Ice climbing

Ice climbing, as the term indicates, is the activity of ascending inclined ice formations.
Usually, ice climbing refers to roped and protected climbing of features such as icefalls,
frozen waterfalls, and cliffs and rock slabs covered with ice refrozen from flows of
water. For the purposes of climbing ice can be broadly divided into two spheres, alpine
ice and water ice. Alpine ice is found in a mountain environment, usually requires an
approach to reach, and is often climbed in an attempt to summit a mountain. Water ice
is usually found on a cliff or other outcropping beneath water flows. Alpine ice is frozen
precipitation whereas water ice is a frozen liquid flow of water. Most alpine ice is
generally one component of a longer routes and often less technical, have more in
common with standard glacier travel, while water ice is selected largely for its technical
challenge. Still technical grade is independent of ice type and both types of ice vary
greatly in consistency according to weather conditions. Ice can be soft, hard, brittle or
tough. A mixed climbing is when ascending involve both ice climbing and rock
climbing.[1][2]

Techniques

A climber chooses equipment according to the slope and texture of the ice. For
example, on flat ice, almost any good hiking or mountaineering boot will usually
suffice, but for serious ice climbing double plastic mountaineering boots (or their older
stiff leather equivalent) are usually used, which must be crampon compatible and stiff
enough to support the climber and maintain ankle support. On short, low angled slopes,
one can use an ice axe to chop steps. For longer and steeper slopes or glacier travel,
crampons are mandatory for a safe climb. Vertical ice climbing is done with crampons
and ice axes (those specific to vertical ice generally being called technical ice axes, or
ice tools); climbers kick their legs to engage the front points of the crampons in the ice,
and then swing the axe into the ice above their heads. This technique is known as front
pointing. The strength of the ice is often surprising; even if the axe goes in only a
centimeter or so it is enough to pull up on. If a climber is leading, she/he will need to
place ice screws as protection on the way up (see climbing system). Most mountaineers
would only consider the last scenario true ice climbing; the less steep variations are
routine aspects of winter mountaineering.

Some important techniques and practices common in rock climbing that are employed
in ice climbing include knowledge of rope systems, tying in, belaying, leading,
abseiling, and lowering. Beginners should learn these techniques before attempting to
ice climb. It is highly recommended that one acquire knowledge from experts and
experienced ice climbers.

[edit] Rope systems

Single, double, and twin rope are the three main rope systems used in ice climbing. The
single rope system, which is suited for straight climbing routes, is the most commonly
used system in the world. Also often used in climbing is the double rope system which
is a more flexible system than the single rope system. Lastly, the twin rope system,
which uses two twin ropes in a single rope system, is used for longer multi-pitch routes.
However, this type is not often used in climbing.
[edit] Tying in

Tying in entails attaching your rope to the climbing harness. This technique is a must
particularly when leading a climb or belaying. The commonly used tie-in knot is the
Figure-of-eight follow through. Once you tie-in, you will create a belay loop which will
contain your belay device when needed. This technique should be done properly to
ensure your safety when ice climbing.

[edit] Belaying

In this climbing technique, you are going to use either running belays or fixed belays. A
running belay on ice is similar to a running belay on rock or snow. The leader of the
climb puts protection and clips the rope through it. The next climber puts away the
protection. There should be at least two points of protection between the leader and the
next climber. Fixed belays, on the other hand, require a belayer, belay anchor, and
points of protection. A belay anchor is attached to a cliff in supporting a belay or
toprope. In using either a running- or fixed belay, it is necessary that you have enough
knowledge on boot/ice-screw belay techniques.

[edit] Leading

Leading refers to the act of leading a climb and thus, requires a leader and a follower.
This ice climbing technique entails putting protection while ascending. In doing so,
leading is done in sections. The leader places the protection as he/she climbs until
he/she reaches the top of a pitch. At the top, the leader builds a belay anchor with which
to belay the second climber. While the second climbs, he/she removes the protection
placed by the leader. When the second climber finishes, they both proceed to the second
pitch.

[edit] Abseiling

Also called rappelling, abseiling uses a fixed rope to descend. This technique is not only
used to go down after a climb. It can also be used when trying new climbing routes and
when there is a seemingly difficult access to the start of a climb. Careful execution is
important in doing abseiling. There are the possibilities of jammed ropes, ropes
becoming severed after getting in contact with sharp edges, and other cases of
equipment failure.

[edit] Lowering

Lowering is one of the most common methods of getting down. A belayer at the base of
the vertical wall ensures that the climber is lowered safely. This climbing technique is
used when going down routes where there are short, steep walls. This is also used when
you want to go down faster.

These are the different techniques used in climbing activities. Keep in mind, though,
that it is very crucial to learn these skills from expert climbers before attempting them
yourself.
[edit] Protecting ice

Ice screw

Today the most common protection for ice climbing is an ice screw. Ice screws are
hollow tubes with sharp teeth on the front end, a hanger eye at the back to clip into, and
threading around the tube. They are screwed into the ice and can provide very strong
protection in solid ice.[1] However, because of the variable nature of ice, the strength of
ice screw placements can vary greatly.[3]

Ice climbers also use the ice itself as protection. The two most common of such
techniques are the V-Thread (also known as the "Abalokov" anchor, named after a
Russian climber who popularised the technique) and the ice bollard. The V-thread is a
method of protection in which two tunnels are bored into the ice so that they intersect at
their ends, forming a "V" shaped tunnel in the ice. A sling or cordelette (rope used in
anchors) is threaded through the tunnel and tied making a loop that is tied into the ice.
An ice bollard is made when an horse-shoe shaped furrow is carved into less than
vertical ice with the open end down. A lip is then sculpted in the lower wall of the
furrow so that a loop of rope can be placed in the furrow that will stay in place in a
somewhat less severe version of a loop of rope around saddle horn.[3]

Natural formations, as well as ice hooks and ice pitons are also used as protection
anchors by ice climbers.

[edit] Ice climbing grades

[edit] Waterfall ice grading

This discussion focuses on the waterfall ice rating system as used in the Canadian
Rockies.

