3
+ bL
c
+1 ,
=
6EI
4GI 2
5 3
6Ebc5 8
P 2 L3
1+
,
=
6EI
4GIL2 15
6 Ec2
P 2 L3
1+
.
=
6EI
5 GL2
2

The deection v under the load is given by

v=

6 Ec2
P L3
1+
.
3EI
5 GL2

Here, the factor outside the brackets represents the contribution from the
bending moment and the shear deformation eect is represented by the term
containing the (6/5)- factor which is of the order of c2 /L2 .

3.5

Reciprocity Theorem

Consider a linearly elastic structure subjected to two loads P1 and P2 . Let

u1 and u2 denote the deection under the two loads, respectively. Then, we
have load-displacement relations
u1 = c11 P1 + c12 P2 ,
u2 = c21 P1 + c22 P2 ,
From Castiglianos theorem,
u1 =

U
P1

u2 =

U
.
P2

Using the equality of the mixed derivatives of U , we get

u2
u1
=
.
P2
P1

3.5. RECIPROCITY THEOREM

29

This results in the reciprocity relation c12 = c21 . In other words, the incremental deection at point 1 due to a load P at point 2 is the same as the
incremental deection at 2 due to the same load at 1.
A similar relation between the stiness coecients, k12 = k21 , can be
obtained from the strain energy U.

Exercises