Testpiece examples are given. Note that ice grading, even more so than other climbing
media, tends to be subjective and often does not reflect the difficulty of a route at any
given time. Routes become much easier after the first ascent of the season. This is due
to the cleaning of chandeliered ice and creation of "hooks", which are pockets formed
by the tools' picks, reducing the effort expended in cleaning and tool placement.

Routes with high-flow seeps also tend to become easier as the season progresses due to
the increase in volume of ice. Low-flow seeps, however (e.g. French Reality, Banff;
Moonlight/Snowline, Kananaskis), often form early in the season (September-
November) when the flow is good from latent summer heat, and then slow down or
even stop with the deepening winter frost; subsequent ablation (and destruction by
climbing) of the ice often makes for thinner and brittler ice with time.
Grading in the Canadian Rockies, especially recently, focuses on the steepness of a
pitch, and NOT on the more subjective "feeling of difficulty" (mental aspects, e.g.
protectability, exposure, commitment, etc.) or "technical difficulty" (e.g. chandeliers,
bonding, etc.) during the first ascent. Hence the downgrading of several notorious
routes, e.g. Sea of Vapours, which were in poor conditions during the first ascents.

A common use of the "+" designation is to indicate a higher level of technicality than is
typical for the grade (e.g. chandeliers, poor bonding, etc.) that is consistent from year to
year (i.e Wicked Wanda, WI4+, has vicious mushrooms on an otherwise low-angled
route, and these features always exist from year to year, probably due to the winds).

Finally, Canadian Rockies WI grading does NOT have anything to do with whether a
climb is multi-pitch or not. Therefore, a 4-pitch WI5 is not granted WI6 just because it's
long, and likewise a 4-pitch WI6 is not given WI7.

WI2 - low-angled (60 degree consistent ice), with good technique can be easily climbed
with one ice axe. Grades beyond this generally require the use of two ice tools.

WI3 - generally sustained in the 60-70 degree range with occasional near-vertical steps
up to 4 metres (Cascade Waterfall, Banff; This House of Sky, Ghost River)

WI4 - near-vertical steps of up to 10 metres, generally sustained climbing requiring

placing protection screws from strenuous stances (Professor's Falls, Banff; Weeping
Wall Left, Icefields Parkway, Banff; Silk Tassle, Yoho; Moonlight & Snowline,
Kananskis)

WI4+ - highly technical WI4. (Wicked Wanda, Ghost River)

WI5 - near-vertical or vertical steps of up to 20 metres, sustained climbing requiring

placing multiple protection screws from strenuous stances with few good rests
(Carlsberg Column, Field; The Sorcerer, Ghost River; Bourgeau Left Hand, Banff)

WI5+ - highly technical WI5 (Oh le Tabernac, Icefield Parkway; Hydrophobia, Ghost
River; Sacre Bleu, Banff)

WI6 - vertical climbing for the entire pitch (e.g. 30-60 metres) with no rests. Requires
excellent technique and/or a high level of fitness (The Terminator, Banff; Nemesis,
Kootenay Park; Whiteman Falls, Kananaskis Country; Riptide, Banff)

WI6+ - vertical or overhanging with no rests, and highly technical WI6 (French Maid,
Yoho; French Reality, Kootenay Park)

WI7 - sustained and overhanging with no rests. Extremely rare, near-mythical, and
widely accepted testpiece examples of this grade don't exist in the Canadian Rockies.
Note that many routes (e.g. Sea of Vapours, Banff; Riptide, Icefield Parkway, Banff)
have been assigned WI7- to WI7+ but have been subsequently downgraded in latter
years as they don't meet the strict criteria of steepness. In fact some local ice climbers
have argued for Sea of Vapours (WI7+ originally) to be downgraded to WI5 or even
WI4 simply because it's not steep enough.
See Alpinist's Climbing Grades section for a variation on this discussion:
http://www.alpinist.com/p//climbing_notes/grades

[edit] Mixed ice grading

Mixed climbing has its own grading scale that roughly follows the WI rating system
with respect to its physical and technical demands. Typically starts at M4. Subgrades of
"-" and "+" are commonly used, although the distinctions are typically very subjective.
The following table makes a comparison with the WI system and the Yosemite Decimal
System. Comparing these is rough, and only gives an idea of the relative difficulty; the
reason different systems exist in the first place is because it's difficult to compare grades
between climbing media.

M4 - 5.8 - WI4 - slabby to vertical, some technical drytooling

M5 - 5.9 - WI5 - some sections of sustained drytooling

M6 - 5.10 - WI6 - vertical to overhanging with some difficult drytooling

M7 - 5.11 - WI7 - overhanging, powerful and technical drytooling, <10 m of "hard"

climbing

M8 - 5.11+ - bouldery or longer cruxes than M7, some horizontal overhangs

M9 - 5.12- - vertical or steeper with sustained marginal or highly technical drytooling;

or horizontal and juggy for up to a few body lengths.

M10 - 5.12

M11 - 5.12+

M12 - 5.13-

See Alpinist's Climbing Grades section for a variation on this discussion:

http://www.alpinist.com/p//climbing_notes/grades
Abseiling
Abseiling (German: abseilen, "to rope down"), rappelling in American English,[1] is the
controlled descent down a rope; climbers use this technique when a cliff or slope is too
steep and/or dangerous to descend without protection. Abseiling is used chiefly in
British English, while other Anglophone countries, except Australia, use different
terms.

Slang terms

Slang terms for the technique include: rapping or rap jumping (American slang),
abbing (British slang for "abseiling"), jumping, roping down, roping, seiling,
snapling (Israeli slang), rappling (Hindi slang).

[edit] History

The origin of the abseil is attributed[2] to Jean Estéril Charlet, a Chamonix guide who
lived from 1840-1925. Charlet originally devised the technique of the abseil (or rappel)
method of roping down during a failed solo attempt of Petit Dru in 1876. After many
attempts, some of them solo, he managed to summit the Petit Dru in 1879 in the
company of two other Chamonix guides, Prosper Payot and Frédéric Folliguet, whom
he hired (a rather paradoxical move for a guide). During that ascent, Charlet perfected
the abseil.

[edit] Equipment

• Ropes: Climbers often simply use their climbing ropes for rappelling. For many
other applications, low-stretch rope (typically ~2% stretch when under the load
of a typical bodyweight) called static rope is used to reduce bouncing and to
allow easier ascending of the rope.
• Anchors for rappelling are sometimes made with trees or boulders, using
webbing and cordellete, or also with rock climbing equipment, such as nuts,
hexes and spring loaded camming devices.[3] Some climbing areas have fixed
anchors for rappelling.
• A descender or rappel device is a friction device or friction hitch that allows
rope to be paid out in a controlled fashion, under load, with a minimal effort by
the person controlling it. The speed at which the rappeller descends is controlled
by applying greater or lesser force on the rope below the device or altering the
angle at which the rope exits the device. Descenders can be task-designed or
improvised from other equipment. Mechanical descenders include braking bars,
the figure eight, the abseil rack, the "bobbin" (and its self-locking variant the
"stop"), the gold tail, and the "sky genie" used by some window-washers and
wildfire firefighters. Some improvised descenders include the Munter hitch, a
carabiner wrap, the basic crossed-carabiner brake and the piton bar brake
(sometimes called the carabiner and piton). There is an older, more
uncomfortable, method of wrapping the rope around one's body for friction
instead of using a descender, as in the Dulfersitz or Geneva methods used by
climbers in the 1960s.
 • A climbing harness is often used around the waist to secure the descender. A
comfortable climbing harness is important for descents that may take many
hours.
• A prusik might be used as safety back-up.
• Helmets are worn to protect the head from bumps and falling rocks. A light
source may be mounted on the helmet in order to keep the hands free in unlit
areas.
• Gloves protect hands from the rope and from hits with the wall. They are mainly
used by recreational abseilers, industrial access practitioners, adventure racers
and military as opposed to climbers or mountaineers. In fact, they can increase
the risk of accident by becoming caught in the descender in certain situations.
[citation needed]

• Boots or other sturdy footwear with good grips.

• Knee-pads (and sometimes elbow-pads) are popular in some applications for the
protection of joints during crawls or hits.

[edit] Application

Abseiling is used in a number of applications, including:

• Climbing, for returning to the base of a climb or to a point where one can try a
new route.
• Recreational abseiling.
• Canyoning, where jumping waterfalls or cliffs may be too dangerous.
• Caving and Speleology, where underground pitches are accessed using this
method (Single Rope Technique).
• Adventure racing, where events often include abseiling and other rope work.
• Industrial/Commercial applications, where abseiling techniques are used to
access parts of structures or buildings so as to perform maintenance, cleaning or
construction, e.g. steeplejacking, window cleaning, etc.)
• Access to wildfires.
• Confined spaces access, such as investigating ballast tanks and other areas of
ships.
• Rescue applications, such as accessing injured people or accident sites (vehicle
or aircraft) and extracting the casualty using abseiling techniques.
• Window cleaning

[edit] Safety and ecological issues

Abseiling can be dangerous, and presents risks, especially to unsupervised or

inexperienced abseilers. According to German mountaineer Pit Schubert, about 25% of
climbing deaths occur during rappelling, most commonly due to failing anchors.
Another frequent cause of accidents is abseiling beyond the end of the rope.[4]

Abseiling is prohibited or discouraged in some areas, due to the potential for

environmental damage and/or conflict with climbers heading upwards, or the danger to
people on the ground.
ROCK JUMPING

Exactly a decade has passed since a man called Oxygen first hurled
himself across Amerika. Known for his jumping ability, Oxygen, a
lanky Czech, catapulted to legend status by leaping a nearly 10-foot-
wide abyss separating two 100-foot sandstone spires.

Today, Petr Kops, 21, is wearing Oxygen’s hand-me-down pants.

“I did not know Oxygen personally, but my sister did,” Kops said. “I
wear his trousers for good luck.”

Minutes later, Kops was standing at the edge of a 70-foot chasm

called Broken Bones. He announced that he was about to damage his
ankle. Then he jumped.

While it may seem suicidal, leaping across a gaping crevasse is

actually an extreme sport that is gaining in popularity.

Called rock jumping, or simply jumping by the locals, this

adrenaline-charged activity is taking place in the Adrspach-Teplice
Rocks, a remote nature preserve in the northeast part of the Czech
Republic.

Known for its roughly 11 square miles of phallic sandstone

formations, the region has been a breeding ground for lifelong rock
climbers, including Jaroslav Houser, 63, the purported conqueror of
more than 1,000 sandstone spires.

In their frenzy to subdue as many unclimbed tower tops as possible,

seasoned climbers like Houser unwittingly gave rise to rock jumping
in the Adrspach.

“The objective is to get to the top of as many towers as you can,” said
Vladimir Prochazka, known as June Bug, a 59-year-old climber and
a collector of Czech rock climbing histories. “You try to reach the
hardest summit, sometimes by jumping.”
Because jumping is often the most logical way to get to a descendible
tower, almost every climber encounters a basic-level jump at one
time or another, he said.

In most cases, climbers jump with a rope tied around their waist.

If they miss the landing — which is not uncommon — they plummet

into the wall of the base tower.

“Jumping requires fearlessness, a fair amount of agility, and a high

threshold for pain,” Prochazka said. “Broken ribs and damaged
spines are fairly common.”

Still, there are those who prefer to spice up their experience by

jumping without a rope. Among the most well known of these
adventurers are Petr Prachtel and his wife, Zorka, who helped create
the sport in the 1960s and ’70s, a time rock jumping’s early
practitioners refer to as a golden age.

After meeting in college, the inseparable climbing partners became

legendary for their escapades on the tower tops of the Eesky raj
nature preserve in the central Czech Republic. Here, they pioneered
countless jumps, sometimes without the safety of a rope.

“Back then, there were several jumpers in on the scene,” Prochazka

said. “This healthy competition helped the sport flourish.”

While many climbers jump out of necessity, few people specialize in

the sport. In fact, some local climbers frown upon it.

“A few of the old-timers say that jumping has no place here,”

Prochazka said. “But there is always some lunatic who goes crazy for
it and becomes the dominant jumper in the region.”

For years, the alpha jumper title of the Adrspach — and some say the
world — has belonged to Oxygen.

By the time he arrived on the scene in the mid-1990s, local jumping

aficionados had developed a grading system.
A Grade 1 jump is an easy crossover from one tower to the next, and
may be executed by any reasonably skilled climber. As the grades
rise, so do the required levels of precision. At Grade 4, the jump does
not offer a flat landing surface, forcing the leaper to land monkey
style, clutching the crevices of the opposite wall.

Most of the popular jumps range from Grades 2 to 3, and few

jumpers have successfully landed a Grade 4. Until Oxygen came.

In 1997, Oxygen made history with Amerika — the only Grade 5

jump ever recorded.

“I don’t know how he even made it to the other peak — it seemed so

far away,” said Prochazka, who witnessed the event. “Somehow, he
managed to land on the crevice he picked out, but his body was
leaned back, and it looked like he was in for a nasty fall. Then, he
snatched a protruding pine tree, and a victorious war cry rang
through the valley.”

Not long after his epic leap, Oxygen, whose name is Milan Zdvooily,
disappeared from the Adrspach. He now is a gunsmith in London,
and says he feels no need to replicate his jumps.

“I wonder if some crazy person will ever dare to make the jump,” he
said, referring to Amerika. “People are always looking for something
new, so maybe it’s possible.”

Indeed, contemporary jumping continues to attract individuals who

appear to lack the self-preservation instinct. Seconds after predicting
an ankle injury, Kops hollered a warrior cry and threw himself
across the chasm.

His sandaled feet landed on the opposite tower with a flat thud, and
his ankle promptly swelled to twice its natural size. Kops could
barely walk, but somehow this did not deter him from executing two
more jumps.

When the day was over, he nursed his injury with a half-liter of lager
at the buffet near the entrance to the Adrspach rocks.
Kops attributed his affinity for jumping to “camaraderie and
adrenaline,” and while he did not feel confident enough to try to
match Oxygen’s leap, some of the old-timers suggested that the
future of rock jumping depended on people like him.

“My prediction is that jumping will only live on thanks to a handful

of individuals,” Prochazka said. “The only way this would change is if
a new generation arrived on the scene. Their thirst for adrenaline
could make it into a massive sport.”
Kitesurfing
Kitesurfing or kiteboarding is a surface water sport that uses wind power to pull a
rider through the water on a small surfboard or a kiteboard (similar to a wakeboard).
Generally kiteboarding refers to a style of riding known as freestyle or wake-style,
whereas kitesurfing is more "wave-riding" oriented. These two styles usually require
different boards and specific performance kites.

A kitesurfer or kiteboarder uses a board with or without foot-straps or bindings,

combined with the power of a large controllable kite to propel the rider and the board
across the water. In 2006, the number of kitesurfers has been estimated at around
150,000 to 210,000, with 114,465 inflatable kites sold that same year.[1]

The sport is becoming safer due to innovations in kite design, safety release systems,
and instruction[citation needed]. Riding styles have evolved to suit riders and conditions, such
as wakestyle, waveriding, freestyle, jumping, and cruising.

History

The Chinese are credited with using kites for propulsion in the 13th century.[2]

In the 1800s George Pocock, used kites of increased size to propel carts on land and
ships on the water, using a four-line control system - the same system in common use
today. Both carts and boats were able to turn and sail upwind. The kites could be flown
for sustained periods.[2] The intention was to establish kitepower as an alternative to
horsepower, partly to avoid the hated "horse tax" that was levied at that time.[3] In 1903,
aviation pioneer Samuel Cody developed "man-lifting kites" and succeeded in crossing
the English channel in a small collapsible canvas boat powered by a kite[4]

In the late 1970s the development of Kevlar then Spectra flying lines and more
controllable kites with improved efficiency contributed to practical kite traction. In
1978, Ian Day's "FlexiFoil" kite-powered Tornado catamaran exceeded 40 km/h.

Through the 1980s there were occasionally successful attempts to combine kites with
canoes, ice skates, snow skis,[5] water skis and roller skates.

Throughout the 1970s and early 1980s Dieter Strasilla from Germany developed
parachute-skiing and later perfected a kiteskiing system using self made paragliders and
a ball-socket swivel allowing the pilot to kitesail upwind and uphill but also to take off
into the air at will[6]. Strasilla and his friend Andrea Kuhn/Switzerland used this
invention also in combination with surfboards and Skurfs, grasskies and selfmade
buggies. One of his patents describes in 1979 the first use of an inflatable kite design for
kitesurfing[7].

Two brothers, Bruno Legaignoux and Dominique Legaignoux, from the Atlantic coast
of France, developed kites for kitesurfing in the late 1970s and early 1980s and patented
an inflatable kite design in November 1984, a design that has been used by companies
to develop their own products.
In 1990, practical kite buggying was pioneered by Peter Lynn at Argyle Park in
Ashburton, New Zealand. Lynn coupled a three-wheeled buggy with a forerunner of the
modern parafoil kite. Kite buggying proved to be very popular worldwide, with over
14,000 buggies sold up to 1999.

The development of modern day kitesurfing by the Roeselers in the USA and the
Legaignoux in France carried on in parallel to buggying. Bill Roeseler, a Boeing
aerodynamicist, and his son Corey Roeseler patented the "KiteSki" system which
consisted of water skis powered by a two line delta style kite controlled via a bar
mounted combined winch/brake. The KiteSki was commercially available in 1994. The
kite had a rudimentary water launch capability and could go upwind. In 1995, Corey
Roeseler visited Peter Lynn at New Zealand's Lake Clearwater in the Ashburton Alpine
Lakes area, demonstrating speed, balance and upwind angle on his 'ski'. In the late
1990s, Corey's ski evolved to a single board similar to a surfboard.[3]

In 1996 Laird Hamilton and Manu Bertin were instrumental in demonstrating and
popularising kitesurfing off the Hawaiian coast of Maui.

In 1997 the Legaignoux brothers developed and sold the breakthrough "Wipika" kite
design which had a structure of preformed inflatable tubes and a simple bridle system to
the wingtips, both of which greatly assisted water re-launch. Bruno Legaignoux has
continued to improve kite designs, including developing the bow kite design, which has
been licensed to many kite manufacturers.

In 1997, specialist kiteboards were developed by Raphaël Salles and Laurent Ness. By
1998 kitesurfing had become a mainstream sport, and several schools were teaching
kitesurfing. The first competition was held on Maui in September 1998 and won by
Flash Austin.[3]

By 1999 single direction boards derived from windsurfing and surfing designs became
the dominant form of kiteboard. From 2001 onwards, wakeboard style bi-directional
boards became more popular.

On September 18th 2008, during the "Luderitz Speed Challenge"[8] in Namibia,

kitesurfing became the fastest way of sailing on water. The "World Sailing Speed
Record Council"[9] (WSSRC) validated the run of Robert Douglas from the USA at
49.84 knots (92.30kmph). A few days later on October 3rd, 2008, Sebastien Cattelan
from France was the first to pass 50 knots kitesurfing. His attempt was validated by the
WSSRC at 50.26 knots (93.08kmph). The following day, on October 4th 2008, Alex
Caizergues from France established a record validated by the WSSRC at 50.57 knots
(93.66kmph). This kitesurfing speed record is the absolute sailing speed record on water
by any craft.

[edit] Techniques

[edit] Kitesurfing basics

Kiteboarding can pose hazards to kitesurfers, beachgoers, bystanders and others on the
water. Many problems and dangers that may be encountered while learning kiting can
be avoided or minimized by taking professional instruction through lesson centres. [10]
Kitesurfing schools provide courses and lessons to teach skills including kite launching,
flying, landing, usage of the bar, lines and safety devices.

A kiteboarder at Lake Vernon, Ontario

Kitesurfers at Slufter beach on the Maasvlakte in Rotterdam

[edit] Turning

A beginner can turn by putting the kite up into neutral, stopping, sinking backwards into
the water, then turning the kite in the opposite direction and starting again. A heel turn
jibe is a quicker, more skillful turn that is executed by slowing down, flattening the
board, then reversing the board flat on the water by bringing the rear foot around
downwind to eventually become the new leading foot. The direction of the kite is then
reversed, which swings the surfer's path in a half circle, centered on the kite. As the turn
ends, the kite is flown over to be in front of the surfer again.[11] Turns away from the
wind steal lift.

A poorly executed turn will "fly" the surfer, and is often followed by a tumble if the
surfer can't put the board down at the right angle. It is important to use safety equipment
like a deadman system where the kite lines can be detached from the surfer's harness
quickly because the kite can power up after tumbles and pull the rider under water or
against objects at uncontrollable speeds. Safety knives are a must to quickly cut lines in
the event of entanglements. After a tumble, detangling and re-launching the kite can be
difficult.

If the kite is only turned partially, or is not straightened at the right rate, a turning surfer
can swing up and be dragged into the air by the kite, then get hurt when he recontacts
the surface. Even in water, flying a power kite can be a brutal contact sport. The kite
can rise 20 to 30 meters (65 to 100 ft) in the air, and a careless turn in high winds can
easily swing the rider five meters (28 feet) into the air and down to an uncontrolled
impact.

[edit] Controlled flying and jumping

Jumping

Controlled flying is possible and one of the biggest attractions of the sport, but more
difficult and dangerous. Flying occurs when the momentum of the surfer pulls the kite.
Before jumping, the surfer builds up as much tension as possible by accelerating and
strongly edging the board. Then in controlled, straight flight, the kite is flown quickly
(snapped) to an overhead position, usually just as the surfer goes over a wave. The kite
must then be quickly turned to glide in the direction of motion, usually into the wind. A
large variety of maneuvers can be performed while jumping such as rotations, taking the
board off the feet etc.

Jumping has risks and as such riders need to choose locations with suitably sized
downwind clear areas usually referred to as the downwind buffer zone. Litigation has
come about due to riders not exercising due care when jumping and placing the public
at risk or themselves should they land on hard objects.

[edit] Board grabs

Board grabs names

Board grabs are tricks performed while a rider is jumping or has gained air from
popping by grabbing the board in a number of positions with either hand. Each grab has
a different name dependent on which part of the board is grabbed and with which hand
it is grabbed by. Rear hand grabs are known as Crail, Indy, Trindy, Tail, Tailfish, and
Stalefish; while front hand grabs are known as Slob, Mute, Seatbelt, Melon, Lien, and
Nose. Names originate from other board sports like skateboarding and snowboarding,
such as Tindy and Tailfish.

A number of grabs can also be combined into one trick. A rider may perform a tail grab
going to indy by moving the rear hand from the back of the board to the middle of the
toe side edge.

[edit] Assessing the wind

[edit] Wind strength and kite sizes

Kitesurfers change kite size and/or line length from the harness to the kite depending on
wind strength -- stronger winds call for a smaller kite to prevent overpower situations. It
is important to avoid using too large a kite, particularly when the surfer is new to the
sport.

Kites come in different aspect ratios (AR). The AR refers to how much of the kite is
exposed to the wind and what angle the wind takes as it passes through the kite. Newer
kites also provide a "depower" option to reduce the power in the kite. By using
depower, the kite's angle of attack to the wind is reduced, thereby catching less wind in
the kite and reducing the power or pull.

The more optimal these factors, the lower wind speed that can be performed in. A 170
lb. rider will need about 8 to 10 knots sustained wind and a larger kite (16 m² or bigger).
In 12 - 15 knots fun can be head by doing low jumps and freestyle maneuvers. 16 - 20
knots on a 16 square meter kite will allow jumping high, while 20 to 24 knots will allow
even high jumps on a 12 square meter kite. An experienced rider generally carries a
'quiver' of different sized kites appropriate for the wind speed range. A typical kite
quiver might include 9 m², 13 m² and 18 m² traditional "C-kites". Exact kite sizes will
vary depending on rider weight and desired wind ranges.

Bow kites have a wider wind range than C-kites, so two kite sizes (such 7 m² and 12 m²)
could form an effective quiver for winds ranging from 10 to 30+ knots for a 75 kg (165
lbs) rider[citation needed].

[edit] Wind direction

It is generally held that kitesurfers should never venture onto the water in direct
offshore winds (because of the possibility of being 'flown' out to sea) or direct onshore
winds (because of the possibility of being thrown against beach objects, trees, rocks
etc). There are two exceptions to riding in offshore winds - if someone with the surfer
has a boat for assistance back to shore, or on inland lakes where the far shore will be
reached eventually. Cross-shore wind directions are widely considered to be the best.
Offshore winds are also generally gusty and much more difficult in which to kitesurf.

[edit] Locations
Main article: Kitesurfing locations

Kitesurfing in Noordwijk in the Netherlands

Kiteurfer on the Columbia River
Kitesurfers wearing dry suits on Long Island in winter when the air and water
temperatures are near 0 °C (32 °F)
Kitesurfing at Punta Paloma Beach, Tarifa, Spain

Any locale with consistent, steady side-onshore winds (10 to 35+ knots), large open
bodies of water and good launch areas are suitable for kitesurfing. Most kitesurfing
takes place along ocean shores, usually off beaches, but it can also be practiced on large
lakes and inlets and occasionally on rivers. Since kiteboarding relies heavily on
favorable, consistent wind conditions, certain locations tend to become popular and
sought out by kiteboarders.

[edit] Restrictions

Kite surfing is restricted or banned in some locations[citation needed]. This is generally the
result of safety and liability concerns, excessive general beach traffic and poorly
organized practicing of kiteboarding. Bans have been reversed when kitesurfers have
organized, prepared riding guidelines and negotiated with authorities for resumption of
this sport[citation needed]. The primary reason why many experienced kite boarders stress
safety and adequate quality professional instruction is to keep their sport from being
banned or unduly restricted at their favourite location[citation needed]. As the sport has
progressed the governing bodies have become a lot more involved in the sport,
managing the schools and keeping the teaching practices up to date.

[edit] Equipment

To kitesurf, some basic gear is needed:

[edit] Power kites

A power kite is available in two major forms: leading edge inflatables and foil kites.

[edit] Leading edge inflatables

Leading edge inflatable kites, known also as inflatables, LEI kites or C-kites, are
typically made from ripstop nylon with an inflatable plastic bladder that spans across
the front edge of the kite with separate smaller bladders that are perpendicular to the
main bladder to form the chord or foil of the kite. The inflated bladders give the kite its
shape and also keep the kite floating once dropped in the water. LEIs are the most
popular choice among most kitesurfers thanks to their quicker and more direct response
to the rider's inputs, easy relaunchability once crashed into the water, and resilient
nature. If an LEI kite hits the water/ground too hard or is subjected on water to
substantial wave activity, bladders can burst or it can be torn apart.

In 2005 Bow kites (also known as flat LEI kites) were developed with features
including a concave trailing edge, a shallower arc in planform, and frequently a bridle
along the leading edge. These features allow the kite's angle of attack to be altered more
and thus adjust the amount and range of power being generated to a much greater
degree than previous LEIs. These kites can be fully depowered, which is a significant
safety feature. They can also cover a wider wind range than a comparable C-shaped
kite. The ability to adjust the angle of attack also makes them easier to re-launch when
lying front first on the water. Bow kites are popular with riders from beginner to
advanced levels. Most LEI kite manufacturers developed a variation of the bow kite by
2006.

Early bow kites had some disadvantages compared to classic LEI kites:

• They can become inverted and then not fly properly

• They can be twitchy and not as stable
• Heavier bar pressure makes them more tiring to fly
• Lack of "sled boosting" effect when jumping[12]

In 2006 second generation flat LEI kites were developed which combine near total
depower and easy, safe relaunch with higher performance, no performance penalties and
reduced bar pressure. Called Hybrid or SLE kites (Supported Leading Edge), these
kites are suitable for both beginners and experts.

For 2009 the performance revolution shows no sign of slowing. Bridled designs feel
more like C kites, and five-line hybrids have better depower capability than ever before.
[13]
There are more than thirty companies manufacturing Leading edge inflatable kites.
The ten most popular kitefactories are Best, Cabrinha, Core, F.One, Flysurfer, JN,
Liquid Force,Naish, North and Slingshot. The delta-kites are growing in popularity
since 2008 with around 12 companies offering delta-kites since 2008/2009.

[edit] Foil kites

Foil kites are also mostly fabric (ripstop nylon) with air pockets (air cells) to provide it
with lift and a fixed bridle to maintain the kite's arc-shape, similar to a paraglider. A
depowerable foil kite can cover about the same wind range as two traditional C-shape
LEI kite sizes, so the rider can use a smaller kite, giving a wider depower range,
although the new LEI "bow" kites have a comparable wide range. Foil kites have the
advantage of not needing to have bladders manually inflated, a process which, with an
LEI, can take up to ten minutes. Foil kites are designed with either an open or closed
cell configuration.

[edit] Open Cell

Open cell foils rely on a constant airflow against the inlet valves to stay inflated, but are
generally impossible to relaunch if they hit the water, since they have no means of
avoiding deflation, and quickly become soaked.

[edit] Closed Cell

Closed cell foils are almost identical to open cell foils except they are equipped with
inlet valves to hold air in the chambers, thus keeping the kite inflated (or, at least,
making the deflation extremely slow) even once in the water. Water relaunches with
closed cell foil kites are simpler; a steady tug on the power lines typically allows them
to take off again. An example for a closed cell kite is the Arc Kite.

[edit] Kite sizes

Kites come in sizes ranging from 0.7 square meters to 21 square meters, or even larger.
In general, the larger the surface area, the more power the kite has, although kite power
is also directly linked to speed, and smaller kites can be flown faster; a tapering curve
results, where going to a larger kite to reach lower wind ranges becomes futile at a wind
speed of around eight knots. Kites come in a variety of designs. Some kites are more
rectangular in shape; others have more tapered ends; each design determines the kites
flying characteristics. 'Aspect ratio' is the ratio of span to length. Wider shorter (ribbon-
like) kites have less drag because the wing-tip vortices are smaller. High aspect ratios
(ribbon-like kites) develop more power in lower wind speeds.

Seasoned kiteboarders will likely have three or more kite sizes which are needed to
accommodate various wind levels, although bow kites may change this, as they present
an enormous wind range; some advanced kiters use only one bow kite. Smaller kites are
used by light riders, or in strong wind conditions; larger kites are used by heavier riders
or in light wind conditions. Larger and smaller kiteboards have the same effect: with
more available power a given rider can ride a smaller board. In general, however, most
kiteboarders only need one board and one to three kites (7-12m in size).
Riverboarding
A riverboarder floats down the Kern River at about 4,000 cfs

Riverboarding is the North American name for a boardsport in which the participant is
prone on the board with fins on his/her feet for propulsion and steering. This sport is
also known as hydrospeed in Europe and white-water sledging in New Zealand. [1]
Riverboarding includes recreational and the swiftwater rescue practice of using a high-
flotation riverboard, designed for buoyancy in highly aerated water.

[edit] Origins

Riverboarding is believed to have originated in the late 1970s. It is claimed to have

originated in France, when raft guides stuffed a burlap mail sack with life vests and
went down rapids.[2] Soon, riders adapted a personal submarine shell for their molds and
the plastic version of the riverboard was born. Sometime in the late 1980s, Carlson
began running rivers in California using an ocean bodyboard and ended up making his
own board that was bigger, thicker and had handles.

European riders also developed a foam version (called a hydrospeed ) of the plastic
board to reduce weight and avoid injuring each other during collisions that sometimes
resulted from one rider travelling downstream and another facing upstream while
surfing a hydraulic. Today, homemade foam hydrospeeds are found primarily among
European riders. A growing sport in North America, riverboarding has grown in
popularity from media exposure and the emergence of commercial operators running
riverboard trips.

[edit] Equipment

Riverboarders typically wear fins to provide the thrust to navigate in river currents,
while a personal flotation device provides additional buoyancy. Wetsuits, gloves,
booties, helmets, and knee pads are worn as protection from the cold and from rocks.
Additionally, shin guards, and thigh and elbow pads are sometimes worn for extra
protection on shallow rivers. Instruction, board design, and gear continue to improve,
making riverboarding safer, and opening up the possibilities of rapids that can be run on
a riverboard and new tricks that can be performed while surfing.

[edit] Rescue use

In rescue use, the board is used to support both rescuer and victim in the water during
rescue. The rider must engage both mind and body -- thinking about the best way to go
down a river while using their fins for the propulsion to get out of harm's way.
Riverboards can offer rescuers a valuable chase option to access victims swept
downstream who may not be accessed by hand or rope.
[edit] Rivers

Several companies run sledging excursions in New Zealand near Queenstown, Wanaka,
and Rotorua. Several companies also operate guided riverboard trips in the United states
near Missoula, Montana, Sacramento, California and Bend, Oregon.

[edit] Records

Mike Horn currently holds the record for the tallest waterfall riverboarded with his
descent of a 22 meter (72 ft) tall waterfall on the upper reaches of the Pacuare River in
Costa Rica.[citation needed]
Rafting
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Rafting in Brazil
Rafting in Ljusselforsen, Krokugforsen, Pite river, Lappland Sweden.

Rafting on the Arkansas River, Colorado, USA

Rafting in Ladakh, India

Rafting or whitewater rafting is a challenging recreational activity using an inflatable

raft to navigate a river or other bodies of water. This is usually done on whitewater or
different degrees of rough water, in order to thrill and excite the raft passengers. The
development of this activity as a leisure sport has become popular since the mid-1970s.

[edit] Whitewater rafts

The modern raft is an inflatable boat, consisting of very durable, multi-layered

rubberized or vinyl fabrics with several independent air chambers. The length varies
between 3.5 m (11 ft) and 6 m (20 ft), the width between 1.8 m (6 ft) and 2.5 m (8 ft).
The exception to this size rule is usually the packraft, which is designed as a portable
single-person raft and may be as small as 1.5 metres (4.9 ft) long and weigh as little as
4 pounds (1.8 kg).

Rafts come in a few different forms. In Europe, the most common is the symmetrical
raft steered with a paddle at the stern. Other types are the asymmetrical, rudder-
controlled raft and the symmetrical raft with central helm (oars). Rafts are usually
propelled with ordinary paddles and typically hold 4 to 12 persons. In Russia, rafts are
often hand made and are often a catamaran style with two inflatable tubes attached to a
frame. Pairs of paddlers navigate on these rafts. Catamaran style rafts have become
popular in the western United States as well, but are typically rowed instead of paddled.

[edit] Classes of whitewater

Main article: International Scale of River Difficulty

Grade 1: Very small rough areas, requires might require slight maneuvering. (Skill
Level: Very Basic)
Grade 2: Some rough water, maybe some rocks, might require some maneuvering.
(Skill Level: Basic Paddling Skill)
Grade 3: Whitewater, small waves, maybe a small drop, but no considerable danger.
May require significant maneuvering.(Skill Level: Experienced paddling skills)
Grade 4: Whitewater, medium waves, maybe rocks, maybe a considerable drop, sharp
maneuvers may be needed. (Skill Level: Whitewater Experience)
Grade 5: Whitewater, large waves, possibility of large rocks and hazards, possibility of
a large drop, requires precise maneuvering (Skill Level: Advanced Whitewater
Experience)
Grade 6: Class 6 rapids are considered to be so dangerous as to be effectively
unnavigable on a reliably safe basis. Rafters can expect to encounter substantial
whitewater, huge waves, huge rocks and hazards, and/or substantial drops that will
impart severe impacts beyond the structural capacities and impact ratings of almost all
rafting equipment. Traversing a Class 6 rapid has a dramatically increased likelihood of
ending in serious injury or death compared to lesser classes. (Skill Level: Successful
completion of a Class 6 rapid without serious injury or death is widely considered to be
a matter of great luck or extreme skill)

[edit] Techniques

Rafts in whitewater are very different vehicles than canoes or kayaks and have their
own specific techniques to maneuver through whitewater obstacles.

• Punching - Rafts carry great momentum, and on rivers hydraulics that are
dodged by canoes and kayaks are often punched by rafts. This involves the
rafting crew paddling the raft to give it enough speed to push through the
hydraulic without getting stopped.
• High Siding - If a raft is caught in a hydraulic it will often quickly go sideways.
In order to stop the raft flipping on its inside edge, the rafters can climb to the
side of the raft furthest downstream, which will also be the side of the raft
highest in the air leading to its name. In this position the rafters may be able to
use the draw stroke to pull the raft out of the hydraulic.

[edit] Capsizing

• Dump Truck - Rafts are inherently stable crafts because of their size and often
they will shed gear and passengers before they actually capsize. In the industry
if a raft dumps some or all of its passengers but remains upright, it is said to
have dump trucked.
• Left Over Right or Right over Left - Rafts almost always flip side over side. If
the left tube rises over the right tube, the raft is said to have flipped left over
right and vice versa.
• Taco - If a raft is soft, or underinflated, it may taco, or reverse taco. Rafts are
said to have tacoed if the middle of the raft buckles and the front of the raft
touches or nearly touches the back of the raft. This often is a result of surfing in
a hydraulic. A reverse taco is when the nose, or stern of the raft is pulled down
under water and buckles to touch the middle or back, or nose of the raft.
• End over End - Occasionally rafts will flip end over end. This is usually after
the raft has dump trucked to lighten the load, allowing the water to overcome the
weight of the boat flipping it vertically before it lands upside down. Rafts will
usually taco and turn sideways, making an end-over-end flip a very rare flip in
most rafts.

[edit] Re-righting

• Flip Line - The flip line technique is the most used in commercial rafting where
flips are common. The guide will take a loop of webbing that has a carabiner on
it and attach it to the perimeter line on the raft, Standing on top of the upside
 down raft they will hold the line and lean to the opposite side from where the
flip line is attached, re-righting the raft.
• Knee Flipping - Capsized rafts that are small enough with little or no gear
attached can be knee flipped. This involves the rafter holding the webbing on the
underside of the raft, and pushing their knees into the outer tube, and then lifting
their body out of the water, leaning back to overturn the raft.
• T rescue - Much like the kayak technique some rafts are large enough that they
need to be overturned with the assistance of another raft or land. Positioning the
upturned raft or land at the side of the raft the rafters can then re-right the raft by
lifting up on the perimeter line.

[edit] Tricks

• Rock Splats If the rafters load the back of the raft, they can paddle the raft into
a rock on the river, having it hit the bottom of the boat instead of the nose; if
done correctly this can raise the raft up vertically on its stern.
• Surfing Commercial Rafts often use waves on rivers to surf.
• Nose Dunks Large rafts can enter hydraulics called holes from downstream and
submerge their nose, or reverse taco. This can be a safe way to get rafters wet in
a hydraulic.

[edit] Safety

Packrafting in Alaska, USA

Whitewater rafting can be a dangerous sport, especially if basic safety precautions are
not observed. Both commercial and private trips have seen their share of injuries and
fatalities, though private travel has typically been associated with greater risk[citation needed].
Depending on the area, legislated safety measures may exist for rafting operators. These
range from certification of outfitters, rafts, and raft leaders, to more stringent regulations
about equipment and procedures. It is generally advisable to discuss safety measures
with a rafting operator before signing on for a trip. The equipment used and the
qualifications of the company and raft guides are essential information to be considered.

Like most outdoor sports, rafting in general has become safer over the years. Expertise
in the sport has increased, and equipment has become more specialized and increased in
quality. As a result the difficulty rating of most river runs has changed. A classic
example would be the Colorado River in the Grand Canyon or Jalcomulco River in
Mexico, which has swallowed whole expeditions in the past, leaving only fragments of
boats. In contrast, it is now run safely by commercial outfitters hundreds of times each
year with relatively untrained passengers. [1]

Risks in whitewater rafting stem from both environmental dangers and from improper
behavior. Certain features on rivers are inherently unsafe and have remained
consistently so despite the passage of time. These would include "keeper hydraulics",
"strainers" (e.g. fallen trees), dams (especially low-head dams, which tend to produce
river-wide keeper hydraulics), undercut rocks, and of course dangerously high
waterfalls. Rafting with experienced guides is the safest way to avoid such features.
Even in safe areas, however, moving water can always present risks—such as when a
swimmer attempts to stand up on a rocky riverbed in strong current, risking foot
entrapment. Irresponsible behavior related to rafting while intoxicated has also
contributed to many accidents.

To combat the illusion that rafting is akin to an amusement park ride, and to underscore
the personal responsibility each rafter faces on a trip, rafting outfitters generally require
customers to sign waiver forms indicating understanding and acceptance of potential
serious risks. Rafting trips often begin with safety presentations to educate customers
about problems that may arise.

White water rafting is often played for the adrenaline rush and this often becomes a
problem for people and their own safety. White water rafting accidents have occurred
but are not common.

Due to this the overall risk level on a rafting trip with experienced guides using proper
precautions is low.[citation needed] Thousands of people safely enjoy raft trips every year.

[edit] Environmental issues

Rafting in Montenegro

Like all wilderness activities, rafting must balance its use of nature with the
conservation of rivers as a natural resource and habitat. Because of these issues, some
rivers now have regulations restricting the annual and daily operating times or numbers
of rafters.

Conflicts have arisen when rafting operators, often in co-operation with municipalities
and tourism associations, alter the riverbed by dredging and/or blasting in order to
eliminate safety hazards or create more interesting whitewater features in the river.
Environmentalists argue that this may have negative impacts to riparian and aquatic
ecosystems, while proponents claim these measures are usually only temporary, since a
riverbed is naturally subject to permanent changes during large floods and other events.

Rafting contributes to the economy of many regions which in turn may contribute to the
protection of rivers from hydroelectric power generation, diversion for irrigation, and
other development. Additionally, white water rafting trips can promote
environmentalism. By experiencing firsthand the beauty of a river, individuals who
would otherwise be indifferent to environmental issues may gain a strong desire to
protect and preserve that area because of their positive outdoor experience.